Disparities in Overweight and ObesityAmong US College Studen.docx

Disparities in Overweight and Obesity
Among US College Students
Toben F. Nelson, ScD; Steven L. Gortmaker, PhD; S.V.
Subramanian, PhD
Lilian Cheung, ScD; Henry Wechsler, PhD
Objectives: To examine social dis-
parities and behavioral correlates
of overweight and obesity over time
among college students. Methods:
Multilevel analyses of BMI, physi-
cal activity, and television viewing
from 2 representative surveys of
US college students (n=24,613).
Results: Overweight and obesity
increased over time and were higher
among males, African Americans,
and students of lower socioeco-
nomic position and lower among
Asians. Television viewing and in
activity were associated with obe-
sity, and disparities in these behav-
iors partially accounted for excess
weight among African Americans.
Conclusions: Social disparities in
overweight and obesity exist among
college students. Promoting physi-
cal activity and reducing televi-
sion viewing may counteract in-
creasing trends.

Key words: obesity, college stu-
dents, physical activity, televi-
sion viewing, social disparities
Am J Health Behav. 2007;31(4):363-373
Overweight and obesity have in-creased dramatically over the
past30 years among both adults and
children in the United States.''^ The in-
crease in overweight and obesity h a s
been observed in all age, gender, and
racial/ethnic groups^'^ and is rising more
rapidly among women, young adults, His-
panics and non-Hispanic blacks, and
people with some college education,^'^
Higher rates are observed among minor-
Toben F. Nelson, Research Associate, Depart-
ment of Society, Human Development and Health;
Steven L. Gortmaker, Professor, Department of
Society, Human Development and Health; S.V.
Subramanian, Assistant Professor, Department
of Society, Human Development and Health; Lilian
Cheung, Lecturer, Department of Nutrition; Henry
Wechsler, Lecturer on Society, Human Develop-
ment and Health, all from the Harvard School of
Public Health, Boston, MA.
Address correspondence to Dr Nelson, Harvard
School of Public Health, Department of Society,
Human Development and Health, 677 Hunting-
ton Avenue, Boston, MA 02115. E-mail:
[email protected] harvard, edu
ity racial/ethnic groups, most notably

African Americans and Hispanics.*"® Per-
sons of lower socioeconomic position gen-
erally also have higher rates of obesity,^'
Healthy People 2010 goals for the nation's
health include a reduction in the preva-
lence of obesity and the elimination of
disparities in health across different seg-
ments of the population.'"
Obesity is a s s o c i a t e d with major
chronic diseases, such as cardiovascu-
lar disease, some cancers, type 2 diabe-
t e s , ' ' ' ^ and creates a major burden for
health care systems.'^'''^ Although the full
population health consequences of this
epidemic have not yet been realized, the
potential impact for future decreased life
expectancy and poor health due to obesity
is considerable.'* The poor health out-
comes of obesity usually manifest in the
later stages of life, but their causes can
develop in childhood or young adulthood.
The transition from adolescence to adult-
hood is one developmental period that
may be a critical stage for weight gain.
Body mass index (BMI) in early adulthood
is an important predictor for subsequent
Am J Health Behav.™ 2007;31(4):363-373 363
obesity." It is also during the young adult-
hood period when social patterning in

obesity emerges strongly.^"
In A Call to Action to Prevent and De-
crease Overweight and Obesity, the US
Surgeon General recommends schools as
an important setting in which to address
overweight and obesity.'^ To date, most
school-based research and intervention
activity has focused on primary and sec-
ondary schools. The college setting pre-
sents an important opportunity for health
promotion during a critical stage of devel-
opment. One in 3 young adults attend
college.̂ ^ However, few studies have ex-
amined the prevalence and patterns of
overweight and obesity among college stu-
dents, and no studies have examined
whether social disparities in overweight
and obesity exist among college students.
Greater caloric intake than expendi-
ture leads to overweight,'^ and specific
behavior targets to prevent and reduce
excess weight include diet and physical
activity.'̂ '̂ '̂̂ ^ Television viewing also ap-
pears to have effects on overweight inde-
pendent from inactivity.^^ Television view-
ing is associated with exposure to food
and beverage advertising and with be-
tween-meal snacking.^*"^^ Intervention
studies have shovwi that reducing televi-
sion viewing leads to reductions in over-
weight and obesity in children.^^"^' The
prevalence of these behaviors and their
relationship to overweight and obesity
h a s not been systematically studied

among college students.
This study is the first to examine preva-
lence, trends and social disparities in
overweight, obesity, and class II obesity
in a nationally representative sample of
college students in the United States.
Although other studies have examined
overweight and obesity in this population,
only one obtained a nationally represen-
tative sample of students.^" The present
study has sufficient sample size to exam-
ine differences among different groups of
s t u d e n t s , and it was administered in
multiple years to track changes over time.
We test the hypothesis that the preva-
lence of overweight and obesity increased
among college students in the United
States from 1993 to 1999. We also exam-
ine disparities, or inequalities in over-
weight and obesity defined by sex, race/
ethnicity, socioeconomic position and age
in this representative sample of college
s t u d e n t s . We hypothesize that higher
rates of overweight and obesity occur
among males compared with females,
m e m b e r s of minority r a c i a l / e t h n i c
groups, students of lower socioeconomic
position, and upper class (by year in school)
compared with underclass students. The
association of overweight, obesity, and
class II obesity with television viewing
and physical activity, whether these rela-
tionships are consistent across student
subgroups, whether they change over

time, and if they account for increasing
body weight or social disparities in these
measures are examined.
METHODS
Sample
Data were from the Harvard School of
Public Health (HSPH) College Alcohol Study
(CAS), a nationally representative sample
of students attending 4-year colleges in
the United States. Colleges were selected
proportionate to the size of the school
from a list of all 4-year institutions pro-
vided by the American Council on Educa-
tion. The sample for the present analysis
included 119 colleges that had data in
both the 1993 and 1999 surveys, consis-
tent with previous analyses of these data.^'
Students were 225 full-time undergradu-
ates randomly sampled within each col-
lege. The registrar at each participating
school was provided instructions on draw-
ing a random sample of full-time stu-
dents. For the present analysis the sample
was limited to 24,613 students (12,786 in
1993 and 11,827 in 1999) under 25 years
of age (mean = 20.4; s.d. = 1.6). Although
these surveys were administered 6 years
apart there is the potential that the same
students could have responded to both,
thereby reducing the variation in the
sample. We did not assess this potential
between the 1993 and 1999 surveys.
However, in other administrations of the
CAS we found an overlap of 1.50% for a 2-

year difference between surveys and 0.46
% for a 4-year difference between sur-
veys. We have found no statistical evi-
dence of reduced variation resulting from
the inclusion of these respondents.^^
The 1993 and 1999 administrations of
the CAS collected data on exact height
and weight. Response rate was 70% in
1993 (range at each college was 41 to
100%) and was 60% in 1999 (range 40-
83%). The correlation between response
rate and body mass index at the college
level was r =-0.18 (N=119; P=0.05) in 1993
364
Nelson et al
and r = -0.16 (N=119; P=0.08) in 1999. All
analyses were adjusted for college re-
sponse rate to account for response bias,
although it was not statistically signifi-
cant and did not alter the results. Models
stratified by high and low response rates
showed similar r e s u l t s . Data were
weighted to match each school's true
demographic characteristics over 8 strata
of gender, 2 age-groups (<22 vs others)
and 2 ethnic groups (white vs others).
Additional details of the study methodol-
ogy and sampling procedure are published
elsewhere.^'

Measures
Respondents reported current height
in feet and inches and weight in pounds.
Self-report measures of height and weight
are generally considered to be valid and
reliable for large-scale surveillance sur-
veys.̂ ^ Three measures were calculated
based on body mass index (BMI), expressed
in kilograms of body weight per meters of
height squared (kg/m^): (a) overweight
(BMI >= 25 kg/m^), (b) obesity (BMI >= 30
kg/m^), and (c) class II obesity (BMI >= 35
k / = ) 3 *
Respondents described the racial/eth-
nic group they belonged to using the fol-
lowing categories: white; black/African
American; Asian/Pacific Islander; Na-
tive American Indian/Native Alaskan;
Other. The Native American and other
race categories were combined due to
small cell sizes for each. Hispanic origin
was included in a separate question and
was modeled separately. Socioeconomic
position (SEP) was assessed as educa-
tional attainment for each parent and
converted into a 3-level variable in which
(a) neither parent attended college; (b)
one, but not both, parents attended col-
lege; and (c) both parents attended col-
lege, consistent with previous analysis of
these data.^^ Students with missing data
on these variables of interest occurred in
less than 1% of the cases, and these were
excluded from the analysis.

Respondents were asked a series of
questions about the amount of time per
day on average they spend on each of 9
different activities, including one ques-
tion about television viewing and 2 ques-
tions about physical activity. Television
viewing was measured as the average
number of hours per day, ranging from
zero to 5 or more. Physical activity was
defined as any participation in intercolle-
giate athletics or other physical activity
(yes vs no). An additional 348 subjects
(.01% of the analytic sample) were miss-
ing data for activity, and 97 (.004%) were
m i s s i n g d a t a for television viewing.
These subjects were deleted from analy-
ses examining television viewing and
activity, and nested models were com-
pared only for those respondents with
complete data.
Analysis
Descriptive analyses and cross-tabula-
tions were conducted in SAS version 9.0
on the UNIX platform (The SAS Institute,
Inc., Cary, NC). Multilevel analytic tech-
niques were used in a 2-level framework
(college and individual) to account for the
clustered sampling scheme in MLwiN
software version 2.0.^* Change over time
in each of the 3 outcome variables was
assessed using an indicator variable for
survey year adjusting for student gender,

race/ethnicity, SEP, and year in school.
Change over time in each group was
examined using interaction terms be-
tween survey year and gender, r a c e /
ethnicity, and SEP. Differences in out-
come variables for gender over time and
by race/ethnicity were observed, so sub-
sequent analyses were stratified by gen-
der. In gender-stratified models, interac-
tion terms for race/ethnicity with SEP
examined whether SEP modified the as-
sociation between r a c e / e t h n i c i t y and
overweight or obesity. Whether Hispanic
subgroups differed by race was also exam-
ined.
Gender-stratified analyses were used
to test for differences between student
subgroups by television viewing and physi-
cal activity. Television viewing and physi-
cal activity variables were added to each
analysis to examine the relationship of
these variables with overweight and obe-
sity and to determine whether the addi-
tion of these variables attenuated the
differences in prevalence of the other
variables. To examine whether the rela-
tionship of television viewing and physi-
cal activity differed by population groups,
similar models were stratified by race/
ethnicity.
Multilevel logistic regression models
were fitted using the logit-link function
for binomial outcomes, second-order pe-
nalized quasi-likelihood and iterative

generalized least s q u a r e s procedures.
MLwiN employs a Taylor series lineariza-
Am J Health Behav.™ 2007;31(4):363-373 365
Table 1
Prevalence of Overweight, Obesity and Class II
Socio-demographic Characteristics
Gender
Female
Male
Race/ethnicity
White
African American
Asian
Native American/Other
Hispanic
Socioeconomic Position
Both Parents Attended College
One Parent (not both) Attended College
Neither Parent Attended College
Year in School
First year

Sophomore
Junior
Senior
Fifth year
Sample Size
1993
7369
5417
10,624
568
849
745
733
7454
3256
2076
2864
2648
3110
3045
1119
1999
7258
4569
9307
633

978
909
743
7412
2841
1574
2993
2845
2912
2382
695
Overweight
(BMI
1993
13.5
30.8
21.5
33.3
13.6
23.9
25.0
20.4
23.4
23.5
18.9
19.5
22.0
23.8

28.7
>=25)
1999
20.1
35.0
26.7
38.3
16.4
30.6
30.2
25.0
29.1
31.4
23.0
27.3
27.6
27.5
37.2
Obesity by
Obesity Class II obesity
(BMI
1993
2.9
5.4
3.9
11.2
2.0

3.4
2.8
3.6
4.6
4.9
3.1
4.0
4.3
4.3
5.7
>=30)
1999
5.4
7.8
6.2
13.9
2.3
8.2
8.3
5.9
7.6
7.2
5.2
6.7
7.2
5.7
10.9

(BMI>=35)
1993
1.0
0.8
0.7
4.4
0.2
0.6
0.4
0.7
1.2
1.2
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1999
2.0
1.8
1.7
5.3
0.6
2.1
2.2
1.6
2.0
2.9

1.7
2.5
1.5
1.3
3.7
tion of the discrete response outcome and
appropriately estimates standard errors
within the multilevel clustered sampling
design.^* Models were specified to account
for college-level variation for each survey
year. The gender-stratified models for the
class II obesity outcome did not converge
under these specifications so a first-or-
der procedure was employed. The analy-
ses using television viewing as the out-
come used a normal distribution and the
identity link function. The analyses strati-
fied by race/ethnicity were conducted in
SAS using the generalized estimating
equation (GEE) estimating approach and
the GENMOD procedure.
RESULTS
Overweight rose significantly from
21.7% in 1993 to 26.8% in 1999, adjusting
for gender, race/ethnicity, SEP, and year
in school (adjusted odds ratio 1.33, 95%
confidence interval 1.21-1.46, P<0.001).
Similar increases were noted for obesity
(4.1% in 1993 to 6.5% in 1999; AOR 1.64,
95% CI 1.39-1.93, P<0.001) and class II
obesity (0.9% in 1993 to 1.9%; AOR 1.71,

95% CI 1.27-2.30, P<0.001). Changes
were noted only in weight, whereas height
remained stable.
Overweight, obesity, and class II obe-
sity increased significantly from 1993 to
1999 in all groups, but rates differed by
gender, race/ethnicity, SEP, and year in
school (Table 1). Males were significantly
more likely to be overweight and obese.
However, there was no significant differ-
ence by student gender for class II obe-
sity. In gender-stratified analyses, sig-
nificant differences emerged by r a c e /
ethnicity, SEP, and year in school (Table
2). Among male racial/ethnic groups, over-
weight was more prevalent among Afri-
can Americans and Hispanics and less
common among Asians compared with
whites. Among females, similar racial/
ethnic differences emerged, although no
differences existed between Hispanic and
white females. Students of lower SEP had
higher rates of overweight. Higher preva-
366
Nelson et al
Table 2
Relationship Between Overweight, Obesity, and Class II
Obesity
and Socio-demographic Characteristics, Stratified by Gender

Overweight (BMI >=25)
Male Female
Obesity (BMI>=30)
Male Female
Class II obesity (BMI>=35)
Male Female
Year
1993
1999
Year in School
First year
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
5th year
1.00
1.16(1.03, 1.31)'
1.00
1.18 (rO2, 1.36)'
1.36(1.18, 1.56)"'
1.44(1.25, 1.66)*"
1.95(1.60, 2 . 3 7 ) " '
Race/ethnicily
White 1.00

African American 1.48(1.15,1.90)'"
Asian 0.59 (0.48, 0 . 7 3 ) ' "
Native American/Other 0.91 (0.71, 1.17)
Hispanic 1.27(1.04,1.56)'
Socioeconomic Position
Both Parents
Attended College 1.00
One Parent (not both)
Attended College 1.18(1.05, 1.32)"
Neither Parent
Attended College 1.17(1.03,1.34)'
1.00
1.51(1.31, 1 . 7 5 ) ' "
1.00
1.09(0.95, 1.25)
1.05(0.91, 1.21)
1.16(1.01, 1.34)'
1.42(1.14, 1.77)"
1.00
2 . 3 2 ( 1 . 9 4 , 2 . 7 8 ) ' "
0 4 7 ( 0 . 3 7 , 0 . 6 1 ) ' "
1.38(1.10, 1.75)"
0.98(0.76, 1.26)
1.00
1.42(1.11, 1.82)"

1.00
1.16(0.88, 1.53)
1.40(1.06, 1.84)"
1.26(0.95, 1.66)-
1.97(1.38,2.79)'"
1.00
2 . 2 2 ( 1 . 4 6 , 3 . 3 5 ) ' "
0.54 (0.30, 0 . 9 7 ) "
1.11(0.77, 1.36)
1.02(0.77, 1.56)
1.00 1.00
1.22(1.08, 1.37)" 1.16(0.88, 1.53)
1.45(1.26, 1 . 6 7 ) ' " 1.02(0.77, 1.36)
1.00
1.99(1.51,2.60)"
1.00
1.44(1.10, 1.90)"
1.41 (1.05, 1.89)'
1.33(0.96, 1.84)~
2 . 0 0 ( 1 . 3 1 , 3 . 0 6 ) " '
1.00
3 . 2 2 ( 2 . 3 8 , 4 . 3 5 ) " '
0 . 3 5 ( 0 . 1 8 , 0 . 6 5 ) ' "
1.44(0.89,2.35)

0.85(0.50, 1.44)
1.00
1.32(1.08, 1.62)"
1.67(1.24,2.25)'"
1.00
1.88(1.16,3.04)'
1.00
1.05(0.60, 1.83)
1.07(0.62, 1.84)
1.47(0.86,2.53)
2 . 5 9 ( 1 . 4 1 , 4 . 7 7 ) "
1.00
3 . 5 7 ( 2 . 1 3 , 5 . 9 9 ) ' "
0.76(0.35, 1.67)
1.37(0.63,2.99)
0.80(0.33, 1.97)
1.00
1.40(0.93,2.11)
1.30(0.78,2.15)
1.00
1.49(0.99,2.25)-
1.00
1.63(1.08,2.45)'

1.25(0.77,2.04)
0.96(0.60, 1.53)
2.01 (1.05, 3.84)'
1.00
3 . 5 7 ( 2 . 3 8 , 5 . 3 6 ) " '
0.08(0.01,0.65)"
1.36(0.55,3.35)
0.76(0.32, 1.82)
1.00
1.16(0.80, 1.67)
1.90(1.29,2.80)"'
Note. ~P<.10; *P<.05; **P<.01; ***P<.001
lence rates of overweight were observed
in successive years in school. Neither
racial/ethnic differences by SEP nor ra-
cial differences among subgroups of His-
panics were observed. A similar pattern
in the trends and differences between
student subgroups for obesity and class II
obesity emerged.
Student Behaviors
Approximately 3 in 4 students reported
engaging in some form of moderate or
vigorous physical activity in both 1993
(75%) and in 1999 (74%). Males were
more likely to be physicaJly active com-
pared with females (80% vs 70% in 1993;

P<0.0001; and 78% vs 7 1 % in 1999;
P<0.0001). Students reported watching
an average of 2 hours of television per
day, and this did not differ for males and
females. There was no significant differ-
ence in reported physical activity or tele-
vision viewing by survey year. African
American students reported more televi-
sion viewing than did other racial/ethnic
groups among males (2.8 hours per day;
s.d. = 1.7 compared with 2.1 hours overall;
s.d. = 1.4; AOR 2.85; 95% CI 1.24 - 6.54).
Students of lower SEP watched signifi-
cantly more television among males (2.3
hours; s.d. = 1.5; AOR 1.91; 95% CI 1.19 -
3.07 for neither low SEP, and 2.2 hours;
s.d. = 1.5; AOR 1.68; 95% CI 1.05-2.71 for
mid SEP compared with high SEP). No
significant differences in physical activ-
ity by race/ethnicity or SEP were ob-
served for physical activity among males
or females. Although the average num-
ber of hours of television viewing among
African American females was also higher
(2.9 hours per day; s.d. = 1.6 compared
with 1.9 hours overall; s.d. = 1.3), these
results were not statistically significant
(AOR 2.03; 95% CI 0.87 - 4.72). Among
females, physical activity was less preva-
lent for African Americans (55.6% com-
pared with 70.9 % overall; AOR 0.50; 95%
CI 0.43 - 0.59) and Asians (62.9%; AOR
0.63; 95% CI 0.54 - 0.74) and students of
low SEP (64.2%; AOR 0.76; 95% CI 0.67 -
0.86 for low SEP; 68.4%; AOR 0.85; 95% CI

0.79 - 0.93 for mid SEP compared with
high SEP, 73.1%).
The association of overweight and obe-
sity with both physical activity and televi-
sion viewing was examined in gender-
Am J Health Behav.™ 2007;31(4):363-373 367
Prevalence of
Male
Female
Tahle 3
Overweight, Ohesity and Class II Ohesity hy
Survey Year, Gender, Physical Activity, and Average
Overall
1993
1999
1993
1999
% Overweight
Male
Female

% Obese
Male
Female
% Class
Male
Female
1993
1999
1993
1999
1993
1999
1993
1999
II Obesity
1993
1999
1993
1999
30.8
35.0
13.5
20.1
5.4
7.8
2.9
5.4

0.8
1.8
1.0
2.0
Daily Television Viewing
by Physical Activity
Active
79.7
78.1
70.4
70.4
31.0
34.4
12.5
18.2
4.9
4.2
2.4
6.9
0.7
1.5
0.6
1.2
Not
Active 0
20.3
21.9

29.6
29.6
30.0
37.5
15.8
24.9
7.2
8.3
4.1
10.9
1.0
2.8
1.8
3.9
by
hrs.
11.3
11.4
13.7
14.2
22.3
26.1
9.4
13.5
2.2
4.4

1.4
1.9
0.6
1.0
0.5
1.0
Average Daily
l h r . 2
29.0
29.2
28.9
32.2
26.8
32.9
11.3
17.5
3.2
5.8
2.1
3.9
0.3
0.9
0.8
1.3
Television
-hrs 3

26.0
26.8
25.7
24.9
30.2
35.7
13.3
20.6
5.1
7.1
2.8
6.8
0.6
2.0
0.9
1.1
Viewing
hrs. 4+
16.4
17.0
15.9
14.6
35.0
39.9
14.9
23.6
6.9
9.5

3.3
6.0
0.8
2.0
0.7
1.9
hrs.
17.4
15.6
15.8
14.1
40.0
39.5
19.2
28.3
10.1
13.6
5.2
9.2
2.0
3.4
2.1
3.4
stratified analyses adjusting for survey
yeeir, race/ethnicity, and SEP. Televi-
sion viewing was positively associated
with overweight among males (AOR 1.14,
95% CI 1.11 - 1.18) and females (AOR 1.16,
95% CI 1.12 - 1.20). Similar findings were

observed for obesity (AOR 1.31, 95% CI
1.24 - 1.39 for males and AOR 1.22, 95% CI
1.14 - 1.29 for females) and class II obesity
(AOR 1.31, 95% CI 1.16 - 1.48 for males
and AOR 1.16, 95% CI 1.03 - 1.32 for
females). Students who engaged in physi-
cal activity were less likely to be over-
weight among females (AOR 0.75, 95% CI
0.68 - 0.84, adjusting for television view-
ing), but not among males. Physically
active students were less likely to be
obese among both females (AOR 0.56,
95% CI 0.47 - 0.67) and males (AOR 0.63,
95% CI 0.52 - 0.76) and were less likely to
meet criteria for class II obesity among
both females (AOR 0.33, 95% CI 0.23 -
0.46) and males (AOR 0.59, 95% CI 0.40 -
0.87). The relationships of physical activ-
ity and television viewing with overweight,
obesity, and class II obesity were similar
in each survey year and were consistent
with overall findings across racial/eth-
nic groups. No significant interaction
effects for any of the race/ethnicity cat-
egories with physical activity or televi-
sion viewing for overweight, obesity, and
class II obesity in the gender stratified
multilevel models were observed.
Adding the physical activity and televi-
sion viewing variables to the analyses
improved the overall model fit and re-
duced the odds of overweight for African
Americans in the model for females (from
AOR = 2.32; 95% CI 1.94 - 2.78 to AOR =

1.93; 95% CI 1.61 - 2.33) and for males
(from AOR = 2.32; 95% CI 1.94 - 2.78 to
AOR = 1.93; 95% CI 1.61 - 2.33), although
African Americans remained at signifi-
cantly higher odds of being overweight in
nested models of students with complete
368
Nelson et al
data. Physical activity and television view-
ing did not appear to account for other
d i s p a r i t i e s in overweight by r a c e /
ethnicity or SEP, or changes in the preva-
lence of overweight over time. Similar
results for obesity were observed, with
declines in the odds for African American
females from AOR = 3.25 (95% CI 2.55 -
4.15) to AOR = 2.49 (95% CI 1.93 - 3.20) and
for African American males from AOR =
1.98 (95% CI 1.42 - 2.75) to AOR = 1.69
(95% CI 1.21 - 2.37) when accounting for
physical activity and television viewing,
but no other shifts in odds for any of the
other groups. Similar declines in the
odds of class II obesity for both female
(from AOR = 3.56; 95% CI 2.37 - 5.34 to
AOR = 2.59; 95% CI 1.68 - 3.98) and male
(from AOR = 3.48; 95% CI 2.00 - 6.04 to
AOR = 2.96; 95% CI 1.69 - 5.19) African
American s t u d e n t s were observed. No
other changes were noted when account-
ing for physical activity and television

viewing in the models.
DISCUSSION
A substantial number of college stu-
dents are overweight and the prevalence,
like that in the US population overall,''^'^'
has increased over time. Class II obesity
rose rapidly during the study period, which
is particularly concerning considering the
substantial health care costs associated
with extreme obesity.'̂ ••'̂
Male college students were more likely
to be overweight and obese than their
female peers, consistent with findings in
other surveys of youth and adults.'•^•^°'^'''°
However, there were no differences in
class II obesity between males and fe-
males. Females report greater concern
about their weight and may expend more
effort to maintain or lose weight through
dietary control and exercise.^" Socioeco-
nomic position was associated with over-
weight, obesity, and class II obesity among
both males and females, although the
strength of this association was stronger
among females. These results are con-
sistent with findings across multiple age-
groups that show differences in rates of
overweight and obesity by gender and
socioeconomic position."" People of higher
socioeconomic position tend to have
greater awareness of weight and expend
more effort at maintaining weight through
dietary control and physical activity, which

may explain these differences.'""''^ Fe-
males could also be more likely to be
accepted into college if they are thin or of
normal weight, compared with males. A
third factor that promotes both academic
achievement and interest in weight con-
trol may account for lower rates of over-
weight among females. These social
forces apply to both males and females,
although they may apply differentially to
males. Females may also experience
disproportionate weight-related discrimi-
nation compared with males and experi-
ence negative social consequences as a
result.""
Higher rates of overweight and obesity
were observed among male and female
African American s t u d e n t s , consistent
with other studies.2''° These racial/eth-
nic disparities emerged in a sample ad-
justed for parent socioeconomic position
and restricted to college students, itself
an indicator of higher socioeconomic po-
sition. We found lower rates of overweight
and obesity among Asian students. How-
ever, the relationship between BMI and
cardiovascular disease may vary by ra-
cial/ethnic group."5"^ Prevalence rates
for overweight in both survey years and
obesity in the 1999 survey year were
higher among Hispanics compared with
whites, but these differences were not
significant when adjusting for socioeco-
nomic position. These findings are differ-

ent from those observed in other stud-
ies'''^'' and may refiect socioeconomic dif-
ferences. In the CAS sample, more His-
panic students reported that neither par-
ent attended college (27%) compared with
students overall (14%).
Significantly higher rates of overweight
and obesity occurred among students in
their later years of college in both sur-
veys. However, these data are cross-
sectional, and h y p o t h e s e s about the
course of weight gain during college can-
not be adequately addressed with this
design. Longitudinal studies tracking in-
dividuEil students throughout their col-
lege years may provide more insight into
the factors that promote healthy weight
m a i n t e n a n c e . One l i m i t a t i o n of the
present study was that the CAS was ad-
ministered in the spring of the school
year and may have missed significant
weight gain occurring upon entry to col-
lege.
Late adolescence and early adulthood
may be a time of particular risk for weight
gain beyond normal and healthy develop-
ment. Data from the CDC Youth Risk
Am J Health Behav.™ 2007;31(4):363-373 369

Behaviors Survey show that in 1999, ap-
proximately 12% of male and 8% of female
high school students in the United States
were overweight.''* Among young adults
aged 1 8 - 2 4 years, 37% of males and 21%
of females were overweight in 1993, and
these estimates rose to 42% for males
and 28% for females in 1999.''̂ '5° The lower
overall prevalence rates in the present
study compared with the BRFSS and with
data from the National College Health
Risk Behavior Survey may reflect the
higher socioeconomic position of young
adults who attend college compared to
those who do not attend college and vnth
students who attend 4-year colleges, com-
pared with students who attend all types
g
Physical activity, diet, and television
viewing are 3 important behavioral tar-
gets to prevent or counteract overweight
and obesity.'^ Females who were active
were less likely to be overweight, whereas
there was no significant relationship be-
tween physical activity and overweight
among males. Both males and females
who engaged in moderate or vigorous
activity were less likely to be obese. Hours
of television vievwng were strongly asso-
ciated with being overweight, consistent
with findings in other populations,^''^^ and
may reflect the role of heavy advertising
of calorie-dense, low-nutrient foods on
television.^'' The average college student

reports watching 2 hours of television per
day. African American students reported
watching an average of nearly 3 hours of
television per day. Considering findings
from other studies that show reducing
television viewing prevents weight gain, '̂'"
^' this is a promising behavioral target for
preventing overweight and obesity among
college students.
Activity or television-viewing behav-
iors did not change over time and are not
likely to be driving the changes in body
weight in the college student population
over time. They also do not appear to
account for between-group differences in
body mass. Adjusting for these behaviors
reduced the magnitude of the observed
disparities in overweight among African
American males and females, suggesting
that those behaviors may account for
some racial disparities in overweight and
obesity. However, adding the activity and
television-viewing v a r i a b l e s did not
eliminat disparities in this group and did
not change estimates for the other ra-
cial/ethnic or socioeconomic groups. It
is possible that the content of the televi-
sion viewed differed for some groups com-
pared with others and these exposure
differences could account for the remain-
ing social disparities in overweight and
obesity. For example, television program-
ming viewed more frequently by African
American students may contain more

advertisements for calorie-dense fast food,
promoting its consumption. Consuming
fast food is associated with increased
intake of overall calories, dietary fat, car-
bohydrate, added sugars, and sugar-sweet-
ened beverages among children.^^ Future
research among college students could
benefit from increased measurement pre-
cision and longitudinal research design.
Some caveats and potential limitations
should be considered when examining
this evidence. Self-report height and
weight are subject to reporting bias Eind
may lead to lower estimated BMI com-
pared to measured height and weight.̂ '̂̂ "*
As a result, our findings may reflect lower
rates of overweight and obesity than the
true prevalence of these conditions in the
population. In addition, females are more
likely to underreport their weight com-
pared with males, and this may at least
partly explain the differences we observed
between males and females.̂ '̂̂ * However,
self-reported heights and weights are gen-
erally considered valid and can be reliably
used in large-scale national survey re-
search, particularly with young adults.^^
In addition, we did not have measures of
height and weight prior to students enter-
ing college to examine changes during
college. The measures of physical activ-
ity and television viewing were limited to
single questions and may not provide a
complete reflection of students' behavior.
The imprecision of these variables may

have reduced our ability to estimate the
true prevalence in the college student
population and to examine the complex
relationship vwth overweight and obesity
by student subgroups. However, physical
activity and television viewing were as-
sociated with overweight and obesity in
this sample, consistent with existing lit-
erature,^^'^'' and the prevalence rates for
these measures were consistent across
survey years. Nonresponse bias may have
influenced the results. However, body
mass index was not correlated with sur-
vey response rate, the results did not
differ when adjusting for college response
370
Nelson et al
rate, and models stratified by high and low
response rate were similar. Prevalence
rates were consistent with other stud-
jgg 39,40 Possible mechanisms not tested
in this study include dietary behavior,
self-perceived weight, ideal body size, dis-
crimination, and social isolation. We did
not collect dietary consumption data, and
this represents an area for future re-
search £ind prevention efforts in the col-
lege student population.
Young people in the transition from
adolescence to adulthood are at risk for

excess weight gain. Students entering
college may be making independent deci-
sions about their diet, activity, and televi-
sion viewing behaviors for the first time.
New environmental and social factors
may emerge during this time period to
have a greater influence on their behav-
ior.̂ ^ Understanding these influences on
student behavior and the environments
in which they live may help prevent the
epidemic of overweight and obesity. Addi-
tional studies should investigate poten-
tial mechanisms that may create social
disparities in overweight and obesity
among college s t u d e n t s . Future work
should also consider to what extent these
mechanisms are unique to the college
setting or whether some aspects of col-
lege life may be amenable to change to
reduce overweight and obesity. The
present study suggests that reducing tele-
vision viewing and increasing physical
activity may help counteract overweight
and obesity, but they are not likely the
fundamental causes of the increase in
prevalence we observed in this study.
Additional s t u d y u s i n g m e a s u r e s of
height, weight, television viewing, and
physical activity that allows greater pre-
cision may help inform these questions.
Dietary intake and the food environment
at college are also potential topics for
further investigation. Parents, college
administrators and staff, peers, and other
health professionals can engage students
in u n d e r s t a n d i n g the components of

m a i n t a i n i n g h e a l t h y weight and can
shape environments so students are more
likely to engage in healthy behaviors that
affect their weight.
Acknowle dgment
This research was supported by grants
from the Robert Wood Johnson Founda-
tion to H. Wechsler and by the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Preven-
tion Research Centers. •
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M3A2 LASA 1 QUIZ
PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS
>Part I: Computation and Short Answer (80 points)
Question 1.1.
Identify each of the following as examples of nominal, ordinal,
interval, or ratio scales of measurement. (4 points each)
1. A poll of registered voters in Florida asking which candidate
they support
2. The length of time required for a wound to heal when using a
new medicine
3. The number of telephone calls arriving at a switchboard per
five-minute period
4. The distance first-year college football players can kick a
ball
5. Mental health diagnoses present in an elderly population
6. The rankings of employees on their job performance
Question 2.2.
Two hundred raffle tickets are sold. Your friend has five people
in her family who each bought two raffle tickets. What is the
probability that someone from her family will win the raffle?
Question 3.3. Jolie has a time of 45 minutes for doing her
statistics homework. If the mean is 38 minutes and the standard

deviation is 3, calculate Jolie's z score. Once calculated,
interpret your findings in terms of Jolie's performance.
(HINT: use the normal distribution and the probability that
other students performed better or worse.) (Points : 8)
Question 4.4. A psychologist measures units of change for a
memory test after students are given an opportunity to sleep
only four hours. The following change units were obtained: 7, -
12, 4, -7, 3, -10.
Find the a) mean, b) median, c) mode, d) standard deviation, e)
range, and f) variance.
Question 5.5. A student scored 81 on a chemistry test and 75 on
a history test. For the chemistry test, the mean was 70 and the
standard deviation was 20. For the history test, the mean was 65
and the standard deviation was 8. Did the student do better on
the chemistry test or the history test? Explain your answer.
Question 6.6. Suppose you want to figure out what to do with
your degree in psychology. You ask some fellow students from
your psychology program who recently graduated to find out
what they are doing with their degree and how much it pays.
What type of sampling is this? What are the limitations of this
sampling approach?
Question 7.7. Variables in which the values are categories are
known as
Interval variables
Nominal variables
Ordinal variables
Ratio variables

Question 8.8. Before the researcher can conduct a statistical
test, the research question must be translated into
A testable hypothesis
Additional observations
Mathematical symbols
Numbers
Question 9.9. The hypothesis stating that there are no
differences, effects, or relationships is
The alternative hypothesis
The baseline hypothesis
The null hypothesis
The reasonable hypothesis
Question 10.10. A group of students made the following scores
on a 10-item quiz in psychological statistics: {5, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8,
9, 9, 10, 10} What is the mean score? (Points : 4)
6.6
7.2
7.8
8.7

9, 9, 10, 10} What is the median score?
6
7
8
9
9, 9, 10, 10} What is the mode?
5
7
8
9
9, 9, 10, 10} What is the range of scores?
5
6
7
11
9, 9, 10, 10} What is the variance, treating these scores as a
sample?
1.53
1.60
2.33
2.56

Question 15.15. The standard normal distribution has all the
following properties EXCEPT: (Points : 4)
The mean, mode, and median are all equal
The total area under the curve equals 1
The curve is specified by two parameters, the mean and the
standard deviation
The curve extends to + and – 3 standard deviations from
the mean
Question 16.16. According to the Empirical Rule, approximately
_______% of the data in a normal distribution will fall within
±1 standard deviation of the mean.
34
68
95
99.7
Question 17.17. In statistical computations, the number of
values that are free to vary is known as
Degrees of freedom
Freedom factor
Variability index

Variation quotient
Question 18.18. Which of the following reflects a Type I error?
Rejecting the null hypothesis when in reality the null
hypothesis is true
Rejecting the null hypothesis when in reality the null
hypothesis is false
Accepting the null hypothesis when in reality the null
hypothesis is true
Accepting the null hypothesis when in reality the null
hypothesis is false
Question 19.19. Which type of sampling is used when the
experimenter asks 5 area doctors to refer pregnant women to his
study and accepts all women who offer to be in his study? ()
purposive sampling
convenience sampling
cluster sampling
stratified sampling
Question 20.20. In our statistics equations, n refers to:
mean
standard deviation
normal distribution

number of subjects
Question 21.21. Which of the following is true regarding alpha?
it is also known as the level of significance
value is set by the researcher
value is equal to the probability of a type I error
all of the above are true
Question 22.22. Macy proposes that boys who play sports are
viewed as more attractive than boys who do not play sports.
What is her null hypothesis?
Boys who play sports are not viewed as more attractive
than boys who do not play sports
Playing sports will influence how attractively boys are
viewed
Boys who play sports are more attractive than girls who
play sports
There can be no null hypothesis
Question 23.23. You calculate a t of 2.38 and note that the
tabled value for .01 is 3.22 and for .05 is 2.19. You would
conclude that the null hypothesis can be:
Accepted at the .05 level
Rejected at the .01 level

Rejected at the .05 level
None of the above
Question 24.24. A researcher is studying political conservatism
among 11 engineering students and 11 humanities students. The
number of degrees of freedom for a t test is: (
22
20
11
10
Question 25.25. A t test for dependent groups should be used
instead of a t test for independent samples: (
If each participant is measured twice
Whenever there are equal numbers of subjects in each
group
Whenever there are only two groups
All of the above
Question 26.26. In a normal distribution, what percent of the
population falls between -1 and 1 standard deviations of the
mean?
34%
68%
95%
cannot tell from the information given

Question 27.27. Which of the following is more affected by
extreme scores?
Mode
Mean
Median
None of the above are affected
Question 28.28. On a histogram, what does the vertical (y) axis
refer to?
Individual scores
Frequencies
Means
Deviation scores
Question 29.29. Which statistic refers to the average amount by
which the scores in the sample deviate from the mean?
Range
Standard deviation
Median
Mode
Question 30.30. Assume a normal distribution for N = 300. How
many cases would one expect to find between +1 and -1

standard deviations around the mean?
102
285
150
204
Question 31.31. A z score of zero tells us that the score is at
the________of the distribution.
Mean
Very top
Very bottom
None of the above since z cannot be zero
Question 32.32. In a unit normal curve, what goes on the x axis?
Frequencies
Observed scores
z scores
Area
Question 33.33. Which of the following is a measure of
variability?)
Mean
Range

Interval
All of the above
Question 34.34. The only measure of central tendency that can
be found for nominal data is the
Mean
Median
Mode
Midrange
Question 35.35. If the probability of event A is 0.45 and the
probability of event B is 0.35 and the probability of A and B
occurring together is 0.25, then the probability of A OR B is:
0.8
1.8
0.1575
0.55
Question 36.36. A researcher knows that the average distance
commuting students live from campus was previously 8.2 miles.
Because of the rising prices of gasoline, the research wants to
test the claim that commuting students now live closer to
campus.
What is the correct alternative hypothesis?
The new mean distance is 8.2 miles.

The new mean distance is less than or equal to 8.2 miles.
The new mean distance is less than 8.2 miles.
The new mean distance is greater than or equal to 8.2
miles.
There are 3 discussion boards I need answered. The first one I
have found the article and will attach it here. This is not papers
just simple word document that can be copied and pasted. I need
this by 5/29/17
Now that you've learned how to find full text, peer reviewed,
professional journal articles you are ready to begin to compose
your first discussion thread.
In composing your thread:
(1) after selecting your article save a copy from the Academic
Search Complete website or better yet have the ASC website
send a copy to your email. Remember you’ll need to be able to
attach a PDF or HTML copy of this article to your discussion
thread.
(2) Briefly summarize the key points covered in your selected
peer-reviewed professional journal article.
(3)Analyze your articleand the related social
problem(s)regardingits significance and implication for U.S.
society.
(4) You will also be providing evidence to the article’s status as
scholarly work. Use the chart below “How to Tell the
Difference Between Scholarly Work & Propaganda”, making
specific reference to at least four of the eight indicators for
scholarly work. Make sure to cite passages from your selected
article that demonstrate each of the four indicators you have
selected.

Definitions: Scholarship: “academic
works” Propaganda: "publicity to promote a specific ideology,
or misleading publicity"
Indicators of Scholarship
Indicators of Propaganda
· Relies on critical thinking skills.
· Describes limits of research or data.
· Presents accurate description of alternate viewpoints.
· Includes counter-examples.
· Updates information.
· Settles disputes by use of generally accepted criteria for
evaluating data.
· Admits own ignorance.
· Encourages debate, discussion and criticism.
· Devalues critical appraisal.
· Presents information and views out of context.
· Suppresses contradictory views.
· Relies on personal attacks and ridicule.
· Uses emotional appeals and inflammatory language.
· Transforms words and statistics to suit purpose.
· Excessive claims of certainty, i.e., one "right” way of
thinking.
· Appeals to popular prejudices.
You will be writing up your discussion thread as a “Word” or
HTML document to be "pasted" into the text field that appears
after opening the "new thread" tab.
(5) Save a copy of both the ASC journal article as well as a
copy of the thread you've just written as a Word or HTML
document.
(6) Openthe discussion forum,
(7)Select the “Create a thread” tab,
(8) Input the title of your thread in the title field of the new
thread.
(9) Select the paper clip icon (third row down second from the
left).

(10)Select the “my computer” tab,
(11) Go to and select the saved copy of your chosen journal
article from your computer.
(12) leave the attachment in the "open in a new window" option
and submit.
You should now have your thread's title and a hyper link to your
attached article. Now go to your discussion thread which you
saved as a word or HTML document. Place your thread into
“copy” and then “paste” it into the text field of your new thread,
I'd prefer you "cut & paste" your thread here, rather than use the
"attachment" function. I see everything at once in the grading
process by having you follow the above submission instructions.
Now you are ready to submit the thread to the forum/discussion
board.
Remember to read and reply to at least one of your fellow-
students' threads, Use the reply tab at the bottom of any class
member's thread to reply to your classmates’ work. Try focus
your comment on the specifics of how their thread contributes
to the class discussion. Perhaps try using one of the three
classical theorist's point of view. A substantive reply should
address issues like the importance of the selected topic, your
view on the implications for U.S. social life and the accuracy of
the evidence they provide to substantiate the scholarly nature of
the article. Just restrain form posting a simplistic,
agree/disagree- type response.
You are required to post one original thread to this discussion (
250 word minimum ) before the due date for this unit. Also
submit a thorough and thoughtful response/reply to at least one
of your fellow student's threads. Remember to utilize the
concepts from the related chapter(s) in your analysis and reply.
This is the book
https://d3bxy9euw4e147.cloudfront.net/oscms-
prodcms/media/documents/IntroductionToSociology2e-OP.pdf

Discussion 2
Our text first address the concept of globalization on page 70,
however, most of the discussion regarding the effects of
globalization are found in chapter 10 where Immanuel
Wallerstein's "World Systems Approach" is introduced along
with analysis of high medium and low income nations. Also
central to our understanding of the effects of globalization and
the theoretical analysis of this phenomena are the conflicting
perspectives of "modernization theory" versus "dependency
theory". A final discussion on globalization is located in section
18.2 of our text. After a through reading of Chapter 10: Global
Inequality, section 18.2: gloabalization, and viewing the video
links below- (1) take a position on globalization
regarding its positive and negative effects on core, semi-
peripheral and peripheral nations and their workforces. Make
refference not only tothe efects of these nations but also the
effect on inequality within those nation. (1.a) Cite direct quotes
/ data sets / facts from our text to support your position on this
first question. (2) Make special reference to the history of U.S.
labor relations and worker rights as it relates to our current
attitude toward organized labor in the U.S. (2.a) Again, support
this perspective with references to the text and/or the videos).
(3) Compare and contrast the early U.S. policies toward worker
compensation and worker rights with those of current labor-
intensive, low income countries as they attempt to move into
modernity.
Regarding web-link access:(SEE UNIT 1 DISCUSSIONNOTE -
REGARDING ALL WEBLINKS WITHIN THE REMAINING
DISCUSSION BOARD FORUMS)
History channel video: Theodore Roosevelt vs. J.P. Morgan
http://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/theodore-
roosevelt/videos/theodore-roosevelt-vs-corporate-america
Noam Chomsky: on Violence in the Labor Movement
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bMV-
cU27pg8&feature=related

Hidden Face of Globalization
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Bhodyt4fmU&feature=relat
ed
BE SURE TO REFER TO THE INFORMATION FROM ALL
THREE OF THE LINKED WEBSITES AS WELL AS
WHAT YOUR TEXT CHAPTER HAS TO SAY
ABOUT GLOBALIZATION.
You are required to post one original thread to this discussion (
250 word minimum ) before the due date for this unit. Also
concepts from the related chapter(s) in your analysis and reply.
Discussion 3
in preparation for developing your thread for this discussion on
"Hidden / Implicit Bias"
(1) Go to the website: Teaching Tolerance: sponsored by the
southern poverty law center -
http://www.tolerance.org/hiddenbias( SEE UNIT
2 DISCUSSIONNOTE - REGARDING ALL WEBLINKS
WITHIN THE REMAINING DISCUSSION BOARD
FORUMS). After reading the introduction page on Hidden Bias,
select the hyper-link in the first paragraph, at the top of the
page titled: Project Implicit. From the Project Implicit
homepage- chose one of the two options in the box titled -
Project Implicit Social Attitudes.You can either "register or
continue as a guest". If you register for the study your results
will become part the national sample and your assessment
results represented in thestudy's national findings. On next page
you will need to read the 'Preliminary Information" page and
select "I Wish to Proceed". On the next page you will see
several assessments of hidden bias. For this assignment you are
to complete the Race IAT and the Gender/Career
IAT assessments.
(2.) Take the Implicit Bias Assessments for both race and

gender/career.
(3) Once the assessments are completecopy your results
statement from both assessments to be used as the opening
sentence of your thread. Your results may read: you show no,
slight, moderate or strong automatic preference for one group or
the other.
(4) Develop a discussion thread including (4a) A statement
analyzing the concept of Hidden/Implicit bias & your feelings
concerning the validity of the instrument and validity of your
personal results (4b) A statement regarding your speculations
regarding the source of your assessed bias, if any (4c) A
statement regarding the national results and their implications
for prejudice and discrimination in the U.S. (4d) A description
of how this experience and insight might affect your future
thoughts and actions.
You are required to post one original thread to this discussion
(250 word minimum) before the due date for this unit. Also
concepts from the related chapter(s) in your analysis and reply

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