Fats & Oils Handbook.pdf

Fats and Oils Handbook
Michael Bockisch
Hamburg, Germany
Champaign, Illinois

This book is dedicated to my wife Gudrun to whom, in the course
ofdoing this translation, revision, and update, I had to break my
promise never to write a book again, and also to my son Benjamin
and my daughter Valerie.
AOCS Mission Statement
To be a forum for the exchange of ideas, information, and experience among those with a
professional interest in the science and technology of fats, oils, and related substances in
ways that promote personal excellence and provide high standards of quality.
AOCS Books and Special PublicationsCommittee
E. Perkins, chairperson, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
J. Endres, Fort Wayne, Indiana
N.A.M. Eskin, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba
T. Foglia, USDA-ERRC, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania
L. Johnson, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
Howard R. Knapp, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
J. Lynn, Edgewater, New Jersey
M. Mathias, USDA-CSREES, Washington, D.C.
M. Mossoba, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C.
G. Nelson, Western Regional Research Center, San Francisco, California
F. Orthoefer, Monsanto Co., St. Louis, Missouri
M. Pulliam, C&T Quincy Foods, Quincy, Illinois
J. Rattray, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario
A. Sinclair, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Australia
G. Szajer, Akzo Chemicals, Dobbs Ferry, New York
B. Szuhaj, Central Soya Co., Inc., Fort Wayne, Indiana
L. Witting, State College, Pennsylvania
Copyright 0 1998 by AOCS Press. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without written permission
of the publisher.
The paper used in this book is acid-free and falls within the guidelines established
to ensure permanence and durability.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData
Bockisch, Michael.
[Nahrungsfette und ole. English]
Updated and revised translation of the original German work,
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-935315-82-9 (alk paper)
1. Oils and fats, Edible-Handbooks, manuals, etc.
p. cm.
Nahrungsfette und ole.
I. Title,
TP670.B5713 1998
6 6 5 4 ~ 2
1 98-11974
CIP
Printed in the United States of America with vegetable oil-based inks.
06 05 04 5 4 3

Preface
Oils and fats have been constituents of human nutrition from ancient times. First,
they contain the highest level of energy of all components of food; second, they sup-
ply essential elements for the body. However, the fundamental reason for their early
and varied use was certainly the fact that they contribute to the development of fla-
vor, making dishes tasty and giving them a good, smooth mouth-feel.
In the course of his life, a human being living in the industrial nations consumes
approximately three tons of fats and oiIs; about half of them are so-called invisible
fats, hidden in other food, e.g., sausage and cheese. In the developing countries, the
portion of fat in food intake lies far below the amount recommended by the World
Health Organization (WHO). This is not due to limited world resources, but rather
to problems of local purchasing power as well as logistics and distribution.
Cultivation could easily rise considerably faster than the world population. Fats are
an important factor in the economy because of their status as basic constituents of
nutrition and the large amounts consumed. This becomes apparent in their ranking
second in worldwide traded items. For some countries or regions, they represent an
indispensable part of the gross national product and a source of foreign currency.
Because of the development of new varieties of oil seeds, the areas under cultiva-
tion have been extended in the past decades from the earth’s sun belt to regions of
temperate climate, which now deliver a substantial part of that crop. This has led to
a shift in economic interests. ‘someof these factors will be discussed in this book to
illustrate the large correlations that exist. This book will acknowledge the impor-
tance of fats and oils and give a survey of today’s state of the art in technology. Even
when considering a topic that is relatively limited in scope, it is impossible for a sin-
gle person to obtain more than a general view of the field. It follows that to give an
adequate description, it is vital to have recourse to the knowledge base established
over the years by the publications of many scientists and practitioners. I would like
to express my thanks to all those colleagues whose findings and experiences formed
a basis for my studies.Technologyis not an end in itself. It isjustified when it makes
it possible to improve the foodstuff offered by nature in whatever way, whether in
amount, cost, quality or other criteria that make possible its use or adaptation to our
way of life today. To pursue food technology without knowing the “raw material”
would mean working in a vacuum and performing “l’arrpour I’m.”
In this book,
great attention was thus paid to describing the sources of the oils and fats, and also
the fats and oils themselves in such a way that the technological steps be well-found-
ed and the purpose clear. Since the industrial revolution, there has been a great boom
in the industry of edible fats and oils. The processes that remain in use today are
founded on basic findings from approximately 100 years ago. Much has been
improved since that time, and many facts already known are exploited today only on
the basis of improved technology.
Technology will continue to develop in parallel with man’s changing attitude to
it. In the broadest sense, progress in biological science and biotechnology con-
tributes to this. Because biotechnological processes are reputed to be more natural
V

vi Preface
than chemical ones, there is an attempt to use enzymic reactions for fat technology.
Much more far-reaching effects can be achieved by cultivation or the application of
gene technology. Plants containing fats and oils in a desired composition, structure
and quality render superfluous certain steps of treatment or modifications. To date,
agriculture has not yet fully realized the potential offered by the cultivation of tailor-
made plants for certain purposes, as opposed to mass cultivation.
In addition to these aspects, the development of machines and equipment lead-
ing to a more responsible way of dealing with raw materials and the environment
continues. New processes of refining are confined mainly to physical modes of oper-
ation and protection of energy and water resources, in keeping with the spirit of the
period and the desire to keep costs low. The manufacturers of such equipment are
constantly engaged in new and further developments. Here, I would like to thank the
companies that are mentioned subsequent to the bibliography for their support in
providing pictures and information.
This book will survey the raw materials predominantly employed and the spec-
trum of processes used today. Man’s ability to absorb information visually, i.e., via
pictures, is many times greater than through the other senses or through transposi-
tion from language. A diagram or figure conveys more than a thousand words. To
impart information quickly and efficiently, a focus of importance in this book was
the explanation of technological steps in the form of graphs, a form of presentation
that offers the reader a quick orientation and conveysa general view. Sufficientdetail
is offered to highlight the critical points without obscuring the presentation of essen-
tial information. In that sense, this book can be considered a sort of picture-book-
hopefully, in a good sense.
Michael Bockisch
Vienna, I993

Preface to the English Edition
AOCS Press has decided to publish this (originally German) book in English, updat-
ed and revised, and I am very grateful for the opportunity to expand its distribution
and readership.
The book was written primarily for Europe, and especially for Germany; some
parts of Chapter 1, in particular, focus on the home situation. These parts have been
changed where possible to give a broader picture. However, some figures remain in
their original form, describing the situation in Germany. This was the case whenev-
er they were too specific to be changed or when they illustrated certain facts that may
well be used as an example for other regions in the world or as representative for the
European Union.
It is an honor to be able to reach a much wider readership. I translated the book
to the best of my ability; however, without the help of my son, Benjamin, who had
to do a lot of proofreading, of Ralf Tonn, who assisted me with the translation of
Chapter 1, and especially of Iain Gow, Greg Knoll and Michael Gude, who did their
very best as co-readers to improve my style, I (or you as the readers) would have
been worse off. Both my readers and I owe them our thanks.
In the interim between the original German issue and this one, almost half a
decade has passed, and some of the trends that could be seen on the horizon have
intensified. The skepticism towards any form of technology has increased in some
countries, especially Scandinavia and the German-speaking countries, coming very
close to hostility at least in some parts of the population. This deepens the gap
between the wealthy countries that can afford to reject useful technology and those
parts of the world in which technology is urgently needed to feed the increasing and
often poor population. It seems that part of today’s fat technology will disappear in
Europe or that chemical processes will be replaced by physical ones regarded as
more environmentally friendly or by enzymic ones regarded as biological and thus,
natural. On the other hand, there is total rejection in some quarters of new technolo-
gies such as biotechnology whether the concern is enzymes and their methods of
production or genetically modified organisms (GMO). The contradiction between
the existence of less technology and the development of new plants that may save
some processing steps will be difficult to resolve. The next two to three years will
determine where these new developments will be accepted and where they will not.
A start was made in 1996 with the introduction of GMO soybeans, with other mod-
ified oilseeds following mainly in 1998.
Lastly, I hope my readers will follow the advice of the great German poet
Wolfgang von Goethe, who said: “Also, we should not deny that we are willing to
forgive one or the other typing error in a book because we feel flattered by the fact
that we detected it.”
Michael Bockisch
Hamburg, 1997
vii

Contents
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Chapter 1 The Importance of Fats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1. A History of the Production of Oil and Fat
1.2. Fat in Food and Food’s Raw Materials
1.3. The Economic Importance of Oils and Fats
1.4 Fat in Nutrition
1.5. Fats and Oils in Legislation
1.6. Fats as Technical Raw Materials
1.7. Fats and Oils as a Source of Energy
1.8. New Sources of Raw Materials
1.9. Substitutes for Fat
1.10. References
Composition, Structure,Physical Data, and Chemical
Reactions of Fats and Oils and Their Associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Chapter 2
2.1. Components of Fats and Oils
2.2. The Structure of Triglycerides
2.3. Physical Characteristics
2.4. Chemical Reactions
2.5. Lipids
2.6. References
Chapter 3 Animal Fats and Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.1. Milk Fats
3.2. Rendering Fats
3.3. Marine Oils
3.4. References
Chapter 4 VegetableFats and Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.1. OiVFat-Containing Plants
4.2. Pulp Oils
4.3. Seed Oils
4.4. Nonedible Oils and Fats
4.5. Other Oil Sources
4.6. References
Chapter 5 Productionof VegetableOils and Fats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
5.1. Pulp Oils
5.2. Seed Oils and Fats
Chapter 6 Modification of Fats and Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
6.1, Application and Combination of Modification Processes
6.2. Fractionation
6.3. Winterization
6.4. Interesterification
6.5. Hardening
6.6. References
ix

X Contents
Chapter 7 Refining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
7.1, Economic Importance of Refining
7.2. Neutralization
7.3. Bleaching
7.4. Deodorization
7.5. Physical Refining
7.6. Energy Consumption and Investment
7.7. Importance of Refining for Removal of Environmental
7.8. References
Contaminants
Chapter 8 Fat as,or in, Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
8.1. Butter
8.2. Margarine
8.3. Edible Fats
8.4. Salad and Frying Oils
8.5. Mayonnaise
8.6, Vegetable Creams, Cream Substitutes
8.7. Peanut Butter
8.8. Margarine and Oils with Medium-Chain Triglycerides
8.9. Monoglycerides and Diglycerides
8.10. References
Chapter 9 AnalyticalMethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
9.1, Acid Number
9.2. Saponification Number
9.3. Iodine Value
9.4. Peroxide Value
9.5. Unsaponifiable Matter
9.6. Water Content
9.7. Phosphorus Content
9.8. Color
9.9. Hexane in Extraction Meal
9.10. Fibers in Extraction Meal
9.11. Protein in Extraction Meals
9.12. Ash Content
9.13. Solid Fat Content
9.14. Dilatation
9.15. Lipids Analysis
Chapter 10 Conversion Tables andAbbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
Chapter 11 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
Chapter 12 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819

Chapter 1
The Importance of Fats
The importance of fats for humans, animals and plants lies in their high content of
energy, which permits the greatest possible storage of energy in the smallestpossi-
ble amount of food substance. In addition, fats allow humans and animals to con-
sume fat-solublevitamins and provide them with essential fatty acids, that is, those
indispensablefatty acids that their bodies are unable to synthesizethemselves.
Fats are omnipresent in nature, although in the most diverse quantities. In the
human body, they play a decisive role as well, beginning with the nutrition of the
infant with breast milk. During the first 5 d, breast milk contains an average of
29.5% fat; from d 6 through 10, the amount is 35.2% and later 45.4% (Macy
1949).In the course of life, a human living in the industrial world satisfies an aver-
age of >40% of energy demand with fat. Metabolizedin the human body, fats yield
38 kj/g of energy (9 kcal/g). In this exothermic reaction, -2000 mL of oxygen per
gram of fat is consumed and -1400 mL of carbon dioxide is produced (Peters and
van Slyke 1946).In addition to -63 ton of water, 0.5 ton of alcohol, 8 ton of carbo-
hydrates and 2 ton of proteins, humans consume -3 ton of fat during their lives.
The efficiency of fat as foodstuff is very high, because the fat contained in
food is almost completely reabsorbed by the body; in the feces (in the course of
one’s life -5 ton, plus 30 ton of urine) only 3.3% of lipids can be found (Pimparkar
1961). Thus, fats play an indispensable part in nutrition as supplier of energy,
source of compounds that the body cannot synthesize by itself, and carrier of vital
substances. Fats cannot be replaced by other substances. Apart from this physio-
logical aspect, they are excellent carriers of flavors, and dishes prepared with fats
are much tastier than others.
Fats also provide a smooth, creamy consistency to many dishes, which trans-
lates into a good mouth-feel. This explains in part why the consumption of fat is
still very high today, even though the segment of the population performing hard
labor has diminished greatly compared with the past, rendering a very high supply
of calories no longer necessary (see also Chapter 1.4).
The improvementin flavor,in particular,is certainlythe reason why fats and oils
have been appreciatedfor a long time. However, only since the beginning of the pre-
sent century has it been possible in the industrial nations to provide the population
with sufficientquantitiesof fat at reasonableprices (see Chapter 1.3).Because of this
increasingimportanceof fats and oils, governmentshave intervenedto a great extent
in their production and distributionin the last 100years (see Chapter 1.5).European
food legislation,in particular,has often been marked by protectionistobjectives.
The importance of fats and oils to the global economy (Chapter 1.3)becomes
clear when considering the amount of oilseed and fruit grown worldwide. In 1995,
-60 million ton of palm fruit and -1 1million ton of olives as well as >200 million
ton of oilseeds were harvested. From these amounts, >90 million ton of oils and
fats were derived. Many countries are trying to enlarge their shares in the interna-

2 Fats and Oils Handbook
tional market, a strategy that is usually to the disadvmtage of others and leads to
defensive measures. National interests play a part here. For example, 10years ago,
the European Union began to promote the cultivation of sunflowersand rape in the
area of the Community.A simultaneousattempt to stabilize the Community’s bud-
get deficit by introducing a t
a
x on fat caused the US. to fear for its soy exports,
resulting in a threat of trade obstructions aimed at the European automobile indus-
try. The confrontation was averted in 1987, but it will reappear again and again,
unless the issue of a taxon fat is buried for good.
In addition to the importance of oils and fats for human nutrition, there is a sub-
stantial market for technical fats. The importance of these oils and fats will increase
considerably in the future because they represent a vast potential of naturally regen-
erating raw materials in which the chemical and pharmaceutical industries have a
specialinterest. A short survey of thesetechnicalfats is given in Chapter 1.6.
The importance of oils and fats for human nutrition, the animal feed produced
from the processing of most oil plants and the economic importance of oils and
fats, i.e., the fact that many millions of people worldwidemake a living by the pro-
duction and processing of oils and fats, all combine to give special importance to
technology.This may even be enhanced if oil-bearing crops could be offered to the
chemical industry as a source of regeneratingraw materials.
Only -1% of -300,000 existing species of plants has thus far been examined
for their qualifications as useful plants. Only 300 of these, i.e., 0.1%, are being
used agriculturally today. About 7% of these, -20, are oil plants. A considerable
potential, which may be suitable for the recovery of oil, thus remains. This is espe-
cially true when plants with a special fatty acid pattern are desired. In addition,
there are new methods of plant breeding that also may open up new prospects.
1.1 A History of the Production of Oils and Fats
From ancient times, man unconsciouslyconsumedfat in his food via plants, fish, and
meat. However, the use of oils and fats requiredsome simple techniques. For exam-
ple, only when the ability to make fm was discovered was it possible to melt the fat
of hunted animals and store the fat. Storage also required the ability to produce ves-
sels made from clay or another materials. Mutton t
a
l
l
o
w and lard, and later butter,
cream, and fish oils were known in prehistoric times (Hanssen and Wendt 1965).
Vegetablefatsfrom olives and sesameseed,and possiblyflax were alsoknown.
Until the previous century, the utilization of fats and oils as food went hand in
hand with their use as fuel, predominantlyfor purposes of illumination. Even today,
the name “lampante”for certain qualitiesof olive oil refers to this. As a base for oint-
ments and cosmetics,they are still in use today,just as in the earliestperiods.
It is known from pictures that food factories were in existence in early days.
Wooley (1929) presented a picture of an Egyptian dairy-farm that illustrated,
among other things, the process of churning. Erman and Ranke (1923) showed the
sequence of operations of a large-scale Egyptian bakery of Ramses 1
1
1in Thebes

Importance of Fats 3
around 1200 B.C. in which a dough resembling a Chelsea bun is being baked in oil.
People in the Mediterraneanregion and in Asia used oils long before those in Central
Europe. With olives in the Mediterranean area and sesame in the area of the
Euphrates and Tigris,oil plants that do not grow in the temperatelatitudeswere read-
ily available.The Bible mentionsoil in many passages. Moses, for example,required
oil as a donation for the Tabernacle’s lamps; cake and pancakes were baked with
unleavenedoil (2 Moses 29). It was customaryto anoint with oil, and Jacob anointed
a stone this way to sanctifyit. Passagesin Luke indicatethat oil was a valuable com-
modity. For instance, there is a description of how a person owed 100barrels of oil
to somebodyelse (Luke 16:5.6).The importanceof the olive tree to the people in the
Mediterraneanregion also became visible by its being consecrated to the goddess of
wisdom,Athene,in ancientAthens; it laterbecame the symbolof peace and promise.
Thus,after the Deluge,the dove came to Noah with an olive leaf in its beak (1 Moses
8:1l),a symbol of the world’s survival. Plinius described how to extract olive oil by
pressing ripe fruit in a squeezing vise, a procedure customary in his time. Butter
(“dense, solid milk foam”) was also mentioned, but only as a replacement for olive
oil in times of need, or for baking. Another familiar practice of fat technology was
the remeltingof lard for cleaningpurposes.
Roman fat technology spread throughout the Mediterraneanregion. Excavations
in Tunis show its propagation in Northern Africa; in Pompeii and Herculaneum,
entire processing facilities consisting of oil mills, oil presses, oil shops, and oil
depots were uncovered (UNION 1959).Because the fatty acids corroded copper, oil
was transported in vessels made of lead, but also in tanker vehicles. These were carts
carrying animal skins enclosed in iron hoops in which the oil was kept. Poppy seed
has also been discovered in Swiss lacustrine dwellings dating from the 25th century
B.C. It is probablethat the inhabitantsalreadyknew poppy oil and that people north of
the Alps became familiar with oil mainly through the occupation by Roman troops.
Accordingto tradition, oil was also extracted from beechnuts that were mashed, then
wrapped in cloths and pressed between plates of metal or stone. Every large farm
extracted its own oil. Later, agriculture made further progress, and rape and linseed
were added as oil fruit.
In the 16th century, the profession of the oil miller, who processed t
h
e farmers’
seeds, evolved.The oil was extractedby grinding,bruising,or pressing. Later, people
shifted to squeezing vises. Windpower was used as propulsion in windmills. In the
course of further development,hydraulic presses were built, and from the middle of
the 19thcentury on, it was possible to extractoils and fats from the seedsby means of
solvents.
When the seafaring European nations conquered the world, the resources were
expanded and unknown types of oil fruit with much higher contents of oil and fat
than those previously known were brought to Europe. Until the cultivation of soy-
beans was widely expanded,these oilseeds yielded the substantialpart of vegetable
fats and oils consumed in Europe. The explosive increase in population in the
industrialized countries of the world during the industrial revolution, combined

with urbanization, led to a new situation. The population that gathered in the cities
had to be fed. This required an entirely new system of food distribution, which
adapted itself to the change from domestic supply in small units (farms, villages or
small towns) to industrial production. New requirements for food arose, especially
concerning its preservation. New products such as margarine (see Chapter 8) and
novel techniques such as hardening (see Chapter 6.4) made important contributions
to mastering these challenges. Although the main concern in the late 19th and early
20th centuries was the satisfaction of basic needs, in today’s industrial society,
there is no longer a problem of quantity. After the decline in food production
caused by the two World Wars and the Great Depression, during which the ques-
tion of “mere nourishing” became important, the essential aspect of the 1960s and
1970swas that of enjoyment. The primary function of food was no longer the sup-
ply of calories, but the experience of taste. Accordingly, the focus shifted from the
production of quantities, which were in fact available, to quality.
In particular, the emergence of the trend toward health consciousnesshas stimu-
lated the demand for quality. Here the fat industry delivered exceptional contribu-
tions. The connection between cardiovascular disease and nutrition was detected in
the early days. This knowledge was used to develop special products that provide
preventive measures (e.g., becel; see Chapter 1.4). The excessive fat consumptionof
most of the world’s population and the consequences of overweight have led to the
development of reduced-fat and very-low-fat variants of the most diverse types of
food. For margarines, for example, the law had to be changed to allow this. Starting
with margarines, food groups developed that made possible low-calorie nutrition, or,
as in the case of becel (a trademark of Unilever concern), furnish variants of diverse
foods free of or low in cholesteroland high in polyunsaturated fatty acids.
In recent years, a new trend could be observed developing in parts of the pop-
ulation. Sensitized by a growing awareness for environmental issues, “naturalness”
of products has been given high priority. Although the demands resulting from this
are partly exaggerated and no longer have a clear foundation, it will lead to
changes in technology in some fields, at least in the wealthier countries.
In poorer countries, which strive to produce food for mere nourishment and
survival, there is little patience for these trends. The priority here is to feed the
population. Although the strong increase in population is no doubt leading to prob-
lems that cannot be overestimated, the production of fats has always increased at a
rate higher than the population growth (see Chapter 1.3).
1.2 Fat in Food and Food Ingredients
Fats and oils, as such, are used for the production of food; in addition, unprocessed
food or ingredients for food production contain fats and oil, sometimesin substantial
quantities. These includefruits and vegetables but also meat and fish (Table 1.1).
For oil and fat technology, these figures are important because they help iden-
tify the raw materials for oil and fat production. In processed food, oils and fats are

lmportance of Fats 5
TABLE 1.1
Approximate Fat Content of Unprocessed Food
FruiVNuts (O/O) VegetabledCereals Fish (%) Meat (%)
Bananas
Oranges
Pears
Sw. chestnut
Avocado
Coconuts'
Almonds'
Hazelnuts'
Walnuts'
Pecan nuts*
0.2
0.2
0.4
2.0
17
34
54
62
64
71
Potatoes 0.1
Tomatoes 0.2
Broccoli 0.3
Cabbage 0.8
Corn 1.o
Barley 1.5
Mushroomst 3
Soybeans 20.9
Miscellaneous
Eggs 11.5
Milk 3.7
Haddock
Cod
Mackerel
Caviar
Herring
Eel
Shrimp
Lobster
Mussels
0.1
0.3
11.5
15
19
26
1.5
2
1.3
Chicken breast
Roastchicken
Boiling fowl
Rabbit
Fillet of beef
Haunch of beef
Beef tenderloin
Fillet of pork
Pork chop
Bacon (lean)
(fat)
1
6
20
8
4.5
7
10
4.5
7.5
65
88
'kernels. +dried.
also found in diverse quantities. The variety of foods listed below (Table 1.2)
ranges from those which are produced by a single treatment step (e.g., by grinding)
to those that require many steps of processing because they are composed of many
kinds of raw material (Table 1.2).The figures cited can vary considerably and thus
serve only as a basis for the order of magnitude of the fat content of the food.
1.3 The Economic lmportance of Oils and Fats
Nourishment is an indispensableand essential need of the human race. It is the task of
agricultureand the food industry to satisfy this need. Considering the current develop
ment of the world's population, a huge demand is arising.This demand has to be satis-
fied under the best possible conditions. There remains a shortage of supply in many
parts of the world. Consideringthe fat-providingpotential of agriculture and industry,
this demand should be able to be satisfied easily. In past years, the production of fat
has grown at a faster pace than the population (Fig. 1.1).A shortage of supply is thus
rather a problem of distribution and purchasing power than one of shortage in the
sense of lacking potential. In the coming years, the production of fat will also grow
more rapidly than the world population. Mielke (1985) estimated a 1Cfold increase in
oil production from the year 1958to the year 2000. During this period, the amount of
soybean oil will increase sevenfold and palm oil production will increase 2.5-fold. For
palm oil, this prediction is already far outdated. In the past 10 years, the volume of
oilseeds stored as surplus amounted to an average of 14% of production (Mielke
1990).However, as can be seen from Figure 1.2,there is a strong correlation between
gross national product, reflecting the standard of living, and fat consumption. Chma,
India, Pakistan and Bangladeshcurrentlyrepresent almost one half of the world's pop
ulation. Demand for fat by these four countries will increase not only as their popula-

TABLE 1.2
Aproximate Fat Content of Processed Fooda
Sausages (YO) sweets ( O h )
Corned beef 6
Wieners 20
Bavarianveal 22
sausages
Cervelat sausage 35
German Fleischwurst 30
Mortadella 33
Calf liver pate 35
Salami 38
Smoked s. spread 37
Baked products
Rolls 0.5
White bread 1.2
Crisp bread 1.5
Zwieback 4
Rich tea biscuit 11
Sugar 0
Caramel 10
Cocoa (slightly 25
Milk chocolate 33
defatted)
Cereal products
Oat flakes
Wheat bran
Wheat flour
Ryeflour
Corn flour
Corn semolina
Corn flakes
Pop corn
Snacks
6.5
1-2
1-2
2.6
1.1
0.4
5
10
Spaghetti 1.2
Potato chips
Roastedpeanuts
40
48
Milk products (W
Yogurt, skim 0.1
Condensed milk 4-8
Cream (whippable) 27-33
Quark
Fresh cheese
Camembertcheese
Edam cheese
Parmesancheese
Emmenthalcheese
Roquefort cheese
Processed cheese
Miscellaneous
5-1 2
5-1 2
23
24
26
30
32
23-2 8
~~~~ ~
Mustard 6
Salad mayonnaise 52
Mayonnaise 82.5
Margarine 80.5
Butter 82.5
Cod-liver oil 99.8
. _
'?his analysis is from Europeanf d ; all values are examples only and may differ from country to country
accordingto local habits, local taste and local legislation.
World
fat production[MMT] population [billion]
120 12
100 '
80-
60 -
40
20 -
-.
World population
2
0- 1 ' 0
_ _ ~
1936 194S 1956 1966 197s 1986 1996
Fig. 1.1. Growth of world population and oilhat production.

Importanceof Fats 7
_
.
us.
Germany

Gross National Product [lo00US$ per capita]
Fig. 1.2. Average spending power and fat consumption in different countries (adapted
from Leonhard 1995).
tions grow, but it can be predicted that a tremendousdemand for fats and oils will
be triggered as their gross national product improves.
Statistics concerning the world production of oils and fats have existed only
since 1942.Estimations at that time, as well as those concerning the years before,
were coordinated by the International Agrarian Institute in Rome (today FAO;
Schiittauf 1942). Since then, there has been a shift from animal to vegetable fats
(Fig. 1.3). As for all food, consumer prices for oils and fats have dropped signfi-
Marineoils
Lard,Tallow
Butter
Pulp oils
Seed oils
Fig. 1.3. Proportion of different oil sources on the world fat production.

TABLE 1.3
Oil Seed and Oil Fruit Production in the World by Region (O/O of total)
Region 1935 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1995
North America
South America
China
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh
USSR (successor states)
Europe (without USSR)
Africa
Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia
All others
17 24 24 27 28 26 24
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
15 13 9 7 7 9 12
11 9 9 8 8 6 1 1
9 8 9 1 2 1 0 9 4
21 18 19 17 15 15 14
7 8 9 7 6 5 4
6 7 6 5 9 13 14
7 5 6 7 6 5 4
cantly in relation to income. Rendered animal fats, and especially butter, were
goods in short supply and thus very expensive. For example, in Germany in 1857,
-15% of one’s daily food expense was needed to buy only 40 g of butter. In 1800,
the entire expenditure for food amounted to -70% of a family’s entire income, in
1900 to -50% and in 1974 to -28%. Today in Western Europe, this fraction is
clearly ~ 2 5 %
(Gander 1984).
The importance of oils and fats has increased during the past 100 years. Since
the time before World War I, worldwide production has more than quintupled. The
center of oil fruit cultivation was once situated in tropic regions, whereas today it
is in temperate latitudes (Table 1.3).
To counteract this trend, tropical countries, in particular, Malaysia, Indonesia and
the Philippinesstrive hard to regain their former rank on the scaleof producers. On the
one hand, it allows them to feed their own growing population; on the other hand, it
creates export possibilities and explains why the production of palm oil in these coun-
tries has been extended steadilyand forcefullyfor about 15years. The higher oil yields
of cloned palms contributedto this in part. In Malaysia, productionrose from 4 million
ton in 1985, to -7 million ton in 1990 and to -10 million ton in 1995 (see Chapter
4.2.1). In that country alone, almost two million people make a living from palm oil,
and in 1986,this branch of the industryyielded a revenue of almost $1.4 billion (US.).
At the same time, these efforts are a prime example of the importance of oils
and fats to certain regions of the world. Often, one region’s efforts to raise produc-
tion are accompanied by countermeasures from another region. In the case of
Malaysia, the countermeasure was an attempt to discredit tropic oils. The increase
in the production of palm oil was regarded by the U.S. as a danger to its soybean
oil market. Campaigns were started with the objective of pushing the tropic oils out
of the country as completely as possible. In addition, new directives concerning
labeling were passed, forcing the producers to declare the oils used.
Public health policy was given as a reason; later, this proved to be true to
some extent but that explanation was viewed by Malaysia as simply a pretext.
Malaysia believed that concern about losses suffered in the production of soy seed

was the actual reason (Anonymous 1987). After fractionation, palm olein is a good
raw material (see also Chapter 1.4),and for many products and branches of indus-
try, stearin is also used as a consistent fat. It is expected that the U.S. import of
tropic fats will level off at -750,000 ton per year. Of the laurics (coconut and palm
kernel oil), 70% go to oleochemical processing.
The distribution of the individual types of oil fruit has changed considerably
(Fig. 1.4) as shown by the comparison of their distribution in 1935, 1960, and
1995.A projection to the year 2000 (data from Mielke 1994) is also given.
Figures 1.5-1.7 show the production of oils and fats during the last 80 years.
The figures refer to the amounts of visible fats produced. A distinction must be
made between butter, lard, and olive oil, which represent end products suitable for
consumption (Fig. l S ) , vegetable oils and fats (Fig. 1.6), which have to be
processed, and oils utilized mainly in industry (Fig. 1.7).To simplify the presenta-
tion, tallow, and fish oil, which are generally processed further, are listed together
with butter, lard, and olive oil which are consumed as such.
Figure 1.5 shows that the production of whale oil has virtually disappeared,
whereas the production of fish oil is -10 times higher now. This can be attributed
Fig. 1.4. Proportion of different
vegetableoil sourceson the
world fat
(C = Cornoil; P = Palm kerneloil; S = Sesameseed oil)

Fig.1.5. World productionof butter, lard, beef tallow, fish oil, and whale oil.
mainly to various new catching methods. However, a stagnation of these figures
has to be anticipated, also caused by international campaigns toward sustainable
fishing. The high increase in tallow production mirrors the rise in beef production.
The growth rates, however, are far lower than those of vegetable fats and oils; t
a
l
-
low is only a by-product. The rapid rise in the production of soybeans, which has
increased 50-fold, is clearly visible. The growth rate of sunflower seed is even
higher. Compared with these amounts, the production of oil-bearing plants utilized
mainly in industry is modest; however, the fact that a considerable amount of the
edible oils is used for industrial purposes must be noted (see Chapter 1.6).
By looking at the production of fat and its products, the political development
in the world or in particular countries can easily be inferred. Fat production in
Germany (see Chapter 1.3.1), for example, was at its lowest level during both
World Wars, but also during the great depression in the 1920s and 1930s. For a
good supply at low prices and, related to that, an adequate profit for the farmer, the
yield per hectare is essential because in the industrial nations only a high yield per
hectare promises sufficient returns. However, during times of extensive shutdowns
of areas (e.g., the US.),
there are considerations if models exist that are based on
less intensive tillage. The yield per hectare thus keeps rising, but at a far slower
pace (Fig. 1.8). It is the yields per hectare that indicate the difference between
developing and industrialized countries. Cultivation in Third World countries often
takes place on very small farms in poor soil with an insufficient supply of water;
for particular regions and their state of affairs,this clearly makes sense.Production
in the industrialized countries can vary greatly as well (Fig. 1.9).
Consider this comparison. By feeding cows the yield of 1 hectare (2000-3000
kg on average), only 2W300 kg of milk fat can be produced. Of course, one must

Soybean oil
Palm oil
Rapeseedoil
Sunflower seed oil
Cottonseed oil
Peanutoil
Coconutoil
Sesameseed oil
Olive oil
Fig. 1.6. World production of important vegetable oils.
admit that, for milk, the production of fat is not the main objective. However, by-
products are also gained from most sortsof oil fruit.
Not all influences on production can be controlled even when the means are
available. The source of raw materials might be exhausted without the possibility
of exercising any influence on it, or the opposite may be the case. For example, the
production of fish oil in Peru (one of the largest producers, and for its size, by far
the largest producer) decreased from 311,OOO ton year in 1976 to virtually zero in
1984.Excessive fishing was not the cause, as was speculated initially, but rather a
change in the direction of the Humboldt stream, which shifted its flow 350 km to

12
1.5
E
5
P
r 1.0
C
0
z
e 10.5
0
Linseedoil
Castor beanoil
Tung oil
Spermoil
1910 1930 1960 1970 19SO
Fig. 1.7. World production of main vegetable oils for industrial usage.
the west of the Peruvian coast. The fish followed the flow of the stream. The
Peruvian boats, equipped for inshore fishing only, were not able to follow the
stream, and the entire industry broke down completely. Chile profited from this: its
catches in 1989 amounted to -6 million ton and -260,000 ton of fish oil were
derived from it.
Fig. 1.8. Production yields of some selected vegetable oils.

Fig. 1.9. Production yield of some oilseeds in different countries.
The opposite occurred in the insular republics of South East Asia. There, dev-
astating typhoons had gravely affected the coconut crop over many years. Without
any identifiable reason, the typhoons changed direction, and the coconut industry
began prospering again.
World affairs interfere considerably with the production of oil but in different
ways than the natural influences listed above. Their influence on oil prices is espe-
cially evident (Figs. 1.10 and 1.11).Wars, but also energy crises are mirrored here,
although the supply of edible oil has hardly any relation to the production of min-
eral oil. Depending on the type, the price of vegetable oils is higher or lower than
that of soybean oil, whereas the market value of animal fats lies, without excep-
tion, below that of soybean oil. However, it must be considered that fish oil, with
very few exceptions, is used primarily in hardened form, so that in comparison
with tallow and lard, the costs for hardening have to be taken into account. Tallow
is usually fractionated before use.
Because soybean oil has developed into the predominant oil, the prices of the
other oils are to a certain extent dependent on that of soybean oil (Figs. 1.12 and
1.13). These figures show prices leveling off in years when edible oils strongly
forced their way into the market and the difference in price for soybean oil, which
has been relatively constant (except for some peaks). They also give an idea of the
relative value of the various oils and fats.
Considering the large volumes of oil produced, the high growth rates and the
competitive situation, it is no surprise that oil prices have declined relatively.
Depicted in U.S. $ against inflation in the U.S., it becomes obvious that oil prices

14
1400
1200
lo00
800
600-
400
200
Palm oil
L I I
I S M 1970 1975 1980 IS85 I990 1- 1065 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1096
0 1
1966 1970 1976 l& 1986 l& l&
Fig. 1.10. World market pricesof importantvegetable oils.
in January 1990,in spite of the increase of the absolute amount in constant money,
are only -36% of those in January 1965.During 1987,they dropped temporarily to
only 25%of 1965 levels (Fig. 1.14).Taking into account the decline of the U.S. $
in proportion to the currencies of some European countries, the oil has become
even cheaper. However, this is compensated partially by lower inflation rates
(Figs. 1.15 and 1.24).
Because of the historical developmentof the production of oil fruits in regions
completely different from those in which they are consumed, the market has
always been international. Oilseeds and oil are usually traded in U.S. $. Because

1200
Soybean oil
400
1985 1970 1975 lSe0 1985 1990 1995 1985 1970 1975 1980 1985 lee0 1995
1400
1200
lo00
800
800
400
200
World market pnce [US. WMT]
Soybeanoil
Itton-
ed oil
0 ' 1 I
19S5 1970 1975 IS60 1985 ID00 1996
Fig. 1.lo. Continued.
the European countries are not self-sufficient,they have to import oilseeds. For the
oil milling industry outside of the U.S., which has to commercialize oil as well as
meal, the deviationof the exchangerate of the U.S. $ to the respectivecurrency (Fig.
1.15) is added to the deviationof the price for the raw material.This can exert quite a
considerableinfluence on the market position because products made from vegetable
oils and fats always compete with indigenous products (e.g., margarine with butter).
In addition,extraction meals have to compete with indigenous fodder. The influence
of the deviationof the U.S. $ exchangerates against the only stable European curren-
cy (German Mark) is made clear. One realizes that the deviation for the European

16
1000
800
600
400
200 -.
Edible Tallow
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1W5 1970 1975 1980 1985 1 W 1995
World market price [US. WMTJ
I2Oo I
0 ’ I ,
igss 1970 197s is80 198s isso ims
Fig. 1.11. World market price of some animal fats (soybeanoil as comparison).
market can thereby become even larger. In times of a powerful dollar, considerable
price discrepanciesarise that are difficult to pass on to the customer.
Prices on the world market do not always depend on supply and demand
alone, but also on expectations for the volume of the next harvest. Most deals are
closed on futures long before the harvest amount is known. Besides the area that is
going to be cultivated in the respective year, information about the expected
weather is relevant. However, not even a major regional weather-related catastro-
phe would be capable of influencing prices substantially. The U.S. exhibits the
greatest deviations in the area used for cultivation and thus the strongest influence

World market pnce dfferenceto soybcen 011 [US$/MT]
440
300
zoo
loo
0
-100
-100
3
0
0
400
1066 1970 1976 1980 1986 1990 1996
World market pnce dfferenceto soybeanoil [US.$IMTl
Peanutoil
400
3
0
0 ' 1066 1970 1976 1980 1966 1990 1996
Fig. 1.12. World market price difference of some vegetable oils and fats to the price of
soybean oil.
on the amount of crop to be expected. According to the previous year's supply and
achieved prices, areas of smaller or larger size will be shut down. Because soybean
oil is by far the most-produced oil, its quantity influences the prices of the other
oils and fats as well. Consequently, the number of acres cultivated in the U.S. in
the respective year plays a very important role in the equation. During times of
high supply, prices usually drop at harvest time and rise when the provisions run
short. During this process, the quality usually declines as well; therefore Brazilian
and Argentinean producers generally wait until the supply of the crop in the
Northern hemisphere is exhausted, or the quality declines, before they commercial-

Fig. 1.13. World market price differenceof some animal fats to the price of soybean oil.
ize their crop. This is the only way to obtain good prices for relatively smaller pro-
ducers with higher transportation costs. As a result of intensified cultivation in the
Southern hemisphere, fresh soybeans are available twice a year.
Apart from production and availability, demand also plays a decisive role in
price. When comparing demand with availability, we see that the quantities pro-
Fig. 1.14. Price of soybean oil in current and constant money (US $).

Fig. 1.15. Price of soybean oil in U.S. $ and in a stable European currency (DM).
duced were almost without exception higher than the demand (Fig. 1.16). This
leads to an accumulation, which depresses the prices. Malaysia alone is said to
have had a stock of palm oil of -1 million ton in 1988-1989.
The econoinic situation in the large countries that are not self-sufficient and
are subject to monetary problems is closely linked to demand, and thus to a high
Fig. 1.16. Demand and supply balancefor vegetable oils and fats (after Batterby).

degree, decisive for price development. On the one hand, there is the Soviet Union
(respectively, the successor states), where the import of meals as fodder plays an
important role. On the other hand, there is India, which represents a huge market
with 9300 million people. In 1986-1987, -2 million ton of oils and fats were
imported. The imports in the following years are estimated to be -0.5 million ton,
but the most recent estimates suggest even lower amounts; however, the demand
that cannot be met that way amounts to 1million ton per year. In contrast to this, it
is expected that Pakistan will increase its imports to almost 1 million ton. In view
of these markets, the surplus production is within the range of the deviations of the
quantities imported by these countries. The demands are thus not regulated by the
actual demands, but by the availability of funds.
When we relate the prices for oilseeds on the world market to those for oil, we
have to consider that they are determined by the oil content as well as by the
usability of the meal as fodder. We see that an intricate web of influences exists
that determines the prices. This has direct influence on the supply, more so in some
parts of the industrialized countries in which the price for seeds fluctuates around
the limit of profitability despite subsidies. Without subsidies, production at today’s
prices would not be possible.
For the oil mills, the production of soy seed, for example, means that they
have the following net profits (Prices Chicago, May 1990):
Cost (US. $) Revenue (U.S.$)
lo00 kg soybeans 322.12
180-200 kg oil 193.68-2 15.20
820-800 kg extraction meal 134.55-13 1.27
Cost of beans 322.12
Gross profit from oil and meal* 328.23-336.47
*without any running and processing cost, without losses and depending on the oil content.
This margin (however simplistically calculated) is extremely small for a capi-
tal-intensive industry such as oil milling, so that small changes in the meal’s mar-
ketability or in the price would render the entire enterprise uneconomical.
The economic importance of a raw material, however, reveals itself not only in
the supply, but also in the demand. Because oils are traded internationally, their
prices are not dependent on the demand in a single country. In addition, there are
subsidies for agriculture in many regions. This has repeatedly given rise to interna-
tional irritations when, for example, the U.S. reproached the European Community
for violating the GATT-treaty by means of subsidies and by partially barring the
market for agricultural imports (see Chapter 1.3.2). From Brussels’ point of view,
these subsidies are necessary to assure some degree of self-supply for certain agri-
cultural goods of the European Community.

Subsidies can have other purposes, for example, as an incentive for structural
reorganization. For instance, the Community supported the shift from the cultiva-
tion of rape with a high content of erucic acid (HEAR) to that with a low one
(LEAR). It was intended to arouse the farmers’ interest in rape, which grows well
in temperate climates, and to promote its cultivation instead of root crops and cere-
als, which are produced in excess. In 1988, the subsidy was 5.90 German marks
(-3.30 U.S. $) per ton of rape (LEAR). The prices the producer can gain for his
products on the market, however, are dependent on the demand in an individual
country.
In this respect, the price structure of butter and margarine in the individual
countries is of interest. In some countries, for a large part of the population, mar-
garine is a substitute for butter. The sales thus depend to a high degree on the rela-
tion between the prices for butter and margarine (Fig. 1.17).
In Germany, for example, a portion of the consumers buy margarine whenever
the price differential to butter increases beyond a certain value. This fact, which
applies to other countries as well, was used by the EC-commission to diminish the
“butter-mountain” by bringing butter onto the market at a reduced price. In the
period from 1982 to 1985, heavily subsidized butter in the EC amounted to >2.2
million ton. To subsidize this quantity, which replaced 80% of the fresh butter,
1600 ECU per ton had to be paid (>3200 German marks or 1500 U.S. $ per ton at
the exchange rates of 1986;Friedeberg 1986).
In other countries, the image of margarine is completely different, and butter
plays only a minor role. Interestingly, this also applies to the Netherlands and
Denmark (buttedmargarine 1:7and 1:3, respectively), countries that are commonly
known as “milk countries.”
10
8
a
k 4
.-
8
g 6
I
2
t
i
2
0
Vegetable
p.. margarine
Butter
, i 4 , I
I910 1930 1950 1970 1990
Butter
Average
margarine
price
Fig. 1.17. Price differential of margarine and butter in Germany.

1.3.1 The Economic Importance of Oils and Fats as
Well as of Fat Products in Europe and Germany
As stated in the preface, Germany is seen as a particular example of a western
European country. In the past 50 years, nutrition habits in industrialized countries
have changed drastically (Fig. 1.18), with Germany as an example. (Remark: all
data in figures concerning Germany end with the year 1990because data after the
reunification would not be comparable.) In spite of diminishing hard physical
labor, caloric intake has grown, and despite the findings and recommendations of
nutritionists, the percentage of fat in the diet has increased. Since 1850, the con-
sumption of fat in industrialized countries has risen constantly. It is assumed that
the German population satisfies -40% of its energy demand with fats and oils.
Currently, the amounts consumed consist of approximatelyequal shares of butter,
margarine, and edible oil, as well as tallow and lard (Fig. 1.19).
The proportion of margarine has dropped since the 1950sin favor of edible oil
and fat. The market for emulsion fats altogether is currently dropping at a rate of
-3% per year. The shift in proportions is disadvantageous for the visible fats,
whose proportion or intake can be controlled consciously, and favors the invisible
fats (proportion -1: I). Currently, the annual per capita consumption amounts to
-30 kg of visible fats (Fig. 1.20).
The history of fat policy in Germany (which is representative of other
European countries) is depicted comprehensivelyby Schtittauf and Pischel(1978),
whose work is referred to in part in the following paragraphs. Their overview
reflects the political turmoil in Europe during the last 80 years.
200
I
6 eh)r I w * &--"
#*- m
-
-
-
m
-
*
s
u
.
.
0
Fig. 1.18. Per capita consumptionof differentfood in Germany
1940 1980 1960 1970 1980 1990

Fig. 1.19. Proportion of somefats and oils on total fat intake.
Today, Germany’s self-sufficiency concerning vegetable oils and fats is quite
low. About 90% of the raw materials are imported. In the early 1900s, Germany’s
self-sufficiency for fats and oils was -50%; between 1945 and the present time, the
overall self-sufficiency is -40%. Despite these shortcomings, there have always
been attempts to impose special taxes on the import of oils and fats (fat-tax).
Actually, this tax has never been directed against the fats themselves, but against
fat products, especially margarine.
Fig. 1.20. Per capita consumption of visible oils and fats in Germany.

Toward the end of the last century, with the introduction of margarine, the first
legal restraints were introduced; initially, these amounted only to sale restraints
(e.g., no butter and margarine in the same room). However, a duty was imposed on
the import of margarine or equivalent oil mixtures according to Bismarck’s policy
of protective duties. Because this duty did not apply to individual oils but only to
oil compounds or to finished products such as margarine, the first margarine plants
were built directly along the border in The Netherlands, which were most progres-
sive, so that transportation costs for the duty-free raw materials were as low as pos-
sible.
During World War I, a considerable shortage of fat occurred. Naturally,
imported fats and oils became scarce first, so that fats for margarine were not avail-
able in sufficient quantity. From 1917 on, only one third of the required volume of
fat could be put on the market. In the respective figures, this becomes apparent
through the lows in margarine production, and better yet, in the contrary develop-
ment of the fraction of margarine and butter at that time. During the time of infla-
tion, caused by the putative upswing during the postwar period, the number of
margarine plants in Germany rose to several hundred (today the number is -10).
On May 1, 1933, a fat-tax, combined with a fixing of quotas, came into effect
in the Third Reich. The production of margarine was frozen at 60% of the 4th-
quarter output of 1932; moreover, a tax of 0.50 Reichsmark per kilogram of mar-
garine, edible oil, hardened vegetable oil and whale oil was inflicted. An “Agency
of the Reich for milk products, oils, and fats” was established. Soon, only a stan-
dardized margarine, packed in a simple, brown, unattractive wrapper was permit-
ted to be marketed. As a consequence, 115out of 148 margarine plants were forced
to close.
It was not until 1949 that branded margarine products were again permitted to
be sold. However, at about the same time, the oil milling industry was financially
hard hit because it was forced to sell to the agriculture sector meal at 50% of the
world market prices. A fat-tax was again considered in 1950. It was prevented by
protests from labor unions and social associations. Instead of the fat-tax, vegetable
oils and fats were subsidized through the end of the Korean War.
In later years, the fat-tax was considered several times, mainly during the times
when there was an excess of butter, the so-called butter mountain, in the European
Community. The fat-tax was consistently prevented. The primary reasons for the
failureof the fat-tax included strong protests from consumergroups who feared high-
er prices. Another reason for the failure of the fat-tax w
a
s intervention by the U.S.
(different reason than before), who did not want to see its export of soy products
diminish because of the enormous rise in U.S. soybean production. At that time, the
American soy farmers were feeling the effects of poor prices for their crop. Finally,
this would have been the first tax that the EC could have inflicted, and increased
independently from the individual governments. The EC certainly needed the rev-
enues because subsidies of other agricultural products amounted to several hundred
per cent (i.e., in 1977,220% for butter and 107%for olive oil).

The prices for fats and oils in Germany (as in other European countries with
hard currency) in terms of constant money have developed differently from those
in the U.S. Two opposing influences are operating here, i.e., the substantially lower
inflation rate in Germany compared with that of the U.S. (over a period of 30 years
from 1965 to 1995, only -56% of the U.S. rate) and the depreciation of the US. $
with respect to the German mark (from 1965 to 1990, -45%). The effect is clearly
visible in Figure 1.21. Presenting the price for soy on the world market in U.S. S as
well as in German marks, according to the respective exchange rate and with an
adjustment for inflation, one can see that soybean oil in Germany in terms of con-
stant money costs only -30% of the amount in 1965 (U.S.: 36%; Fig, 1.21).This is
reflected in the consumer prices for oils and products consisting mainly of oils and
illustrates some of the problems of the fats and oil industry as a whole.
After the reduction of the butter-mountain, which had temporarily reached
>1.4 million ton, by means of regulative measures by the EC (quotas for milk), a
certain pressure to intervene for regulating purposes has subsided. The next deci-
sive step will be the integration of the different forms of agricultural producers in
the new and old federal states of Germany into an all-German system. In the new
states, a potential for the production of oilseeds is building up; in relation to the
population, it is larger than that in pre-unification Germany. The European Union
will be faced with the same problem when considering the membership of Eastern
European countries such as Poland.
Figures 1.22 and 1.23 reflect the situation in the German oil milling industry,
which crushes about two thirds of the oil consumed. The development of the
amounts of oil produced per variety reflects the European Union’s move towards
rape and sunflower, and the crushings demonstrate the dominance of these two
Fig. 1.21. Price of soybean oil in current U.S. $, and current and constant DM.

I.o
0.8-
E
r 0.6
-
.-
0
3 Oa4
0.2
0
I
0 Palm kernel oil
/ / I
T Peanutoil coconut
I+ oil
Rapeseed oil
Soybean oil
Sunflower seed oil
I910 1925 1940 1956 1970 1985
Fig. 1.22. Oil producedin German oil mills.
oilseeds over soybeans. Although more southern countries such as France are
crushing relatively more domestically grown sunflower seed, this picture can be
regarded as typical for Western Europe.
In spite of the difficulties with eamings and profits and the strong competition
from abroad, the quantities processed increased until 1980 and have since remained
6
5
€ 4
f
i 2
.
P
e
a
I
0
r-
1910 1925 1940 1956 1970 1985
Fig. 1.23. Seed processed in German oil mills.
seeds (total)
Meals (total)
Soybeans
Rapeseed
Soy meal
Oil (total)

relatively stable.This is partly a result of the trend to move the mills closer to the large
sea harbors, such as Rotterdam in The Netherlands. The quantity of extracted oil has
increased because the oil content of rapeseed is higher than that of soybeans. In the
processing of soft seeds (rape/sunflower), the Central European mills will thus have
greater chances of competitionthan in crushing soybeans.
1.3.2 Oil Politics in the European Community
At the time when the guidelines of the EC-agricultural policy, which also encom-
passes the production of oil, were laid down, the degree of self-supply for veg-
etable oils (except olive oil, which is regulated separately) was ~ 1 0 %
and that of
vegetable proteins 4%.
In the course of the past years, this figure has risen to
>50% for vegetable oils (Fig. 1.24). Certain types (rapeseed, sunflower seed) are
even exported (Friedeberg 1989). The production is subsidized and protected by
duties; in 1962, the EC committed itself in the Dillon-round of the GATT-treaty to
not raise the duties on oilseeds, oils, and meals. The subsidies rose from -0.1 bil-
lion ECU in 1977 to -3 billion ECU per year in 1988 and have remained on this
level.
Subsidies were granted without limits on volumes and represented the differ-
ence between a representative price on the world market and a desired price (both
fixed by the EC-commission for one year). The subsidies are paid via the oil mills.
As mentioned above, there are no limits on the acreage and the quantity produced
and thus no limits on the total amount of subsidies for an individual producer or,
equally,the EC. By changing the targeted price, an incentive to produce oil fruit w
a
s
Fig. 1.24. Productionof soybeans, rapeseed, and sunflower seed in the European Union.

TABLE 1.4
FattyAcid Compositionof Fat in Human AdiposeTissuea and Differencein the
Compositionof Serum Lipid Extract of Vegetarians and Nonvegetariansb
Vegetarians Nonvegetarians
Fatty acid in fat of
adipose tissue (%) in serum lipids 1982 1986 1982 1986
Fatty acid (YO)
Palmitic 25 Palmitic 20.1 20.7 21.1 22.5
Palmitoleic 7 Palmitoleic 3.O 3.4 3.4 3.7
Stearic 6 Stearic 6.3 6.6 6.4 6.3
Oleic 45 Oleic 19.2 19.1 22.3 22.4
Linoleic 8 Linoleic 36.5 34.5 30.9 28.4
- Linolenic 1.5 1.1 1.1 0.9
- Arachidonic 5.9 5.6 6.3 5.8
All others 9 All others 7.5 9.0 8.5 10.0
aSource: Ceigy.
bSource: Melchert(1988).
created that led to the explosionof quantitiesas illustratedabove.Friedebergassumed
two motives by the EC-commission for this policy. On the one hand, there was the
uneasiness in being dependent on others (low degree of self-supply),supportedby a
very brief embargo on soybeansby the U.S. in 1973;on theother hand, there was the
attempt to reduce the weight of the subsidies on grains, which oppressed the
Community’s budget. By means of this policy, the support for the production of
oilseeds became the third highest item in the EC’s agriculturalexpenses. The m
a
w
-
tude of the subsidiesunduly burdens both the budget and the relationshipsto nations
TABLE 1.5
CholesterolContent of Food
Food Cholesterol (ppm) Reference
Vegetable oildfats <50 %her 1987
Fish oils 5000-8000 Tucker 1993
Lard 980 Seher 1987
Milk 120 Taufel 1993
Milk powder 960 Taufel 1993
Butter 2800 Taufel 1993
Milk fat -3400 Taufel 1993
Pork (lean, U.S., UK) >59C-670 Larnbert 1993
Pork (+ fat, U.S., UK) >650-710 Larnbert 1993
Beef (lean, U.S., UK) >650-710 Lambert 1993
Beef (+ fat, US., UK) 720 Lambert 1993
Calf‘s liver 4900 Seher 1987
Finfish, low fat 470-570 Childs 1993
Finfish, high fat 590-790 Childs 1993
Shellfish, crustaceans 860-1 200 Childs 1993
E
!
% 410 Taufel 1993
Egg yo1k 16,000-1 7,500 Stadelman 1993

with large agricultural exports. In 1988, the U.S. issued a fonnal complaint for the
first time concerningthe violation of GAIT.
As a mechanism of stabilization, the commission proposed a fat-tax, which
created quite a stir internationally and provoked the U.S. to threaten counteraction.
After great protests by most trading partners as well as by many organizations
within the EC, the plans were suspended for the time being. Subsequently, the EC
searched for alternative solutions and found a system of “stabilizers,” the elucida-
tion of which would be beyond the scope of this book. It is doubtful that this sys-
tem will lead to the desired outcome.
It is also uncertain how these regulations can be made compatible with Article
110 of the EC-treaty, which states that the aim of the EC’s trade policy is to con-
tribute to the general well being through the following: a harmonic development of
world commerce, the progressive lifting of barriers in international trade and the
reduction of customs barriers.
It is certain that the problems cannot easily be solved, but do seriously threaten
the budget. In particular, it is difficiult to make compatible the aims of the EC’s
agricultural policy according to Article 39; these include a sufficient income for
the farmer, stable (internal) markets, reasonable consumer prices, increased pro-
ductivity, and a secure supply.
1.4 Fat in Nutrition
As previously mentioned, fat serves mankind as an energy supply, a reserve of
energy, makes possible the intake of vital fat-soluble substances and supplies the
body with essential fatty acids.
The fat content of the human body is 16%in the embryo, with an adult body con-
sisting of approximately the same percentage; deviations range from 8 to 50% (Friis-
Hansen 1965).Fat is stored mainly subcutaneouslyand in t
h
emuscular tissue, as well
as in deposits surrounding the inner organs such as the heart, kidneys, and intestines.
In addition to its function as a quickly activated energy source,the subcutaneously
deposited fat also serves as an insulating layer against hypothenria; the fat tissue sur-
rounding the inner organs serves as a protective pad against physical injuries.
The body can synthesize fat in part from carbohydrates, but to a large extent it
is conveyed with food. The amount of fat in the diet cannot be precisely defined
because of the influence of general living conditions (Gottenbos 1985 and 1988).
Certain fat components, the essential fatty acids, are vital and must be supplied
from outside. They are essential components of the cell membrane structure. Their
metabolism is well known (Table 1.6;see Numa 1984,for example) leading to pre-
cursors of so-called eicosanoids that influence the behavior of the cell and are
important for activities such as proper cholesterol transport.
Fat conveyed with food passes through the stomach, is emulsified in the intes-
tine by gall bladder secretions and is then hydrolized by lipases (pancrease), which
are the enzymes of the intestine and the pancreas. The lipases present in the stom-

TABLE 1.6
Metabolism of Essential Fatty Acids
Enzyme working Effect
Linoleic acid
(18:2w6)
A6-Desaturase .1 -2 H
y-Linolenic acid
GLA (18:3w6)
Dihomo-y-linolenic acid
DGLA (20:3w6)
Arachidonic acid
AA (20:4w6)
Adrenic acid
ADA (22:4w6)
Docosaheptaenoic acid
DPA (22:5@6)
Elongase 1 +2c
As-Desaturase -1 -2 H
Elongase I +2c
A4-Desaturase I -2 H
a-Linolenic acid
ALA (18:3w3)
1
Stearidonic acid
(18:403)
Eicosatetraenoic acid
(20:4w3)
I
Eicosapentaenoic acid
EPA (20:5w3)
Docosaheptaenoic
acid DPA (22:5w3j
Docosahexaenoic acid
DHA (22:6w3j
1
1
1
ach separate fat that is hulled in protein from its protein hull. Hydrolysis is contin-
ued in the duodenum to yield ~ 1 0 %
of triglycerides and diglycerides as well as
40-50% of monoglycerides, 40-50% of free fatty acids and glycerol. In the first
100 cm of the small intestine, the oily solution of triglycerides and phospholipids
(chylomikrons) with a droplet diameter of 0.5 pm exists alongside the microchy-
lons (0.05 pm), which consist of mono- and diglycerides and salts of gall acids.
These are further broken down into the micellar fraction consisting of monoglyc-
erides, fatty acids and gall acids. The particle size has then reached -0.005 pm,
which is sufficiently small to pass through the intestinal wall. Passage is possible
for particles smaller than 0.01 pm (Ludwig 1968). The fat is reconstituted after its
components have passed through the intestinal wall (Langdon and Phillips 1961).
Short-chain fatty acids can pass through the intestinal wall more easily; however,
this is not of importance for healthy people (cf. also Chapter 8.8). The fat enters
the body via the lymphatic system, and any unneeded surplus is stored in fat
deposits; the remainder is conveyed to the liver metabolism. Fats with melting
points 4 0 ° C are virtually completely digestible. For additional information on the
metabolism see, for example, Welch (1993).
For the nutrition physiology of fats, unsaturated fatty acids are especially impor-
tant (Hunter 1989).They consist of three families and are characterized by the posi-
tion of the first double bond of the fatty acid chain, counted from the methyl group.
An n-x fatty acid has its first double bond between the xth and x + 1 C-atom of the
chain counted f
r
o
m the end. The next double bond is usually situated three C-atoms
further along the chain. Representativesof the threemain groups are as follows:

Importanceo
f Fats 31
n-3 linolenic acid (also 0-3)
n-6 linoleic acid (also 0-6)
n-9 oleic acid, erucic acid (also 0-9)
The hydrolysis of fats is performed by the same enzyme irrespective of the
fatty acids. Among unsaturated fatty acids, the enzyme has its highest activity for
n-3 fatty acids.
In the reesterification after passing through the intestinal wall, the composition
of the triglycerides in relation to fat taken in with the food is changed because fats
stored in different regions of the body exhibit typical fatty acids patterns. Their
composition is relatively constant but can be changed by very unbalanced nutrition
or high doses of fat. Human adipose tissue is composed essentially of only five
fatty acids (Table 1.4). A considerable portion of linoleic acid must be accumulat-
ed in the body because linoleic acid, as an essential fatty acid, cannot be synthe-
sized. The difference becomes visible when comparing the relative fatty acid compo-
sition of fat in vegetarians with that in nonvegetarians (Table 1.4).Mammals have the
ability to convert saturated fatty acids, but only into those that are monounsaturated,
with the location of the double bond only at C-9 (Thiele 1982).This chain can be pro-
longed toward the carboxyl-end, but not toward the methyl-end. Thus, the synthesis of
linoleic acid is not possible in animal organisms (cf Chapter 2.1).
In addition to linoleic acid, arachidonic acid (formerly called vitamin F; Aaes-
Jorgensen 1961) is also regarded as an essential fatty acid. For about 60 years, it has
been known that these two fatty acids are vital (Burr and Burr 1929); for example,
they comprise the initial stages of prostaglandins (Bergstrom and Samuelson 1965).
Prostaglandins were discovered in sperm by von Euler in 1934, but they are present
throughout the body. They are the building blocks of hormones and possess their own
physiologic activity as well (hypotensive activity, stimulation of the sleek muscles,
regulation of the release of fatty acid from fats).
Moreover, essential fatty acids are necessary for growth, contribute substantially
to the building of cell walls, and form a structurally essential component of phospho-
lipids. They occur mainly in the brain and nerves and participate in many metabolic
processes including those of mitochondria. If the supply of essential fatty acids is
insufficient,other nonessential ones are built into cell walls, leading to disorders.
Among others, Hansen et al. (1958), Thomasson (1953), Holman (1961),
Holman et al. (1964), Aaes-Jorgensen (1966) and Vles and Gottenbos (1989) report-
ed such deficiency symptoms. A deficit of essential fatty acids can result, for exam-
ple, in reduced growth, lowered prostagladin synthesis and skin damage. The symp
toms disappear or come to a halt when n-6 essential fatty acids are supplied. The
amount of essential fatty acids (e.g., linoleic or arachidonic acid) that should be pre-
sent in the diet were previously stated to be at least 2% of the entire calorie supply
(Holman 1961), which corresponds to an intake of -2.4 g of linoleic acid4187 kJ
(lo00 kcal). The recommendations were developed further, and in more recent rec-
ommendations by the FAO/WHO (1977), 3% (corresponding to 3.6 g/4187 kJ or
loo0 kcal) is stated as the desirable quantity. This percentage should be increased to

during pregnancy and to 5 7 % in the lactation period. According to Adam et
a
!
. (1958), infants should receive twice that amount. Wolfram (1987) surveyed the
metabolic effects of a diet rich in linoleic acid.
Another important positive quality of essential fatty acids that is the subject of
a growing number of studiesis their lipid-lowering quality as well as their ability to
exercise a favorable influence on an excessive cholesterol level in the blood. This
has a special significancefor health issues because both an increased lipid level and
an increased cholesterol level are considered to be risk factors for heart attacks.
Cardiovascular diseases are the number one causes of death in industrial nations
throughout the world. The lowering of lipid levels as a precautionary measure has
been known for more than 30 years (Ahrens 1957 and 1959, Groen et al. 1952,
Kinsella et al. 1952); although it is undisputed among experts, it is repeatedly
attacked by lobbies. Mertz (1983) conducted a survey of the current state of knowl-
edge. These findingson the connection between cholesterollevels and cardiovascu-
lar diseases were supported by the awarding of the Nobel Prize for medicine in
1985to Brown and Goldstein,who were pioneers in the studieson this subject.
Arteriosclerosis, caused by cholesterol esters and elevated cholesterol level,
has clearly been identified as one of the key risk factors for heart disease (LRC-
CPT 1984,Schlierf 1986).Today, a distinction is made between LDL (low-density
lipoprotein), commonly labeled “bad cholesterol,” and HDL (high-densitylipopro-
tein), which is considered “good cholesterol.” HDL is responsible for transporting
surplus cholesterol from the body to the liver. Thus it represents a means of trans-
portation. A high level of LDL is directly related to heart disorders. A survey of
the influence of nutrition was given by Schettler (1984). The lowering of the cho-
lesterol level is due to the direct supply of linoleic acid and to its relative quantity
in the fat. Stamler (1966) showed that when raising the intake of polyunsaturated
fatty acids from 9 to 15%, the amount of cholesterol in the blood serum decreases
by only 1.2 mg/mL. When the supply of saturatedfatty acids is reduced from 16 to
9%, which indirectly results in a relative increase in polyunsaturated fatty acids,
the amountof cholesterolin the blood serum drops by 1.9mg/mL.
The fundamental factor is not the amountper se of polyunsaturated fatty acids,
but the proportion between them and the saturatedfatty acids. This proportion is also
called the P/S ratio (P = polyunsaturated fatty acids, S = saturated fatty acids).
According to Mertz (1983),the P/S factor in the food of the German population was
0.39.This is far below the desirableratio of 1:1(P/S = 1).As a consequence(e.g.,for
diet margarine), the legislature will probably abandon the exclusive specification of
the content of linoleic acid in the declaration of diet products and require in the
future that the portion of saturatedfatty acids or the P/S quotient be stated.
It is doubtful that reaching the positive effects of a higher P/Sratio as stated
abovethrough increasingthe supply of linoleicacid to the diet will be achieved,espe-
cially consideringthe rivalry between margarine and butter. This is mainly a problem
of agriculturalpolitics (cf.Chapter 1.3) and not one of health politics. The fact that it
is not the‘origin of the fat (vegetableor animal), but rather the P/Sratio that is crucial

is often neglected. The P/S ratio of butter is 0.05; that of vegetable coconut fat only
0.02.However, in spite of its vegetable origin, the latter is not considered suitable as
an exclusive fat for healthy nutrition. The quantities consumed are low because it is
not a basic food but one found only in specialty products. Sunflower oil, on the con-
trary, is especially suitable (P/S = 5.82;Wirths 1981).Its P/S ratio is so high that the
sunflower oil can compensate for higher saturated fatty acid intake in the normal fat
supply. More recent analyses led to the recommendation to adjust the proportions of
polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids and saturated fatty acids
(PUFAIMUFAISAFA)to 1:l:l (MI3 1984).These findings do not call into question
prevailing nutrition recommendationsregarding linoleic acid as an essential fatty acid.
Findings in this area have not changed.However, a stronger positive (lowering) influ-
ence of the monounsaturated acids (i.e., predominantly oleic acid) on the cholesterol
level than estimated has been found. Oils rich in oleic acid (e.g., rapeseed oil, olive
oil) can thus be suitable for a cholesterol-reducing diet as well as those with a high
PUFA content (e.g., sunflower oil; see, for example, Laasko et al. 1989).However,
because the invisible fats are rich in saturated fatty acids, diet margarines should have
a content of saturated fatty acids ~ 2 0 %
in order to reach the targeted proportion.
Altogether, science today is able to correctlypredict the average change of the choles-
terol level in the blood when nutrition is changed.
Findings to date led the U.S. Federal Health Agency (NIH 1984) to recom-
mend that Americans should reduce their present intake of 40% of calories from
fat in their diet to 30%. Moreover, they should limit the intake of saturated fatty
acids to ~ 1 0 %
of the calorie intake and raise that of polyunsaturated fatty acids to
10%of the calorie intake (but not more). The daily intake of cholesterol should be
limited to a maximum of 25&300 mg.
The European Consensus-Conference (1986) adopted the American values in
their recommendations and added maximum values for the therapy of high-risk
persons. (Schwandt 1987).The European Arteriosclerosis Society required further
measures (Assmann and Schettler 1987).
When examining the cholesterol level, it is essential to take into consideration
the intake of the cholesterol itself. An important source is animal products, espe-
cially animal fats, which typically contain substantial amounts of cholesterol
(Table 1.5). According to a general agreement derived from British legislation,
substances with 4 0 ppm are regarded as cholesterol free.
Vegetable oils not only have the advantage of reducing cholesterol levels, but
they also do not add to the intake of cholesterol (Seher 1987).
Thus, with an elevated cholesterol level, nutrition with the correct fat must be
balanced with a suitable nutrition plan. Proposals were made to shift the P/S factor
in the direction of one, but only sick and high-risk people need to take special care.
At present, there are efforts to remove cholesterol from butter to avoid at least one
of its detriments (extraction with supercritical COz,Kankare and Antila 1989).The
findings in the cholesterol debate were surveyed by Goldberg and Schonfeld
(1958),Grundy (1986),and McGandy and Hegsted (1973, among others.

Knowledge about the disadvantages of animal fats has continually led to
attempts to reduce their presence by changes in animal feed (Leaf and Weber
1988). This applies particularly to the feeding of milk cows. It was possible, for
example, to raise the content of n-3 fatty acids in milk fat to 6%by mixing fish oil
(Menhaden oil) into the fodder (Hagemester 1989). The passage of the n-3 fatty
acids from the fodder to the milk fat was between 35 and 40%. In this special
instance, such milk fat is preferred to conventional milk fat from the point of view
of nutrition physiology. However, it is uncertain whether it will provide a reason-
able alternative considering the conversion factor mentioned above.
For about 20 years, nutritionists have concentrated on n-3 fatty acids (a-3
FA), because Bang and Dyersberg (1975) observed that the Greenland Eskimos, in
spite of their extensive consumption of fat, suffered less from heart disease than
the Danes. Their biochemical values were very close to those of a Japanese popula-
tion of fishermen, who also subsisted mainly on marine animals (Yamori et al.
1985). The Eskimo diet (marine oils) is rich in n-3 fatty acids. In marine oils, n-3
fatty acids are almost exclusively long-chain acids.
It is estimated that the required daily quantity of these fatty acids is 0.2%
(Benadt 1988). The daily intake with Western food is -1 g of n-3 fatty acids.
Investigations concerning the advantages and possible disadvantages of these acids
have not yielded any conclusive results to date and are still in progress. However,
studies in Europe indicate (Kromhout et al. 1985, study in Zutphen, The
Netherlands) that there is a connection. There appears to be definitive evidence that
the daily consumption of n-3 fatty acids must exceed an average of 2 g to achieve an
effect (Driss and Darcet 1988);this is equivalent to daily consumption of the relative-
ly high amount of 200 g of fish.Findings are not sufficiently advanced to recommend
the intake in concentrated form, e.g., in capsules, or to incorporate such fatty acids
into fat products. Moreover, the quantity that would then have to be used to ensure the
effect is rather high, although their efficiency is 20 times higher than that of linoleic or
linolenic acid (Singer). It is also questionable whether a continuous nourishment with
foods rich in n-3 fatty acids could be harmful. A survey of the state of the discussion
about fatty acids from fish oils was givenby Harris (1989).
The concern that polyunsaturated fatty acids may be susceptible to oxidative
damage and might develop into carcinogenic substances within the body is repeat-
edly expressed by scientific outsiders, but is unfounded. Dormandy (1983) deter-
mined that in-vivo oxidation of fatty acids does not take place. Within the body, as
in the intact seed, they are protected by the body’s antioxidants.
The consumption of fats oxidized (peroxides) by inappropriate handling is
also not dangerous. Fats containing harmful concentrations of oxidized fatty acids
are not edible as a result of their very bad taste.
The fat supply itself constitutes another problem. Fat consumption in the
industrial nations today satisfies between 35 and 45% of our energy demand, and
in the developing countries between 10 and 20%. The worldwide consumption of
fat during the mid-1970s was 12.5 kg per capita per year. In Germany, for exam-

lrnportance of Fats 35
ple, more than three times that amount of fat was eaten. The level of fat consump-
tion parallels the rise in standard of living. Thus, the consumption of animal and
vegetable fats and oils in the U.S. more than doubled between 1950 and 1985
(Hammond 1988). In contrast with Germany, however, there was a strong shift to
vegetable oil consumption.
This is disquieting in two respects. As a rule, the intensity of physical labor
decreases as the standard of living rises. Recommendations for the daily intake of
calories are as follows:
2000kcal (8370k.l) for light work,
2300 kcal (9620 k.l) for medium work and
3200 kcal (13390 k.l) for hard work.
This would mean that even a constant consumption of fat would be too high,
because surplus energy is conveyed to the body. On the other hand, fat consump-
tion is rising because fat makes food tastier. It is recommended that calorie
demands met by fats in the diet range between 25% and a maximum of 35%.
Adding to this negative trend is the fact that much of the fat in foods is in the
form of hidden fats. Hidden fats are fats contained in other foods and consumed
unconsciously. This applies especially to meat, sausage, and cheese (c$ Table 1.2).
Studies in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1982 showed that >50% of the fats
consumed was in the form of hidden fats.
In addition to the fact that the population is not aware of which foods contain
what quantities of fat, it becomes increasingly more apparent that the predominant
part of hidden fats consists of animal fats with a high proportion of saturated fatty
acids. In this manner, the P/Squotient is lowered (which is negative), and no
essential fatty acids are consumed. When the calorie supply is reduced, which usu-
ally occurs by lowering the amount of visible fats, the negative tendency is further
intensified. Attempts to exchange the saturated fats in foods for highly unsaturated
ones are constantly thwarted by protectionist legislation (c$ Chapter 1.5). Greater
freedom remains unattainable as a result of the harmonization of the respective
laws and regulations within the European Union.
Besides the fat-associated substances, minor components are important as
well. Some of these have negative effects but are found only in the grain; in that
case, they cannot be used as feed for all animals. Experiments have shown that
gossypol from cottonseed causes pathologic changes in the testicles of mammals
that can lead to sterility (Berardi and Goldblatt 1980,Xue 1980). For this reason, it
was tested in China as a contraceptive for males. Its effect is attributed to the gen-
eration of oxygen radicals. Refined cottonseed oil does not contain gossypol, thus
the attention is directed exclusively toward cotton grain.
Fat-soluble vitamins have considerable positive influences. Vitamins A and the
family of carotenes possessing vitamin A activity, as well as vitamins D and E, are
fat-soluble and water-insoluble substances. Consequently, these substances occur
together only with fat, i.e., they can be conveyed to the body only via fat-containing

food (Sebrell and Harris 1954). Vitamin A is necessary for regular growth, normal
eyesight and procreative capacity.Moreover, it plays an importantrole in the stability
of the cell membranes. Vitamin D ensures the correct calcium level in serum and is
necessary for the normal growth of bones. Vitamin E protects vital substancessuch as
unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins A and D, as well as thiol groups in enzymes from
oxidation (c$ Chapter 2.2). In contrast to the essential fatty acids, vitamins occur in
animal and vegetable fats, although vitamin E is present in larger quantities only in
vegetable fats.Thus,with a normal food supply,deficiency is not an issue.
Vitamin E represents one of the essential radical scavengers in lipid mem-
branes (Pryor 1976). It was applied in clinical trials to combat illnesses caused by
oxidation processes. These trials were rather successful (Bieri et al. 1983). A pro-
tective function towards DNA was observed (Beckmann et al. 1982), as was
greater endurance in test animals (Davies et al. 1982). Other experiments suggest
that vitamin E has anticarcinogeniceffects as well (Wang 1982).
p-Carotene also has antioxidanteffects. It intercepts singlet oxygen, which has
a strong mutagenic effect as a result of its high reactivity (Foote 1988, Krinsky and
Deneke 1982). Experiments have also shown a protective function against the
development of cancer (Mathews-Roth 1982, Rettura et al. 1983). A survey of the
multiple fields of applications was made by Ames (1983). It is assumed that fat-
soluble vitamins are helpful against oxidized metabolites of cholesterol that were
observed to contribute to the development of heart disorders (Yagi et al. 1981).
Apart from the anticarcinogenic effect of some of the minor components in fats,
studies reporting a direct correlation between the fat intake and the frequency of
breast and colon cancer continue to appear (Doll and Pet0 1981, Fink and
Kritchevsky 1981, Kinlen 1983, NRC 1982). To date, it has not been possible to
establish a direct connection. However, there seem to be more indications that the
frequency of cancer generally rises with caloric intake. Only in this connection
could fat be a role-playingfactor.
1.5 Fats and Oils in Legislation
The legislation in effect for this branch of industry applies to the products, thereby
directly affecting the consumer and producer. The legislation also applies to the
productionprocess.
1.5.1 Product-RelatedLegislation
Many foods are narrowly defined by laws and regulations concerningtheir compo-
sition, mode of production and qualities. Not everything can (or should), however,
be regulated by laws. In addition to legal directions, certain modes of behavior
(principles of the responsible producer, good manufacturing practice) have
emerged and various codes have been formulated, e.g., the Codex Alimentarius of
the FAO, and the Leitsatze des Deutschen Lebensmittelbuches (Guiding Principles
of the German Food Book) is an example for Europe. These guiding principles are

not legally binding but are consulted to define honest trading practice and are the
foundations of legal decisions in case of controversy. In many cases, they fill the
gaps where neither laws nor special regulations exist or give specifications which
exceed legal limitation or description. In principle, there can be two motivations
for product-relatedlegislation in the domain of food, i.e., the protection of the con-
sumer and citizen and aspects of economic policy. The protection of the consumer
can include matters of health, but also protection from fraud. Aspects of economic
policy might include emergency situations (war/postwar), partial attempts at self-
sufficiency,or the preservation of an agriculturethat is no longer competitiveunder
the conditionsof the world market.
Concerning health risks, the protection of the consumer is always foremost and
falls under the dutiesof the statewithin the obligationof public care. Frequently,how-
ever, the extentand the character of the measuresto be taken areunder discussion.
Fats and oils, as such, fall under the common rules on maximum values of envi-
ronmental pollutants. In contrast, there are very detailed rules for the products
described in Chapter 8 (butter, margarine and mayonnaise). Legislativeinterventions
motivatedby health policy in the field of oils and fats have rarely occurred. An exam-
ple is the regulation regarding the maximum content of erucic acid; however, this has
been rendered superfluousby the cultivation of new types. For ingredients,processing
aids, and additional substances,there are two basic approaches. One is that all sub-
stances that are not deemed harmful can be admitted,and consequently,harmful sub-
stancesare prohibited or restricted in their quantity.The other is that everythrngthat is
not explicitly allowed is prohibited. The EC follows the second principle in many
fields (regulationabout the admission of food additives).This is a policy motivated by
a desire for control rather than one of protection from danger, a fact that becomes
immediatelyobviouswhen questioning why an ingredientis prohibited in one foodbut
allowed in another. With few exceptions, one and the same substance cannot be at
once both harmful and harmless.Trade policy is aimed primarily at the protection of
agriculture.Due to their structure,the European Statesare not ableto offer a
l
lagrarian
productsat world market prices. Thereforea certain protection is advisableto maintain
at leastpartialindependence.It must be considered,however, that excessiveprotection
alsoprevents the seizingof opportunities.
Legislationusually intervenes in times of emergencies.This happens primarily
by means of regulations or guiding principles. Even more so than laws, guiding
principles are a mirror of their times. During World War 11, they gave reliable
information about the supply situation in Germany because regulations were in
each case adapted to it. Thus, accordingto the German guiding principles for may-
onnaise of 1941, salad mayonnaise, for example, had to contain only 20%oil
instead of 50%, and milk and fish protein were allowed as substitutesfor egg yolk.
1.5.2 Production-RelatedLegislation
In the production of oils and fats by means of mechanical or solvent extraction, in
their processing or refining,and in the making of productscontainingfat,the producer

is subject to many general legal regulations concerning emissions or sewage, for
example, but also to severalhighly specializedinjunctions.These directives can differ
widely depending on the location of the business, and even within one country from
community to community. Dealing with these regulations in a detailed way and on a
universallyvalid basis is possible but would exceed the scope of this book.
1.6 Fats as Industrial Raw Materials
A relatively large portion of edible fats and oils is utilized for industrial purposes
(not nutrition). Often batches that do not comply with the strict demands for food-
grade raw materials are used for this purpose. Worldwide, the production of oleo-
chemicals is -9-10 million ton (Seidel 1983), and a wide range of products is pro-
duced (Fig. 1.25). For some oils and fats, the portion not used for nutrition is con-
siderable (Table 1.7).
In 1981, after a continuous rise since the first energy crisis in 1973, the price
of the raw material ethylene had climbed beyond that of soybean, coconut and
palm oils, and tallow (Fig. 1.26). At that time, large chemical companies tried to
secure their position by acquisitions that would provide a position in this raw mate-
rial market. In the meantime, ethylene prices have fallen again.
This interest was also motivated by a desire to remain in the market and exert
influence on the types of new crops cultivated exclusively for the food industry.
Erucic acid is relatively easily modified chemically. With the transition to rape
OillFat
Olymml
Detergents Resins
EmulabIan C e i l U I o ~
produdion
Auxiliary ~ o i n ~ ~
for POlyOlS
mineraloil produdion CosmsUcs
GlymmlEaten
Fattyh i n o s
Adddiws for
coal flotaUon
Anti mnorives
Sufladsntr
Emubifiers
FattyAlcohols FattyAmldes
Esterswith Detergents Animal feed
polyethybnglycd Emutsifien
Fabricdeanen Fire extinguishen Chemicsb fcfthe
Non-ionogenic mineraloil and
emuI8hien rubber industry
soaps
Fig. 1.25. Simplifiedflowchart of oleochemicals production.

TABLE 1.7
Uses of Vegetable Oil for Nonfood Purposesa
Oil type and nonfood usage(YO)
Soybean oil 0.25 Coconutoil 55
Palm oil 10 Castor bean oil 100
Palm kernel oil 10 Linseedoil 100
Rapeseedoil 40 Tung oil 100
Type of usage(% of total nonfood usage)
Fatty acids 36 Paints 3
Animal feed 29 Lubricants 2
Soap 15 Polymers 2
Other 13
aSource:Pryde and Rotfus(1989).
species with low erucic acid content, the chemical industry was robbed of an
important raw material. From then on, the prices for a low tonnage of rape with a
high portion of erucic acid (HEAR) were above those of LEAR oil. Today crambe
oil, which also possesses 55-60% of erucic acid, is considered to be a replacement
for HEAR. Mustard seed oil can also be used. Taken as a whole, the production of
raw materials in fat chemistry has developed from synthetic to natural raw materi-
als, and this trend is continuing (Table 1.8).
70 -
.
0
Fig. 1.26. Price relation between soybean oil and ethylene.

TABLE 1.8
Oleo Chemicals and Their Raw Material Sourcesa
Fatty acids Glycerol Fatty alcohols Fattyarnines
U.S. Europe U.S. Europe U.S. Europe U.S. Europe
Amount lo00 650 160 195 350 210 110 64
(1OOO ton)
YONatural 98 99 57 72 16 37 85 100
YOSynthetic 2 1 43 28 84 63 15 0
dSource:Seidel (1 983).
1.7 Fats and Oils as a Source of Energy
In the course of history, it has been demonstrated repeatedly that fats are suitable
as a source of energy. Rudolf Diesel had already determined that his engines could
run on edible oil. As early as 1900, a Diesel engine powered by peanut oil was
shown at the world’s fair in Paris (Nitske and Wilson 1965). However, the true
potential of renewable raw materials may lie not in the combustion of the oils
known today but in the utilizationof new species.
When we compare the qualities of vegetableoils with Diesel fuel, we notice that
the caloric value is -10% below that of Diesel oil (Table 1.9).Among renewableraw
materials,vegetableoils exhibitthe most favorablerelation between energy yield and
energy investment(Table 1.10).Becausevegetable oils have always been used in part
as a sourceof energy,the idea is not new. However,the demandson the oils for use in
modem engines have changed compared with those for illumination purposes. A
study by Apfelbeck (1988) shows which fuel parameters must be met for today’s
vehicles(Table 1.11).
When comparing the prices for Diesel and soybean oil, we see that for the
time being, there is no point in using edible oils and fats for combustion purposes.
TABLE 1.9
Comparison of Diesel Oil, Rapeseed Oil, Sunflower Oil and Their Methyl Esters
Sunflower Rapeseed
Diesel oil Crude oil Methyl ester Crude oil Methyl ester
Density (dcrn) 0.835 0.925 0.880 0.91-0.92 0.86-0.90
Caloric value (MJ/kg) 4 2 4 6 39.28 40.16 36.7-37.7 37.02-37.20
Viscosity (cP,20°C) 3.9 34.7 4.22 68-97.7 6-9
Cloud point (“C) -0.6 -6.6 0-1 - -
Flash Point (“C) 50-77 215.5 183 317-324 1 1 1-1 75
Ash (Yo) 0.01 0.04 - <0.01-0.5 <0.01-0.05
Sulfur (YO) -0.27 0.12 0.01
Sulfur (rnol%) -0.1 4 - - 0.009-0.01 2 0.002-0.006
Reference Shell Quick 1989 Bundesurnweltamt 1993
- -

importance of Fats 41
TABLE 1.10
Energy Balance from Renewable Source9
Source Energy balance investdyielded Energy yield net ( a h a )
Sunflower oil 2.8 43.3
Ethanolfrom sugar beets 2.5 58.9
Corn 1.3 18.4
Wheat 1.1 5.2
Rapeseedoil 2.7 37.9
a%urce: Pernkopf (1984)
TABLE 1.11
Requirementsfor Fuel Ester9
Freefatty acids
Mono-, diglycerides
Glycerol
Methanol
Water
Metals (each)
<0.2%
<0.1Yo
<o.1Yo
-0.2%
<0.1%
<5 PPm
=%Source:
Apfelbeck (1988)
In this comparison, it has to be considered that in Europe, taxes constitute the
largest portion of the price for vehicle fuels. The U.S.,
with its much lower taxation
rate, thus presents a better opportunity(Fig. 1.27).
Considering the respective quantities, it becomes obvious that vegetable oils
could cover only a small fraction of the demand. Consequently, greater utilization
would lead to a considerable shortage of oils for consumption, and thus to rising
prices.
In spite of these rather poor prospects of finding an economically viable alter-
native to mineral oil fuels in today’s vegetable oils, experiments partially support-
ed by the German Federal Department of Research and Technology are underway
under strictly controlled circumstancesto determine the behavior of Diesel engines
suited for rapeseed oil (Anonymous 1988). Although experts such as the Federal
Agency for the Environment released a study concluding that this route is not
viable, new plants have been built. In Austria, for example, more than 10 plants
had already been erected; only one is currently still operationalat a low level.
Even if a redistribution of the subsidies is effected to support these projects,
they can hardly be successfulgiven the current low price for mineral oil. The fann-
ers’ associations stated that in 1990, 80% of the arable land of the Federal
Republic of Germany would suffice for the production of food. For inactive areas,
subsidies of 700-1440 German marks subsidies per hectare are paid currently.
Cultivated with rape, these areas would suffice to meet 3 4 % of the annual

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