A PrimerRetrieved Oct. 11, 2015 at httpspbs.twimg.docx

A Primer
Retrieved Oct. 11, 2015 at
https://pbs.twimg.com/profile_images/497547880505163776/JP
Bq4RWA.jpeg
If there is danger in the human trajectory, it is not so much in
the survival of our own species as in the fulfillment of the
ultimate irony of organic evolution: that in the instant of
achieving self-understanding through the mind of man, life has
doomed its most beautiful creations.—E. O. Wilson
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Id
eal_projectile_motion_for_different_angles.svg/512px-
Ideal_projectile_motion_for_different_angles.svg.png
Trajectory of a missile?
1834, elected to Illinois legislature
1836, admitted to Bar of Illinois
1842, marries Mary Todd of Kentucky
1845—1865, Lincoln & Herndon
1846, 1 term in U. S. House of Rep’s
1854, helps estab. Illinois Repub. Party
1858, nominated, not elected to U. S. Senate

1860, elected President of United States
1865, Union defeats Confederacy; Lincoln assassinated
…of a career?
https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5520/10270839536_56b1cd27e2.j
pg
3.54 billion in 1968
It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank, clothed with
many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes,
with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling
through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately
constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent
on each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced
by laws acting around us.
Last Paragraph of Darwin’s The Origin of Species
Organic Evolution?
These laws…being Growth with Reproduction; Inheritance…;
Variability…; a Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to a
Struggle for Life, and as a consequence to Natural Selection,
entailing Divergence of Character and the Extinction of less-
improved forms.
Thus, from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most
exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the
production of the higher animals, directly follows…. (F)rom so
simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most
wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Cheetah_
Kruger.jpg
http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnnnext/dam/assets/141022143137-6-
wildlife-photography-awards-horizontal-large-gallery.jpg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Hippo_p
od_edit.jpg
How does Darwin explain extinction?
Life in a Relat

Extinction of Less-Suitable Forms
Retrieved on Feb. 7, 2014 at:
http://bertie.ccsu.edu/naturesci/Evolution/Unit12OriginSpecies/
DarwinTree.gif
How does E. O. Wilson explain extinction?
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Geologic
al_time_spiral.png

Years ago
130,000Anatomically modern humans evolve. Seventy thousand
years later, their descendents create cave paintings — early
expressions of consciousness.4 millionIn Africa, an early
hominid, affectionately named "Lucy" by scientists, lives. The
ice ages begin, and many large mammals go extinct.65 millionA
massive asteroid hits the Yucatan Peninsula, and ammonites and
non-avian dinosaurs go extinct. Birds and mammals are among
the survivors.130 millionAs the continents drift toward their
present positions, the earliest flowers evolve, and dinosaurs
dominate the landscape. In the sea, bony fish diversify.225
millionDinosaurs and mammals evolve. Pangea has begun to
break apart.248 millionOver 90% of marine life and 70% of
terrestrial life go extinct during the Earth's largest mass
extinction. Ammonites are among the survivors.250 millionThe
supercontinent called Pangea forms. Conifer-like forests,
reptiles, and synapsids (the ancestors of mammals) are
common.360 millionFour-limbed vertebrates move onto the land
as seed plants and large forests appear. The Earth's oceans
support vast reef systems.420 millionLand plants evolve,
drastically changing Earth's landscape and creating new
habitats.450 millionArthropods move onto the land. Their
descendants evolve into scorpions, spiders, mites, and
millipedes.500 millionFish-like vertebrates evolve.
Invertebrates, such as trilobites, crinoids, brachiopids, and
cephalopods, are common in the oceans.555 millionMulti-
cellular marine organisms are common. The diverse assortment
of life includes bizarre-looking animals like Wiwaxia.3.5
billionUnicellular life evolves. Photosynthetic bacteria begin to
release oxygen into the atmosphere.3.8 billionReplicating
molecules (the precursors of DNA) form.4.6 billionThe Earth
forms and is bombarded by meteorites and comets.
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evotext_13

270 million years
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Lucy_%
28Frankfurt_am_Main%29.jpg
4 million years
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/S
preading_homo_sapiens_la.svg/851px-
Spreading_homo_sapiens_la.svg.png
What 2 Things are Happening Here?
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ic
e_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-
_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg/1280px-
Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-
_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg
Retrieved on Aug. 29, 2013 at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolly_mammoth

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Lascaux
_II.jpg
Paleolithic – before 10,000 BCE – nomadic hunter-gathers of
the Pleistocene (Ice Age)
Epipaleolithic – Natufian Culture ca. 10,000-8300 BCE –
sedentary hunter-gatherers
Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) – 8300-7500 BCE –
domestication of wheat, barley
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) – 7500-6000 BCE –
domesticated sheep, goats, cattle, pigs
http://teachmiddleeast.lib.uchicago.edu/foundations/origins-of-
civilization/essay/essay-02.html
Marx’s 1st 4 Stages of History
(from Paleolithic Era to the present)
1—Primitive Communism (hunter-gatherers)
2—Slave Societies (Greece, Rome….)
3—Feudal Societies (after collapse of Roman Empire)
4—Capitalism (market economy replaces feudalism)

pg
"The bourgeoisie, during its rule of scarce one hundred years,
has created more massive and more colossal productive forces
than have all preceding generations together. Subjection of
Nature's forces to man, machinery, application of chemistry to
industry and agriculture, steam-navigation, railways, electric
telegraphs, clearing of whole continents for cultivation,
canalization of rivers, whole populations conjured out of the
ground--what earlier century had even a presentiment that such
productive forces slumbered in the lap of social labor?”
Communist Manifesto, pp. 13-14
“instant of …self-understanding…?”
Deep geological time? Hutton, 1788 Extinction? Cuvier, 1796
Greenhouse effect? Fourier, 1824
Anthropogenic greenhouse gases? Langley, 1896
Evolution? Darwin/Wallace, 1859 Ecology? Haeckel, 1901
Pangaea? Wegener, 1912
Anthropogenic global warming? Keeling, 1960
Green revolution? Borlaug, 1960
Population bomb? Paul & Anne Ehrlich, 1968

Keystone species? Paine, 1968
Habitat fragmentation? Lovejoy, 1979?
Five great extinctions? Sepkoski & Rapp, 1982
Ecological cascade effects? Olsen et al, 1991
Planetary boundaries, Rockstrom & Steffen, 2009
Ocean acidification? Lovejoy, 2009?
Anthropocene era? Crutzen, 2016?
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v461/n7263/images/4614
72a-t1.jpg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1c/Europe_land_us
e_map.png
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/China.A
2002007.0310.250m.jpg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/St
riped_Dolphins.jpg/1024px-Striped_Dolphins.jpg

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Wr_HWNy8zbA/UlWsODDeGHI/AAAAAAAAIN0/MmMulaLt
V4s/s1600/Dead-Zone.jpg
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ts_dmsp_1994%E2%80%931995.jpg
pg
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Prologue—how 1 species took over the planet
The anomalous die-off of frogs
History of the idea of extinction
An extinction caused by man’s over-hunting
What wiped out the dinosaurs?
The 6th Extinction: humans as a geological force
When seawater has too much CO2
Chapter Outline

40
7. When coral reefs have too much CO2
8. The fragmentation of natural habitat
9. Trees—from the North Pole to the tropics
10. When natural barriers between species are erased:
what’s happening to the little brown bats?
11. How all the big creatures (after the dinosaurs)
were wiped out.
12. How modern humans killed off their cousins
13. The Frozen Zoo: how many doomed species can
we rescue?
pg
…in the instant of achieving self-understanding through the
mind of man, life has doomed its most beautiful creations(?)
How is Wilson’s thought-experiment a tragic restatement of
Darwin’s theory of evolution?

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Lucy_%
28Frankfurt_am_Main%29.jpg
Invasive Species #1
OM 545: ASSIGNMENT #4:Experimental Design - ANOVA
INSTRUCTIONS: Use MINITAB 17 to complete the following
exercises. You will need to read the data set description using
the HELP command in order to make meaningful
interpretations. Please submit your completed assignment,
showing all relevant MINITAB output and comments, as ONE
WORD document by the due date. This assignment is worth a
total of 40 points.
[10 pts]
1.
Use the data file RADON.MTW. Determine if Type of Device
affects Radiation
Reading. Interpret your results (include an interpretation of the
confidence intervals).
[10 pts]
2.
Use the data file POTATO.MTW to determine the effects of
Bacteria and Temperature
on Rot. Interpret your results.
[10 pts]
3.
Use the data file ALFALFA.MTW to test whether Variety
affects Yield.

Interpret your results (include an interpretation of the
confidence intervals).
[10 pts]
4.
Use the data file PANCAKE.MTW. Determine if Supplement
and Whey affect Quality.
Interpret your results.
Genesis Chapter 1
1 In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.
2 And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was
upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon
the face of the waters.
3 And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.
4 And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the
light from the darkness.
5 And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called
Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day.
6 And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the
waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters.
7 And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which
were under the firmament from the waters which were above the
firmament: and it was so.
8 And God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and
the morning were the second day.
9 And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered
together unto one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was
so.
10 And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering
together of the waters called he Seas: and God saw that it was

good.
11 And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb
yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind,
whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so.
12 And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed
after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in
itself, after his kind: and God saw that it was good.
13 And the evening and the morning were the third day.
14 And God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of the
heaven to divide the day from the night; and let them be for
signs, and for seasons, and for days, and years:
15 And let them be for lights in the firmament of the heaven to
give light upon the earth: and it was so.
16 And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the
day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars
also.
17 And God set them in the firmament of the heaven to give
light upon the earth,
18 And to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide the
light from the darkness: and God saw that it was good.
19 And the evening and the morning were the fourth day.
20 And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly the
moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the
earth in the open firmament of heaven.
21 And God created great whales, and every living creature that
moveth, which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their
kind, and every winged fowl after his kind: and God saw that it
was good.
22 And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and multiply, and
fill the waters in the seas, and let fowl multiply in the earth.
23 And the evening and the morning were the fifth day.
24 And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature
after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth
after his kind: and it was so.
25 And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and
cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the

earth after his kind: and God saw that it was good.
26 And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our
likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea,
and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the
earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the
earth.
27 So God created man in his own image, in the image of God
created he him; male and female created he them.
28 And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful,
and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have
dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air,
and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.
29 And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing
seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in
the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be
for meat.
30 And to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the air,
and to every thing that creepeth upon the earth, wherein there is
life, I have given every green herb for meat: and it was so.
31 And God saw every thing that he had made, and, behold, it
was very good. And the evening and the morning were the sixth
day.
Genesis Chapter 2
1 Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host
of them.
2 And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had
made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which
he had made.
3 And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because
that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and
made.
4 These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth
when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made the
earth and the heavens,

5 And every plant of the field before it was in the earth, and
every herb of the field before it grew: for the LORD God had
not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was not a man to
till the ground.
6 But there went up a mist from the earth, and watered the
whole face of the ground.
7 And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and
breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a
living soul.
8 And the LORD God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and
there he put the man whom he had formed.
9 And out of the ground made the LORD God to grow every tree
that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life
also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of
good and evil.
10 And a river went out of Eden to water the garden; and from
thence it was parted, and became into four heads.
11 The name of the first is Pison: that is it which compasseth
the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold;
12 And the gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the
onyx stone.
13 And the name of the second river is Gihon: the same is it
that compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia.
14 And the name of the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which
goeth toward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is
Euphrates.
15 And the LORD God took the man, and put him into the
garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it.
16 And the LORD God commanded the man, saying, Of every
tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat:
17 But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt
not eat of it: for in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt
surely die.
18 And the LORD God said, It is not good that the man should
be alone; I will make him an help meet for him.
19 And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of

the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto
Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam
called every living creature, that was the name thereof.
20 And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the
air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not
found an help meet for him.
21 And the LORD God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam,
and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh
instead thereof;
22 And the rib, which the LORD God had taken from man, made
he a woman, and brought her unto the man.
23 And Adam said, This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of
my flesh: she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out
of Man.
24 Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and
shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh.
25 And they were both naked, the man and his wife, and were
not ashamed.
Genesis Chapter 3
1 Now the serpent was more subtil than any beast of the field
which the LORD God had made. And he said unto the woman,
Yea, hath God said, Ye shall not eat of every tree of the garden?
2 And the woman said unto the serpent, We may eat of the fruit
of the trees of the garden:
3 But of the fruit of the tree which is in the midst of the garden,
God hath said, Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it,
lest ye die.
4 And the serpent said unto the woman, Ye shall not surely die:
5 For God doth know that in the day ye eat thereof, then your
eyes shall be opened, and ye shall be as gods, knowing good and
evil.
6 And when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and
that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a tree to be desired to make
one wise, she took of the fruit thereof, and did eat, and gave

also unto her husband with her; and he did eat.
7 And the eyes of them both were opened, and they knew that
they were naked; and they sewed fig leaves together, and made
themselves aprons.
8 And they heard the voice of the LORD God walking in the
garden in the cool of the day: and Adam and his wife hid
themselves from the presence of the LORD God amongst the
trees of the garden.
9 And the LORD God called unto Adam, and said unto him,
Where art thou?
10 And he said, I heard thy voice in the garden, and I was
afraid, because I was naked; and I hid myself.
11 And he said, Who told thee that thou wast naked? Hast thou
eaten of the tree, whereof I commanded thee that thou shouldest
not eat?
12 And the man said, The woman whom thou gavest to be with
me, she gave me of the tree, and I did eat.
13 And the LORD God said unto the woman, What is this that
thou hast done? And the woman said, The serpent beguiled me,
and I did eat.
14 And the LORD God said unto the serpent, Because thou hast
done this, thou art cursed above all cattle, and above every
beast of the field; upon thy belly shalt thou go, and dust shalt
thou eat all the days of thy life:
15 And I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and
between thy seed and her seed; it shall bruise thy head, and thou
shalt bruise his heel.
16 Unto the woman he said, I will greatly multiply thy sorrow
and thy conception; in sorrow thou shalt bring forth children;
and thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over
thee.
17 And unto Adam he said, Because thou hast hearkened unto
the voice of thy wife, and hast eaten of the tree, of which I
commanded thee, saying, Thou shalt not eat of it: cursed is the
ground for thy sake; in sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of
thy life;

18 Thorns also and thistles shall it bring forth to thee; and thou
shalt eat the herb of the field;
19 In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou return
unto the ground; for out of it wast thou taken: for dust thou art,
and unto dust shalt thou return.
20 And Adam called his wife's name Eve; because she was the
mother of all living.
21 Unto Adam also and to his wife did the LORD God make
coats of skins, and clothed them.
22 And the LORD God said, Behold, the man is become as one
of us, to know good and evil: and now, lest he put forth his
hand, and take also of the tree of life, and eat, and live for ever:
23 Therefore the LORD God sent him forth from the garden of
Eden, to till the ground from whence he was taken.
24 So he drove out the man; and he placed at the east of the
garden of Eden Cherubims, and a flaming sword which turned
every way, to keep the way of the tree of life.
Retrieved August 17, 2015 at
http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Genesis-Chapter-1/

64 SIDEREUS NUN C IUS
We have briefly explained our observations thu s far about the
Moon, the fixed stars, and the Milky Way. It remains for us to
reveal and make known what appears to be most important in
the
present matter: four planets never seen from the beginning of
the
world right up to our day, the occasion of their discovery and
observation, their positions, and the observations made over the
past 2 months 73 concerning their behavior and changes. And I
call
on all astronomers to devote themselves to investigating and de-
termining their periods . Because of the shortness of time, it has
not
been possible for us to achieve this so far. 74 We advise them
again,
however, that they will need a very accurate glass like the one
we
have described at the beginning of this account, lest they
undertake
such an investigation in vain. 75
Accordingly, on the seventh day of January of the present year
1610, 76 at the first hour of the ni ght , when I inspected the
celestial
constellations through a spyglass, Jupiter presented himself.
And
since I had prepared for myself a superlative instrument, I saw
(which earlier had not happened because of th e weakness of the
other instruments) n that three little stars were positioned near
him-
small but yet very bri ght. Although I believed them to be
among
the numb er of fixed stars, they nevertheless intrigued me
because

they appeared to be arranged exactly along a straight line and
par-
allel to th e ecliptic, and to be brighter than others of equal size.
And their disposition among th emselves and with respect to
Jupiter
was as follows: 78
73. 7 J an u ary to 2 M a rch 1610.
74. In 1612 Ga lileo published periods for all four satellites.
They were virtua lly
th e same as the modern values. See Disco urse on Bodies in
Water, tr. Thomas Salusbury,
ed. Stillman Drake (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 196o),
1.
75. Especially in th e case of the satellites of Jupiter, it was
necessa r y to h ave a tel-
escope that magnified fifteen times or more and was especia ll y
adapted for celestial
use .
76. All dates us ed b y Gali leo are Gre go rian .
77 . See pp . 13-14, above .
78. Satellites I and II were very close toget her, just ;o the eas t
of Jupiter. Gal il eo
saw them as o ne. See J ean M ee us, "Ga lil eo's First Reco rds
of Jupiter 's Satellites,"
Sky and Telescop e 24 ( 1962): 137-39 .
SIDEREUS NUN C I US 65
East * * 0 * West
That is, two stars were near him on the east and one on the

west;
the m ore eastern one and the western one appeared a bit larger
than
the remaining one. I was not in the least concerned with their
distan ces from Jupiter, for, as we said above, at first I believed
them
to be fi xed stars. But when, on the eighth, I returned to the
same
observation, guided by I know not what fate, 79 I found a very
different arrangement. For all three little stars were to the west
of
Jupiter and closer to each other than the previous night, and
sep-
arated by equal intervals , as shown in the adjoining sketch. 80
Even
thou gh at this point I had by no means turned my thought to the
mutual motions of these stars, yet I was aroused by the question
East 0 * * * West
of how Jupiter could be to the east of all the said fixed stars
when
the day before he had been to the west of two of them . I was
afraid,
therefore, that perhaps , contrary to the astronomical
computations,
his m otion was direct and that, by his proper motion , he had
bypassed those stars. 8 1 For this reason I waited eagerly for the
next
night . But I was disappointed in my hope , for the sky was
every-
where covered with clouds .
Then, on the tenth, the stars appeared in this position with
regard
to Jupiter. Only two stars were near him, both to the east. The

East * * 0 West
79. See pp . 12-13 , above.
80. On this night, satellite IV was at its farthest distan ce from
Jupiter to the east,
and it escaped Galileo because of th e smalln ess of th e field of
view of his s pyglass.
See Meeus , "Galileo's First Records."
81. See pp . 15-16, above.
66 SIDEREUS NUNCIUS
third, as I thought, was hidden behind Jupiter. 82 As before,
they
were in the same straight line with Jupiter and exac tl y ali gned
along
the zodiac. When I saw this, and since I knew th at such
changes
could in no way be assigned to Jupiter, and since I knew,
moreover,
that the observed stars were always the same ones ( for no
others,
either preceding or following Jupiter, were present alon g the
zodiac
for a great distance), now, moving from doubt to astonishment,
I
found that the observed change was not in Jupiter but in the said
stars. And therefore I decided that henceforth they should be
ob-
served more accurately and diligently.
And so, on the eleventh, I saw the following arrangement:

East
* * 0 West
There were only two stars on the east, 83 of which the middle
one
was three times as far from Jupiter than from the more eastern
one,
and the more eastern one was about twice as large as the other,
although the previous night they had appeared about equal. I
there-
fore arrived at the conclusion, entirely beyond doubt, that in the
heavens there are three stars wandering around Jupiter like
Venus
and Mercury around the Sun. This was at length seen clear as
day
in many subsequent observations, and also that there are not
only
three, but four wandering stars making their revolutions about
Jupiter. The following is an account of the changes in their
positions,
accurately determined from then on. I also measured the
distances
between them with the glass, by the procedure explained above.
84
I have added the times of the observations, especially when
more
than one were made on the same night, for the revolutions of
these
82 . On this night, Satellite I was so close to Jupiter on the west
that it was lost
in the planet's g lare. Satellites II and Ill were very close to
each ot her and Galileo
saw them as one, just to the eas t of the planet . See Mceus,
"Galil eo's First Records."

83. Satellites I and II had just ended their tran si ts in front of
the plan et and were
sti ll too close to be discerned by Galileo. See ibid.
84. See pp . 38-39.
SIDEREUS NUNCIUS 67
planets are so swift that the hourly differences can often be
perceived
as well.
Thus, on the twelfth, at the first hour of the following night, I
saw the stars arranged in this manner. The more eastern star was
East ~ *o * West
larger than the western one, but both were very conspicuous and
bright. 85 Both were two minutes"'· distant from Jupiter. In the
third
hour a third little star, not at all seen earlier, also began to
appear.
This almost touched Jupiter on the eastern side and was very
small.
All were in the same straight line and aligned along the ecliptic.
On the thirteenth, for the first time four littl e stars were seen
by me in this formation with respect to Jupiter. "7 Three were
on
East 'll£: Oil'*'* West
th e west and one on the east. They formed a very nearly
straight
line, but the middle star of the western ones was displaced a
little
to the north from the straight line . The more eastern one was 2

minutes distant from Jupiter; the intervals between the
remaining
ones and Jupiter were only I minute. All these stars displayed
the
85. Note that Galileo initially saw only two of the sa tellites, Ill
on the east and
II on th e west. Satellites I and IV were both on the eas t and
rather close to Jupiter.
Apparently Galileo cou ld not see either one until satellite I
moved farther away from
the planet. See M eeus, "Galileo's First Record s."
86. Galileo took Jupite r 's angular diameter to be about I
arcminute, and he used
this measure to estimate the distances of the satellites. In his
drawings and in Sidereus
Nunciu s, howev er, he showed the planet's disk as being about
twice as large while
keeping the distances of th e satellites the same. The drawings
are thus out of pro-
portion . See Stillman Drake, Telescopes, Tides, and Tactics
(Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 19 83), 214-19.
87. It was thus on this day that Galileo recognized that there
were four moons.
During the previous observations he had been prevented by
various ci rcum s tances
from seeing all four moons at once.
68 SIDEREUS NUNCIUS
same size, and although small they were nevertheless very

brilliant
and much brighter than fixed stars of the same size.
On the fourteenth, the weather was cloudy.
On the fifteenth, in the third hour of the night, the four stars
were positioned with respect to Jupiter as shown in the next
figure.
East 0 i< # * * West
They were all to the west and arranged very nearly in a straight
line, except that the third one from Jupiter was raised a little bit
to
the north . The closest one to Jupiter was the smallest of all,
and
the rest consequently appeared larger. The intervals between
Jupiter
and the next three stars were all equal and of 2 minutes; and the
most eastern one was 4 minutes from the closest one to it. They
were very brilliant and did not twinkle, as indeed was always
the
case, both before and afterward. But in the seventh hour only
three
stars were present in this arrangement with Jupiter. They were
East 0 ... * * West
indeed precisely"" in the same straight line . The closest one to
Jupiter
was very small and removed from him by 3 minutes; the second
was r minute distant from this one; and the third from the
second
4 minutes and 30 seconds. After another hour, however, the two
little stars in the middle were still closer to each other, for they
were removed from each other by barely 30 seconds.
On the sixteenth, in the first hour of the night, we saw three

stars arranged in this order. Two flanked Jupiter, 40 seconds re-
East *O * * West
moved from him on either side, and the third was 8 minutes
from
Jupiter in the west. The one closer to Jupiter appeared not larger
but brighter than the farther one.
88 . I hav e tran slated th e Latin ad ung uem as precisely throu
g hout thi s section .
SIDE RE USN U NCI US 69
On the seventeenth , 30 minutes after sunset, the configuration
was thus . There was only one star on the east, 3 minutes from
East * 0
jj
West
J upiter. Likewise, one was IT minutes from Jupiter to the west.
The eastern one appeared twice as large as the western one.
There
were no more than these two . But after 4 hours, that is, around
the fifth hour of the night, on the eastern side a third began to
emerge, which, I suspect, had earlier been united with the first
one.
The formation was thus. The middle star, extremely close to the
East *i11 0 # West
eastern one, was only 20 seconds from it, and it was displaced a
little bit to the south of the line drawn through the outermost
stars
and Jupiter.

On the eighteenth, 20 minutes after sunset, the appearance was
East * 0 *
West
thus. The eastern star was larger than the western one and 8
minutes
distant from Jupiter, while the western one was ro minutes from
J upiter.
On the nineteenth, at the second hour of the night, the formation
was like this. There were three stars exactly on a straight line
East
" * 0 * * West
through Jupiter, one to the east, 6 minutes distant; between
Jupiter
and the first western one was an interval of 5 minutes, while
this
star was 4 minutes from the more western one. At this time I
was
uncertain whether between the eastern star and Jupiter there was
a
little star, very close to Jupiter, so that it almost touched him.
And
at the fifth hour, I clearly saw this little star now occupying a
place
70 SIDEREUS NU NCI US
precisely in the middle between Jupiter and the eastern star, so
that
the formation was as follows:

East * • 0 * * West
Further, the newly perceived star was very sma ll ; yet by the
sixth
hour it was almost equal in magnitude to the others.
On the twentieth, at I hour, 15 minutes, a similar configuration
appeared. There were three little stars so small that they could
East 4 0 .. If. West
hardly be perceived . They were not more than I minute from
Jupiter and each other. I was uncertain whether on the west
there
were two or three little stars. Around the sixth hour they were
arranged in thi s manner:
East If. 0"'"' West
The eastern one was twice as far from Jupiter as before, that is ,
2
minutes; the middle one to the west was 40 seconds from Jupiter
but 20 seco nds from the western one . At length, in the seventh
hour, three little stars were seen to the west; the nearest was 20
seconds from him; between this one and the westernmost one
there
East • 0"'•"' West
was an interval of 40 seconds; and between these another was
seen,
displaced a little to the south and not more than IO seconds
from
the westernmost one.
On the twenty-first, at 30 minutes, there were three little stars
to the east, equally spaced from each other and Jupiter.
East ~ll«o ~ West

SIDEREUS NUNCIUS 71
The intervals were estimated to be 50 seconds. There was also a
star to the west, 4 minutes from Jupiter. The closest one to
Jupiter
to the east was the smallest of all. The rest were somewhat
larger
and equal to each other.
On the twenty-second, at the second hour, the configuration
was similar. The distance from the eastern one to Jupiter was 5
minutes; the distance from Jupiter to the westernmost one was 7
East * 0 *~ *
West
minutes ; the two western stars in the middle were 40 seconds
from
each other while the nearer one was I minute from Jupiter. The
little stars in th e middle were smaller than the outermost ones,
but
they were on the same straight lin e extended along the length
of
the zodiac except that of the three western ones the middle one
was
displaced a bit to the south. But at the sixth hour of the night
they
appeared in this arrangement. The eastern one was very small
and,
as before, 5 minutes distant from Jupiter; the three western
East IC 0 * * * West
ones were separated equally from Jupiter and each other, and
the

spaces were nearly I minute, 20 seconds each; and the star
closer
to Jupiter than the other two appeared smaller; and they all
appeared
to lie exactly on the same straight lin e.
On the twenty-third, 40 minutes after sunset, the configuration
of stars was about like this:
East * * 0 *
West
There were three stars in a straight line with Jupiter along the
length
of the zodiac, as they have always been ; two were to the east
and
one to the west. The easternmost one was 7 minutes from the
next
one, this one 2 minutes, 40 seconds from Jupiter, and Jupiter 3
minutes , 20 seconds from the western one; and they were all
about
72 SIDEREUS NUNCIUS
equal in magnitude. But at the fifth hour the two stars which
earlier
were closest to Jupiter were no longer visible, hiding behind
Jupiter
in my opinion; and the appearance was as follows:
East * 0 West
On the twenty-fourth, three stars appeared, all to the east, and

nearly in the same straight line with Jupiter, for the middle one
East * ** 0
West
deviated slightly to the south. The star closest to Jupiter was 2
minutes from him, the next one 30 seconds from this one, and
the
easternmost one 9 minutes from that one; and all were very
bright.
But at the sixth hour only two stars presented themselves in this
arrangement,
East [*] * 0 West
that is, precisely on a straight line with Jupiter. The nearer one
was
removed from Jupiter by 3 minutes while the other one was 8
minutes from this one. If I am not mistaken, the two middle
little
stars observed earlier had united into one.
On the twenty-fifth, at I hour, 40 minutes, the formation was
thus:
East * * 0
West
There were only two stars to the east, and those fairly large.
The
easternmost was 5 minutes from the middle one, and the middle
one 6 minutes from Jupiter.
On the twenty-sixth, at o hours, 40 minutes, the formation of
stars was like this. For three stars were observed, of which two

East
* * 0 *
West
SIDEREUS NUNCIUS 73
were to the east and one to the west. This last one was 5
minutes
from him, while the middle one in the east was 5 minutes, 20
seconds from him. The easternmost was 6 minutes from the
middle
one. They were on the same straight line and of the same magni-
tude. Then at the fifth hour the arrangement was nearly the
same,
differing only in this, that near Jupiter a fourth star had
emerged
East * *
~o * West
on the east, smaller than the rest, at that time 30 seconds
removed
from Jupiter but elevated a little to the north above the straight
line, as shown in the adjoining figure.
On the twenty-seventh, at I hour after sunset, only a single star
was perceived, and that one to the east, in this arrangement:
East • 0 West
It was very small and 7 minutes removed from Jupiter.
On the twenty-eighth and twenty-ninth, nothing could be ob-
served because of interposed clouds .

On the thirtieth, at the first hour of the night, the stars were
observed arranged in this order. One was to the east, 2 minutes ,
East * 0 * ,. West
30 seconds from Jupiter, and two were to the west, of which the
one closest to Jupiter was 3 minutes from him and the other 1
minute from this one. The outermost stars and Jupiter were ar-
ranged in a straight line, and the middle star was elevated a
little
to the north. The westernmost star was smaller than the others.
On the last day [of January], at the second hour, two stars ap-
peared to the east and one to the west. The middle of the eastern
East ** 0 *
West
74
SIDEREUS NUNCIUS
ones was 2 minutes, 20 seconds from Jupiter, the easternmost
one
30 seconds from the middle one. The western star was IO
minutes
from Jupiter. They were nearly in the same straight line, only
the
eastern one, closest to Jupiter, was a little bit elevated to the
north .
But at the fourth hour the two to the east were still closer to
each
East ** 0 ~ West
other, for they were only 20 seconds apart. In these

observations
the western star appeared very small.
On the first day of February, at the second hour of the night,
the formation was similar. The eastern star was 6 minutes from
East * ~JO *
West
Jupiter and the western one 8. To the east a very small star was
20
seconds distant from Jupiter. They traced out a precisely
straight
line .
On the second, the stars appeared in this order. A single star to
the east was 6 minutes from Jupiter; Jupiter was 4 minutes
distant
East * 0 * * West
from the nearer one to the west; and between this one and the
westernmost star there was an interval of 8 minutes. They were
precisely in a straight line and of nearly the same magnitude .
But
at the seventh hour there were four stars, among which Jupiter
East )jC' *o * * West
occupied the middle position . Of these stars the easternmost
one
was 4 minutes from the next, this one r minute , 40 seconds
from
Jupiter, Jupiter 6 minutes from the western one closest to him,
and
this one 8 minutes from the westernmost one. They were all to-
gether on the same straight line extended along the line of the

zodiac.
SIDEREUS NUNCIUS 75
On the third, at the seventh hour, the stars were arranged in this
sequence. The eastern one was I minute, 30 seconds from
Jupiter;
the closest western one 2 minutes; and the other western one
was
East * 0 * * West
10 minutes removed from this one. They were abso lutel y on
the
same straight line and of equal magnitude .
On the fourth, at the second hour, there were four stars around
Jupiter, two to the east and two to the west, and arranged
precisely
East * ~o * * West
on a straight line, as in the adjoining figure . The easternmost
was
distant 3 minutes from the next one, while this one was 40
seconds
from Jupiter; Jupiter was 4 minutes from the nearest western
one,
and this one 6 minutes from the westernmost one. Their
magnitudes
were nearly equal; the one closest to Jupiter appeared a little
smaller
than the rest . But at the seventh hour the eastern stars were
only
30 seconds apart. Jupiter was 2 minutes from the nearer eastern
East ** 0 * * West
one, while he was 4 minutes from the next western one, and this

one was 3 minutes from the westernmost one. They were all
equal
and extended on the same straight line along the ecliptic.
On the fifth, the sky was cloudy.
On the sixth, on ly two stars appeared flanking Jupiter, as is
seen
East * 0 *
West
in the adjoining figure. The eastern one was 2 minutes and the
western one 3 minutes from Jupiter. They were on the same
straight
line with Jupiter and equal in magnitude .
On the seventh, two stars stood near Jupiter, both to the east,
arranged in this manner.
76
SIDEREUS NUN CIUS
East **O West
The intervals between them and with Jupiter were equal , that
is,
1 minute , and a straight line ran through them and the center of
Jupiter.
On the eighth, at the first hour, three stars were present, all to
the east, as in the figure . The small star closest to Jupiter was 1
East "* *o

West
minute, 20 seconds distant from him; the middle star was 4
minutes
from this one and rather large; and the very small easternmost
star
was 20 seconds from that one. I was of two minds whether the
one closest to Jupiter was only one, or two little stars, for it
seemed
now and then that there was another star near it, toward the
east,
extremely small, and separated from it by only IO seconds.
They
were all extended on the same straight line along the zodiac.
But
at the third hour the star closest to Jupiter nearly touched him .
It
was only 10 seconds from him , while the others had moved
farther
from Jupiter, for the middle one was 6 minutes away from
Jupiter.
Finally, at the fourth hour, the one that before was closest to
Jupiter,
united with him, was seen no longer.
On the ninth, at 30 minutes, two stars were near Jupiter to the
east and one to the west, in this formation. The easternmost
star,
East • * 0 •
West
which was rather small, was 4 minutes from the next one; the
larger
middle star was 7 minutes distant from Jupiter; Jupiter was 4

min-
utes removed from the western star, which was small.
On the tenth, at 1 hour, 30 minutes, two very small stars, both
to the east, appeared in this arrangement. The farther one was
IO
East ¥ ·O West
SIDEREUS NUNCIUS 77
minutes from Jupiter and the nearer one 20 seconds. They were
on
the same straight line. But in the fourth hour the star close to
Jupiter
did not appear any longer and the other appeared so diminished
that it could hardly be perceived, although the air was very
clear,
and it was farther from Jupiter than it had been before, since it
was
now 12 minutes distant.
On the eleventh, at the first hour, two stars were present to the
east and one to the west. The western one was 4 minutes from
East * * 0 *
West
Jupiter; the nearer one to the east was likewise 4 minutes away
from
Jupiter, while the easternmost star was 8 minutes from this one.
They were moderately conspicuous and on the same straight line
.
But at the third hour a fourth star appeared close to Jupiter to
the

east, smaller than the other ones, separated from Jupiter by 30
East * * •O *
West
seconds and slightly displaced to the north from the straight line
drawn through the rest of the stars. They were all most brilliant
and very conspicuous . But at the fifth hour plus a half the star
closest to Jupiter to the east, already more remote from him, had
attained a position in the middle between him and the more
eastern
star close to itself. And they were all precisely on the same
straight
line and of the same magnitude, as can be seen in the adjoining
figure.
East * * * 0 *
West
On the twelfth, at 40 minutes, two stars were present to the east
and likewise two to the west. The farther one to the east was IO
East * "0*': *
West
78 SIDEREUS NUNCIUS
minutes from Jupiter while the more remote star to the west was
8 minutes away. They were both rather conspicuous. The other
two stars were very close to Jupiter and very small, especially
the
eastern one, which was 40 seconds distant from Jupiter, while
the

western one was I minute away. But at the fourth hour the little
star that was close to Jupiter to the east no longer appeared.
On the thirteenth, at 30 minutes, two stars appeared to the east
and two also to the west. The eastern star closer to Jupiter,
fairly
East * * 0 [*]* West
conspicuous, was 2 minutes from him, and the more eastern one,
appearing smaller, was 4 minutes removed from this one . The
western star farther from Jupiter, exceedingly conspicuous, was
separated from him by 4 minutes. Between it and Jupiter fell a
small
starlet closer to the westernmost star, since it was not more than
30 seconds from it. They were all precisely on the same straight
line along the length of the ecliptic.
On the fifteenth ( for on the fourteenth the sky was covered by
clouds), at the first hour, the position of the stars was as
follows.
East *H o West
That is, there were three stars to the east, but none were seen to
the west. The star to the east closest to Jupiter was 50 seconds
from
him , the next one was 20 seconds from this one, and the
easternmost
star 2 minutes from this one. And it was larger than the others,
for th e two nearer ones were exceedingly small. But at about
the
fifth hour, of the stars close to Jupiter only one was seen, 30
seconds
East * ~o
West

distant from Jupiter. The elongation of the more eastern one
from
Jupiter was increased for it was then 4 minutes. But at the sixth
hour, in addition to the two positioned to the east, as was stated
a
SIDEREUS NUNCIUS 79
East * ·O * West
moment ago, one little star, exceedingly small, was seen toward
the west, 2 minutes removed from Jupiter.
On the sixteenth, at the sixth hour, they were in the following
arrangement. That is, one star was 7 minutes away from Jupiter
to
the east, Jupiter 5 minutes from the next star to the west, and
this
East * 0 * *
West
one 3 minutes from the remaining western one. They were all of
about the same magnitude, fairly conspicuous, and exactly on
the
same straight line drawn along the zodiac.
On the seventeenth, at the first hour, two stars were present,
one to the east 3 minutes from Jupiter and another to the west,
East * 0 *
West
distant IO minutes. This star was somewhat smaller than the
eastern
one. But at the sixth hour the eastern one was closer to Jupiter
and

was only 50 seconds distant from him. The western star was
farther,
that is, 12 minutes . In both observations they were on the same
straight line, and both were rather small, especially the one to
the
east in the second observation.
On the eighteenth, at the first hour, three stars were present, of
which two were to the west and one to the east. The eastern star
East * 0 * *
West
was 3 minutes from Jupiter, the closest one to the west 2
minutes,
and the remaining more westerly star was 8 minutes from the
middle one. All were precisely on the same straight line and of
nearly the same magnitude. But at the second hour the stars
closer
to Jupiter were removed from Jupiter by equal spaces, for the
west-
ern one [of these] was now also 3 minutes away from him . But
at
Bo SIDEREUS NUNCIUS
the sixth hour a fourth star appeared between the eastern one
and
Jupiter in the following configuration. The easternmost star was
3
minutes from the next one, this star I minute, 50 seconds from
Jupiter, Jupiter 3 minutes from the next western star, and this
one

East * *o * * West
7 minutes from th e westernmost star. They were nearly equal,
only
the eas tern one close to Jupiter was a bit smaller, and they were
all
on the same strai g ht line parallel to th e ecliptic.
On the nineteenth, at 40 minutes, only two stars, rather large,
East 0 * * West
were seen to the west of Jupiter and precisely arrayed with
Jupiter
on th e sa m e straight lin e drawn along the ecliptic. The nearer
star
was 7 minutes from Jupiter and 6 minutes from the westernmost
star.
On the twentieth, the sky was cloudy.
On the twenty-first, at r hour, 30 minutes, three little stars,
rather sma ll, were observed in thi s arrangement. The eastern
star
East '!I< 0 "'* "' West
was 2 minutes from Jupiter, Jupiter 3 minutes from the next
western
one, and this star 7 minutes from the westernmost one. They
were
precisely in the same straight line, parallel to the ecliptic.
On the twenty-fifth, at I hour, 30 minutes ( for during the three
precedin g nights the sky was covered by clouds), three stars
ap-
East ... ... 0 * West

peared , two to the east, whose distances between themselves
and
from Jupiter were eq ual at 4 minutes . To the west one star was
2
minutes from Jupiter. They were precisely on the same straight
lin e
extending along the ecliptic.
SIDEREUS NUNCIUS 81
On the twenty-sixth , at 30 minutes, only two stars were
present.
One was to the east ro minutes from Jupiter, and the other was
to
East -lit 0 * West
the west 6 minutes distant . The eastern star was somewhat
smaller
than the western one. But at the fifth hour three stars appeared.
Besides th e two already noted, a third was perceived close to
Jupiter,
East :JI o~ * West
to the west and very small, which earlier had been hidden
behind
Jupiter, and it was r minute from him . The eastern star
appeared
farther than before, being Ir minutes from Jupiter. On this night
I decided for the first time to observe the progress of Jupiter
and
his adjacent planets along the length of the zodiac by reference
to
some fixed star, for a fixed star was observed to the east, r I
minutes
from the easternmost planet and displaced somewhat to the
south

in the following manner: s9
East 11: o~ * West
*fin
On the twenty-seventh , at r hour, 4 minutes, 90 the stars
appeared
in this configuration. The easternmost star was IO minutes from
Jupiter, the next star, close to Jupiter, 30 seconds; the next one,
to
East * ~JO **
West
* fixa
89. This is a seventh-m agnitude s tar, just below th e ecliptic,
at R.A. 5 hours, 4
minutes and decl. + 22° .4, in th e con stellati on Taurus.
90. Galileo clearly meant "40 minutes," but this is not a
printer's error: the
manu sc ript also has "4 minutes " (Opere, 3:44) .
82 SIDEREUS NUNCIUS
the west , was 2 minutes, 30 seconds from Jupiter, and the west-
ernmost star was r minute distant from this one. The stars nearer
Jupiter appeared small, especially the eastern one, but the
outermost
stars were very conspicuous, especially the western one. And
they
formed a straight line exactly drawn along the ecliptic. The

progress
of these planets tow ard the east was clearly discerned through a
comparison with the aforesaid fixed star, for Jupiter with his at-
tendant planets was closer to it, as can be seen in the adjoining
figure. But at the fifth hour the eastern star near Jupiter was r
minute away from him.
On the twenty-eighth , at th e first hour, only two stars were
seen, an eas tern one 9 minutes , and a western one 2 minutes
from
Jupiter. They were fairly conspicuous and on the same straig ht
line.
This line was perpendicularly intersec ted by a line from the
fixed
star to the eastern planet, as shown in the figure .
East * 0 * West
*fixa
But at the fifth hour a third littl e star was perceived to the east
2
minutes distant from Jupiter in thi s arrangement.
East * * 0 * West
On the first of March , at 40 minutes , four stars were perceived
,
all to th e eas t. The neares t star to Jupiter was 2 minutes from
him,
the next star r minute from this one, and the third 20 seconds,
and
East • **~ 0 West
* fiXl

SIDEREUS NUNCIUS 83
it was brighter than the rest . The fourth star was 4 minutes
from
this one, and it was smaller than the rest . They formed nearly a
straight line excep t that the third star from Jupiter was elevated
a
little . The fixed star formed an equilateral triangle with Jupiter
and
the easternmost star, as shown in the figure .
On the second, at 40 minutes, three planets were present, two
to the east and one to the west, in this configuration.
East *· 0 *
West
*fixa
The easternmost planet was 7 minutes from Jupiter, while this
one
was 30 seconds from the next planet . The western planet was 2
minutes removed from Jupiter. And the outermost planets were
brighter and larger than the other one, which appeared very
small.
The easternmost planet appeared somewhat elevated toward the
north above the straight line drawn through Jupiter and the
other
ones . The fixed star already noted was 8 minutes distant from
the
western planet along the line drawn to that planet perpendicular
to
the straight line extended through all the planets, as the figure
shows.

I decided to add these comparisons of Jupiter and his adjacent
planets with the fixed star so that from them anyone could see
that
the progress of these planets, in lon gitude as well as latitude,
agrees
exactly with the motions that are derived from the tables. 91
These are the observations of the four Medicean planets
recently,
and for the first time, discovered by me. From them, although it
91. Jupiter h ad passed its station at th e end of J anuary and
was slowly moving
from west to east. Its daily motion in lo n g itude was abo ut 4
arcminutes at th e e nd
of February. See Bryant Tuckerman , Planetary, Lunar and Solar
Positio'ls A.D. 2 to
A .D . 1649 at Five-Day and Ten-Day Int ervals, Am e rican
Philosophical Societ y, Mem-
oirs 59 ( 1964): 823.
84 SIDEREUS NUNCIUS
is not yet possible to calculate their periods , something worthy
of
noti ce may at least be said. And first, since they sometimes
follow
and at other times precede Jupiter by similar intervals, and are
removed from him toward the east as well as the west by only
very narrow limits , and accompany him equally in retrograde
and
direct motion, no one can doubt that they complete their revolu-

tion s about him while, in the meantime, all together they
complete
a 12-yea r period about the center of the world . Moreover, they
whirl around in unequal circles, which is clearly deduced from
the
fact that at the greatest separations from Jupiter two planets
could
neve r be seen united while, on the other hand , near Jupiter two
,
three, an d occasionally all four pl anets are found crowded
together
at th e same time. It is further seen that the revolutions of the
planets
describing smaller circles around Jupiter are faster. 92 For the
stars
closer to Jupiter are often seen to the eas t when the previous
day
they appeared to th e west, and vice versa, while from a careful
examination of its previously accurately noted returns , the
planet
traversing the largest orb appears to have a semimonthly period.
93
We have moreover an excellent and splendid argument for
taking
away th e scruples of those who, while tolerating with
equanimity
the revo lution of th e planets around the Sun in the Copernican
system, are so disturbed by the attendance of one Moon around
the Earth while the two together complete the annual orb around
the Sun that they conclude that this constitution of the universe
must be overthrown as impossible. 94 For here we have only
one
planet revolving around another while both run through a great
circle aro und the Sun : but our vision offers us four stars
wandering

around Jupiter like the Moon around the Earth while all together
with Jupiter traverse a great circle around the Sun in the space
of
92. Kepler 's third law, relating th e mean radi i of th e orbi ts
of the planets to th eir
periods , was not published until 1619.
93. The actu al period is abo ut 16 days, 18 hours .
94. This was one of th e a rg uments aga inst th e Co pernican h
ypo th es is. If the
Earth is a planet , w h y sho uld it be the on ly plane t to h ave a
moon? Alternatively,
how co uld there be tw o centers of rotation in the universe?
SIDEREUS NUN CIUS 85
12 years. 95 Finally, we must not neglect th e reason why it
happens
that the Medicean stars, while completing their very small revo-
lutions around Jupiter, are themselves now and th en seen twice
as
large . We can in no way seek the cause in terrestrial vapors, for
the
stars appear larger and smaller when th e sizes of Jupiter and
nearby
fixed stars are seen completely unchanged . It seems
inconceivable,
moreover, that they approach and recede from the Earth by such
a degree around the perigees and apogees% of their orbits as to
cause
such large changes. For smaller circular motions can in no way
be
responsible , while an oval motion (which in this case would
have

to be almost straight) appears to be both inconceivable and by
no
account harmonious with the appearances. 97 I gladly offer
what
occurs to me in this matter and submit it to the judgment and
censure of right-thinking men. It is well known that because of
the
interposition of terrestrial vapors the Sun and Moon appear
larger
but the fixed stars and planets smaller. For this reason, near the
horizon the luminaries appear larger98 but the stars [ and
planets]
smaller and generally inconspicuous , and they are diminished
even
more if the same vapors are perfused by light. For that reason
the
stars [ and planets] appear very small by day and during
twilight,
but not the Moon, as we have already stated above. 99 From
what
we have said above as well as from thos e things that will be di
scuss ed
95. This passage in its e ntiret y remov es an impo rt ant objec ti
o n aga inst the
Copernican th eo r y, fo r Jupit er 's moons demonstrate that ou
r M oon can revo lv e
around a moving Earth. It h as been su ggested, howeve r, that it
is an arg um en t
against the geo-he li oce ntri c syste m ofTycho Brahe . See
Wade L. Robison , "Galileo
on the M oon s of Jupiter," Annals of Science 3 1 (1974): 165-
69.
96. Apogee an d pe ri gee are the points at which a heave nl y

body is fa rth es t from,
and closest to, th e Earth, an·d Ga lileo is usin g th e term s here
in their litera l meanings.
97. Alth oug h th e or bits of Jupite r 's satellites are v irtuall y
circles, technically they
are ellipses. E lli p tica l as tron omy was introduced by J o h
annes Kepler in his Asrronomia
Nova of 1609.
98. In fact, atmospheric refra ction makes th e ve rti ca l diam e
ter of th ese bodies
smaller than th e horizontal diameter. The lar ge sizes of the
Moon and Su n when
close to th e h o ri zo n are op ti ca l illu sio ns.
99. See pp . 57-58.
86 SIDEREUS NUNCJUS
more amply in our system, it is moreover certain that not only
the
Earth but also the Moon has its surrounding vaporous orb.
100
And
we can accordingly make the same judgment about the
remaining
planets, so that it does not appear inconceivable to put around
Jupiter an orb denser than the rest of the ether around which the

Medicean planets are led like the Moon around the sphere of the
elements. And at apogee, by the interposition of this orb, they
are
smaller, but when at perigee, because of the absence or
attenuation
of this orb, they appear larger. 101 Lack of time prevents me
from
proceeding further. The fair reader may expect more about these
matters soon .
100. See note 43 , above .
1 o I. The variations in brightness reported by Galileo cannot be
accounted for by the
varying brightness of individual satellites. Since in Galileo's
reports satellites were seen dim
only when they were close to Jupiter, this effect must be asc
ribed to a combination of the
glare of the planet and the poor resolution of Galileo's telescope
.
CONCLUSION: THE RECEPTION OF
SIDEREUS NUNCIUS
Sidereus Nuncius made Galileo into an international celebrity
almost
overnight. Although news did not travel instantaneously in the
seventeenth century as it does today, it traveled surprisingly
fast
throu gh diplomatic and commercial channels. From Venice it
took
less than 2 weeks for letters to reach southern Germany, and
about
a month to reach distant England . And some of the letters

trans-
mitted through these channels in the spring of 1610 contained
mentions of the astounding discoveries made by the
mathematics
professor at the University of Padua . Quickly, therefore,
Galileo's
name was on the lips of learned men all over Europe. The exact
nature of the discoveries, however, was usually not known until
copies of the book itself arrived in the wake of the rumors . At
that point, scholars could read for themselves the claims made
by
Galileo and the process of evaluation could beg in . But few sci-
entists had access to spyglasses other than the ordinary low-
pow ered ones, and even the best instruments could not initially
compete for quality with those made by Galileo . High-quality
glass was difficult to obtain, 1 while the spectacle-making craft
was
too tradition-bound to respond quickly to the demand for lenses
outside the normal range of strengths. 2 Before scientists could
verify or disprove the discoveries they h ad to procure
appropriate
instruments, and this took time. Not before the autumn of 1610
was independent verification, in Italy and abroad, forthcoming.
1. Olaf Pedersen , "Sagredo's Optical Researches," Centaurus 13
(1968): 139-50;
Silvio Bedini, "The M akers of Ga lileo's Scientific Inst rument
s," in A tti de/ sirnposio
interna ziona le di storia, metodologia, logica e jilosojia de/la
scienza "Ga lileo nella storia e
nella ji losojia de/la scien za," 4 vols. ( Florence: G. Barbera,
1967), 2 (part 5): 89- 11 5.
2 . A . 0 . Pri ckard , "The 'Mundus J ov ialis' of Simon M
arius," Obse rva tory 39
(1916): 370-71; Giro la m o Sirturi, Telescopiurn: Sive ars

perficiendi (Frankfu rt, 1618),
22-30 .
87
Genesis, 1-3
Without blaming serpent, Eve or Adam, what do you think is the
crime which gets Adam and Eve thrown out of the garden? To
say it another way, what is this knowledge which God wants to
keep human beings from having?
Eusa Story (Blackboard)
What is Eusa’s crime?
In what way does his story retell the shut-down of the Garden of
Eden?
Galileo (Blackboard and Copernicus film:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zHUWP9zu4W8)
On the night of January 7, 1610, Galileo has a new “superlative
instrument.” He writes, “When I inspected the celestial
constellations through a spyglass, Jupiter presented himself.”
p. 64—What does Galileo see when he looks up at Jupiter?
p. 65—Why does he decide, on January 8, to look at Jupiter
again?
p. 65--What does he see, on that second night (January 8) when
he looks at Jupiter again?
pp. 65-85—Between January 8 and March 1, 1610, what does
Galileo do every night that the weather is clear?
p. 85—What does Galileo know for certain by March 1, 1610?
(film) Briefly describe Galileo’s scientific achievement
(film) Briefly describe Galileo’s trial for heresy

(film) Briefly describe the advance of science since Galileo’s
day
GALILEO’S OBSERVATIONS OF THE MOON
1—1610: What was happening in your home country at this
time?
2—Is Galileo the 1st to create a telescope?
3—With his own self-made telescope, how close is he able to
make the moon appear?
4—How far is the moon, actually, from the Earth? How many
“terrestrial diameters?”
5—On the 4th or 5th day after “conjunction,” the moon appears
to have horns. Explain. See page 40.
6—On Earth, when the sun rises and its light catches the peak
of a mountain, what light reaches the valleys on either side of
the mountain?
7—How well-lit are the valleys when the sun rises high in the
sky?
8—If the surface of the moon is covered with mountains, why
does the moon appear to be almost perfectly round? See page
49.
9—Galileo believes that the moon, like the Earth, has an
atmosphere. Is he right? See pages 50—51.
10—Even when the moon is dark, it isn’t perfectly dark. It’s as
if some faint light is shining on it. Where does this light come
from? See pages 53—56.
11—Based on your general knowledge, in what way or ways can
you imagine that Galileo’s observations may get him in trouble
with the Catholic Church?
The 6th Extinction ppt slides
#6 Describe the trajectory of human population from 4000 BC
to 2100 AD (projected)
#9 How does Darwin explain extinction?
#15 How does E. O. Wilson explain extinction?

#19-20 How long have there been human beings? How long
have there been ginkgo trees?
#21 What is the relationship between megafauna extinctions
around the world and the spread of human beings?
#28 Karl Marx almost seems to admire the “subjection of
Nature’s forces to man” which has happened during the brief
“rule” of the bourgeoisie. Explain.
The 6th Extinction (text)
Chapter 1—Why are the golden frogs dying? What change in
the world is causing the frogs to die?
Chapter 2—pp. 27-28 What does Jefferson write about “the
economy of nature,” and what does he expect Lewis & Clark to
find on their expedition to the West?
p. 29 How does Cuvier arrive at the conclusion that the bones
of a mastodon belong to an “espece perdue (lost species)?”
p. 44 “The thread of operations is broken,” Cuvier writes.
Explain.
Chapter 3 pp. 48-52 Lyell, like Darwin, is a “uniformitarian.”
Explain.
p. 69 How does Darwin explain extinction?
Chapter 4 pp 74-78 in 1977, Walter Avarez sends soil samples
to a colleague, Frank Asaro. In 1980, Walter Alvarez and his
father, Luis Alvarez, publish a paper, “Extraterrestrial Cause for
the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction.” What is their theory?
What is their evidence ?
p. 91 Paul Taylor says about the death of the ammonites that, in
certain moments, “the rules of the survival game” abruptly
change. How is this a restatement of Cuvier’s idea that “the
thread of operations is broken?” How does this theory put a
major dent in Darwin’s theory of how extinctions take place?
Chapter 5 pp. 107-108 Paul Crutzen argues that the Earth is
now in a new phase of extinction which he calls the
Anthropocene. Name 5 geologic-scale processes which people
are now causing.
Chapter 6 p. 113 How much CO2 will there be in the air by
2050? What global warming effects can be expected?

pp. 113-114 How much of this CO2 finds its way into the
world’s oceans? How much more acidic will the oceans be than
they were at the start of the Industrial Revolution?
pp. 116-117 How do the underwater CO2 vents along the sides
of the Italian island, Castello Aragonese, offer scientists an
“underwater time machine?”
pp. 121-124 How does ocean acidification increase “the cost of
calcification?”
Chapter 7 pp. 128-130 How do coral reefs get built? How do
they change the world?
pp. 136-137 With ocean acidification, what will happen to the
world’s coral reefs? What will happen to their “tenants?”
Chapter 8 pp. 151-153 Imagine walking from the North Pole to
the equator. To what degree are there more species in the
tropics than anywhere else? Describe 3 theories to explain this
difference.
p. 161 According to Darwin, how do species respond to
temperature change?
p. 167 Describe 2 different predictions for the % of species
loss by 2050, based on temperature change alone.
Chapter 9 p. 176 How much ice-free “wildlands” exist today?
p. 177 what is a “fishbone” pattern of deforestation?
p. 186 As a result of tropical deforestation, how many insect
species are being lost every year?
p. 189 Describe the “dark synergy” between fragmentation and
global warming.
Chapter 10 p. 197 What is meant by word, “Pangaea?”
pp. 204-205 just as golden frogs and other amphibians are
being wiped out by chytrid fungus, little brown bats are being
wiped out by white nose syndrome. How are human beings to
blame?
pp. 205-208 What is an “introduced species?” How can it be
argued that human beings are causing a “New Pangaea?”
Chapter 11 p. 221 Human beings “have brought (the Sumatran
rhinoceros) so low that it seems only heroic human efforts can
save it.” Explain.

p. 226 “What happened to all these Brobdingnagian animals?
Cuvier, who was the first to note their disappearance, believed
they had been done in by the most recent catastrophe: ‘a
revolution on the surface of the earth’ that took place just
before the start of recorded history.” Explain.
p. 234 It appears that the Anthropocene era does not begin with
the Industrial Revolution, but with the dispersal of human
beings around the earth. Comment.
Chapter 12 pp.246-247 Neanderthals are gone, but something
like 4% of our genes today are, in fact, Neanderthal genes.
Explain.
p. 249 Human children do not seem to be brighter than ape
children except in one regard. What is it?
Chapter 13 p. 260 What is the Frozen Zoo?

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