Discussion Participation (30 of final grade) Discussion partici.docx

Discussion Participation (30% of final grade)
Discussion participation will be graded as follows (for a total of
10 points each week):
Responses to instructor's questions should be at least 1-2 full
paragraphs and demonstrate good understanding of the
readings. Responses should also demonstrate that the student
has read all prior postings by the instructor and other students.
Repeated information does not receive any credit unless it is
apparent by the timeline that it was posted at or near the same
time as the other posting. Late postings are welcomed if you
feel the need to respond to a comment that came in at the end of
the week. However, late postings will not receive credit since
the rest of the class will have moved on to a new discussion.
Responses to instructor's questions (5 points):
5 points At least three main topic questions posed by
instructor were responded to with thorough, thoughtful postings
based on the readings.
4 points At least three main topic questions posed by
instructor were responded to, but were based on opinion and/or
were not back up with facts from the readings.
3 points Two main topic questions posed by the instructor
were responded to with thorough, thoughtful postings based on
the readings.
2 points Two main topic questions posed by the instructor
were responded to, but were based on opinion and/or were not
backed up with facts from the readings.
1 point One main topic question posed by the instructor
was responded to with thorough, thoughtful posting based on
the readings.
0 points No responses to instructor's main topic questions,
or inadequate postings.

Responses to classmates' postings (2 points):
2 points At least two responses posted to classmates which
help to further the discussion.
1 point One response to a classmate's posting which helps
to further the discussion.
0 points No responses or simple "I agree" responses which
do not further the discussion.
Level of Engagement throughout the week (3 points):3
points Student engages in discussion throughout the week
and responds to all comments/questions directed at his/her
postings.
2 points Student engages in discussion throughout the week
and responds to some comments/questions directed at his/her
postings.
1 point Students engages in discussion minimally and does
not respond to comments/questions directed at his/her postings.
0 points Student engages in the discussion on one occasion
and does not return to respond to comments/questions directed
at his/her postings.
Susan Moore is the number manager in charge of a 25-bed
medical unit at St. Eligius Hospital. She is currently preparing
the nurse staffing plan for the next fiscal year. Hospital
management has provided all nurse managers with a list of
assumptions for staff planning, most of which are to use last
year's numbers as first estimates for next year.
Susan has assembled the following data for last year:
1. The percentage of productive nursing hours was 83%
2. Fifty-two percent of nursing staff worked days, and 48
percent worked nights.
3. The nursing staff was made up of 74% RNs, 16% LPNs, and
10% NAs
4. At St. Eligius Hospital, 1.0 FTE= 2,080 hours.

From the hospital's patient classification system, Susan also
assembled the following information for last year:
Patient Classification Level Historial Patient Days
Average Care Hours per pt day Historical
Total Unit
workload
1 1,000
4 4,000
2 2,000
6 12,000
3 3,000
10 30,000
4 2,000
14 28,000
5 1,000
18 18,000
Total 9,000
92,000
However, Susan is an experienced manager is aware of several
changes that will affect the nursing unit in the next year. More
specifically, Dr. Smith, a senior physician who accounted for a
large proportion of the unit's admissions, has just retired. In
recent years, Dr. Smith has limited his practice to simpler
medical cases, referring more complex cases to specialists who
do not admit to the medical unit.
Dr. Jones just started at the hospital; she was recruited to
replace Dr. Smith. Dr. Jones ia a recent graduate who intends to
care for many of the complex patients whom Dr. Smith
previously referred to other specialists. Although the hospital
projects that the unit's patient days will not differ from
historical patient days, Susan is projecting a change in the mix
of patients because of the arrival of Dr. Jones: 500 Level 1
patient days, 1,500 Level 2 days, 3,000 level 3 days, 2,500

Level 4 days, and 1,500 Level 5 days.
Susan also knows that Dr. Jones plans to do more complex
treatments during the day, which will (1) increase the nursing
staff who work days to 57% and reduce the staff who work
nights to 43% and (2) increase the nursing staff who are RNs to
78%, who are LPNs to 14%, and who are NAs to 8%.
Questions:
1. Based on Susan's projection of patient days, what is the
projected total unit workload by patient classification level?
What differences do you notice between the projected and the
historic total unit workload?
2. Calculate the historical number of FTEs by staff type and by
shift. Based on Susan's projection of patient days, calculate the
projected number of FTEs by staff type and shift. What
differences do you notice between the projected and historic
FTEs?
What is progress? Page 1 of 5
Up to: Sustainability
What is Progress?
People often get into arguments about what constitutes progress.
Some say that what others regard as
progress is not progress at all.
Some people evaluate progress in relation to their notion of an
ideal state of the world, i.e. progress is
defined as progress towards utopia. As you will see, I am not a

utopian.
We bypass these arguments by considering a country or a
section of a country to have progressed if
people who have a choice move to it and adopt its ways -
revealed preference, the economists call it. We
give short shrift to arguments that people didn't know what they
were doing when they made their
choices. According to i°evealed preference, America is the most
progressive country. So far as I know
there is no other county that has more immigrants from America
than America has immigrants from
that country. By the way, many people move back and forth
enough between America and the countries
where they grew up so that the reasons for where they choose to
live are based on a lot of information.
Some people misunderstand the claim that there is progress and
there will be more and people will like it
with a claim that in the glorious future, everyone will be happy.
Nothing now known offers a way of
malting everyone happy. Kings were often dissatisfied, and the
very rich of today have their
dissatisfactions.
Revealed preference agrees pretty well with the common
notions of progress.
Contents:
. Warld Pra~ress
. Past Technological Advances
. Social Progress

. Social Inadequacies
. What Further Progress will People Want
. Human Expansion into Sbace
. Polemics. These are summaries of points with which I disagree
and arguments against them.
World Progress
Here are some aspects of recent world material progress that we
expect to continue.
1. Larger quantity and variety of available food. In recent years
famines have only occurred as a
result of wars. The last major non-war famine was the Chinese
Great Leap Forward famine of
1958-60. [1999 note: It was pointed out to me that now we have
a new one -the North Korean
famine, which may have a similar cause.]
2. Better health. Almost all countries are experiencing an
increase in lifespan and a reduction in the
fraction of their time people spend ill. A recent study, Science
2000 Sept. 29, of the maximum
length of life in Sweden gives the oldest age of death in 1990s
as 108 vs. 101 in the 1860s. 72.5
percent of this 7 year advance is due to lengthened survival of
people who have already reached
age 70. While the study was confined to Sweden which has very
good birth and death statistics,
the authors believe that the phenomenon is common to
industrialized countries.
http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/progress.html

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3. The elimination of child labor. It is hard for us to imagine the
evil of putting children to work in
the coal mines at age six. Macaulay's Histo~ y of England,
published in the 1850s, has considerable
information about the reductions in child labor in England that
had been achieved by his time.
4. Shorter work time. Increased productivity has permitted this:
The improvement is both in free
hours per week and increased years available for education and
retirement. See this fora 1921
advertisement claiming that buying a tractor helps "keep the boy
in school".
5. Improved housing. More space and more privacy.
6. Individual mobility from the automobile. Since that is so
often attacked as undesirable, an essay
on cars provides a detailed defense.
7. Increased availabilty of material goods of all kinds.
8. Increased independence of old people.
9. Increased personal mobility.
10. Increased equality. This is often disputed, but it can be
partly verified by looking at the changes in
expected length of life in different groups in the population.
11. Privacy. This has been the motivation for a very large part
of expenditures by individuals. Since

America is the most prosperous country, its citizens have spent
the most on achieving privacy.
Here are some of the ways.
1. One family homes. The rich go for even greater isolation.
People, including the rich, will
suffer long commutes to work in order to have their own homes.
The Soviet Union had a
continued housing shortage as people moved to the cities. This
forced communal
apartments and forced the unmarried workers to live in
dormitories and to wait a substantial
time after mai~iage to get an apartment. Divorced couples often
had to live together for a
long time. This lack of privacy was one of the major complaints
about the system.
2. Individual rooms. I remember that when I was child, my
mother was eager to get a house in
which my brother and I could each have a room. Virginia Woolf
wrote a famous essay "A
Room of her Own".
3. Personal transportation. Most of us drive to work in our own
cars. The social engineers have
almost totally failed to get us to use public transportation. The
failure of car pooling in spite
of reserving car pool lanes for them is especially telling about
the preference for privacy.
My late second wife, a Sierra Club member inclined to
environmentalism, tried car pooling
to work (a 45 minute drive) but gave it up after a short time.
She said it felt like going to
work 45 minutes early and leaving work 45 minutes late.
It seems to me that sociologists haven't studied this human

desire, and failure to understand it has
led to delusions among planners. Foolish slogans about "sprawl"
won't help the social engineers
herd us.
Past Technological Advances
The progress described above is due to technological advance
and the social advances that have
permitted the technological advances to be used. Technology is
available worldwide, but its
effectiveness in raising the standard of living has depended on
social achievements - a market economy,
peace and the rule of law, education and not letting economic
parasitism get too much out of hand.
Here are some of the important technological advances.
. Transportation. This has made possible a world market in
almost. everything (except water).
Before the transportation advances most commodities were
localized products. It has also
permitted worldwide travel and encouraged people in one
country to copy aspects of other
people's ways they came to admire. A disadvantage is that
foreign countries aren't as exotic as
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they used to be, and tourists, including anthropologists,
complain about this a lot.

Industrial and agricultural productivity. This permitted going
from 12 hour days to 8 hour days
and from a 6 day work week to 5. It also permitted more years
spent in education and in
retirement. See this advertisement from a 1921 issue of
Successful Farming, which claims that
buying a tractor will allow a farmer to keep his boy in school
instead of taking him out to help
with the farm work. Here's the text of the advertisement.
Medical advances.
Social Progress
In the late nineteenth century and up to World War I, there was
a general opinion that progress in human
institutions had accompanied scientific and technological
progress. World War I and the other social
disasters of the first half of this century changed this view. My
opinion is that there really had been
permanent social progress. It was just that there still remained
large social dangers. My opinion is that
there still remain large social dangers, but there has been real
social progress. The collapse of the Soviet
Union greatly reduced these dangers, and the rise of Muslim
fanaticism has only increased them slightly.
Effective local government.
Governmental services are provided, and local warfare is
prevented.
Money and the market economy.
The limited liability business corporation and its toleration and
regulation by law.
Free, universal and compulsory education.
This is increasingly available all over the world.

Condemnation and elimination of slavery
In ancient times, moralists often made it a principle that slaves
should be treated humanely, but
no-one (so far as I know) said that there shouldn't be slaves at
all. The Anti-Slavery League was
created in Britain in the 18th century, and slavery was
suppressed in the modern world by 1869 -
lasting longer in backward countries.
Government of law -not of men.
That even the highest officials of government are subject to the
law is a recent idea. For example,
Confucius, Christ, Buddha and Machiavelli all give advice to
rulers but didn't imagine them
subordinate to the law. The English first established this in the
seventeenth century. The ancient
Greeks made some efforts in this direction.
Political democracy.
Democracy was first established and partly debugged under
conditions in which it was not
universal. Thus the Magna Carta of 1215 established rights of
barons relative to King John which
neither party had any intention of extending to anyone else.
Doubtless it is moral blemish that
universal political equality was not their goal, but nevertheless
we owe a lot to those barons.
(If you don't agree that there has been moral progress, you may
call the above one more example of the
Whig theory of history).
The main Whiggish historian, as far as I know, was Thomas
Babington Macaulay, and his views are
included in his 1845 Histo~ y of England. Here's a quotation on

past and future material progress. He also
believed in social progress.
It is now the fashion to place the golden age of England in times
when noblemen were
destitute of comforts the want of which would be intolerable to
a modern footman, when
farmers and shopkeepers breakfasted on loaves the very sight of
which would raise a riot in
a modern workhouse, when to have a clean shirt once a week
was a privilege reserved for
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the higher class of gentry, when men died faster in the purest
country air than they now die
in the most pestilential lanes of our towns, and when men died
faster in the lanes of our
towns than they now die on the coast of Guiana.
We too shall, in our turn, be outstripped, and in our turn be
envied. It may well be, in the
twentieth century, that the peasant of Dorsetshire may think
himself miserably paid with
twenty shillings a week; that the carpenter at Greenwich may
receive ten shillings a day;
that labouring men may be as little used to dine without meat as
they now are to eat iye
bread; that sanitary police and medical discoveries may have
added several more years to
the average length of human life; that numerous comforts and

luxuries which are now
unknown, or confined to a few, may be within the reach of
every diligent and thrifty
working man.
And yet it may then be the mode to assert that the increase of
wealth and the progress of
science have benefited the few at the expense of the many, and
to talk of the reign of Queen
Victoria as the time when England was truly mercy England,
when all classes were bound
together by brotherly sympathy, when the rich did not grind the
faces of the poor, and when
the poor did not envy the splendour of the rich.
- Macaulay, History of England, Chapter 3
It is amazing how Macaulay got it right in 1845 - as to his time
as compared to the past, as to the 20th
century as compared to his time, and as to the continued litany
of weeping and wailing.
Social Inadequacies
Large scale ideological instabilities.
Local government works stably when it is in the framework of a
national constitution. This is
because of its limited powers. If local governments were
sovereign, e.g. could execute dissidents
and forbid emigration, being local wouldn't help much. There
have been very small tyrannies.
At national levels there are greater instabilities. Governments
can become militarist, tribal or
racist, communist or fascist. Opportunities exist for a class or
cause to appropriate all of society's
resources. The worst form of instability in the 20th century

were political systems that gave power
to single individuals, Lenin, Stalin, Hitler, Mussolini, Mao,
Castro, Pol Pot. Fortunately, none of
these tyrants was able to create a system that survived his death.
That was the fate of humanity in
the Ingsoc society of Orwell's novel 1984. In that novel, there
didn't actually have to be a Big
Brother for the tyranny to continue.
Modern communication makes possible of worldwide
ideological instabilities. The greatest
danger I can see today is a green Hitler with worldwide
influence, enabling him to take over the
world and not just a country. There's no sign of such a person
yet, but I don't know why there isn't.
What Progress will People Want?
I suspect that some people will think that these aspects of
progress are partly urueal. I will consider
dealing here with any arguments sent by email to mccarthy at
stanford.edu.
More to come, including statistics about infant mortality, life
expectancy, hours worked, etc. Besides
these extensions of past improvements we can expect some
entirely new benefits from technology.
3/19/2015
r~rrieric~ the (J.I~. ~~'hy life in the U.S. has never been better

b~ Grey Easterb~ook in The 1~ew
ItepuGlic; 199b~ Jccnu~z~,~ explains about recent progress and
why both left and right ideologists are
inclined to deny it.
Human history is one of gradually accelerating progress
punctuated by disasters like big wars and
worsenings of climate and also periods of stagnation. It is only
since the 18th century that a person
would experience enough progress in his lifetime to regard
continued progress as a normal state of
society. The first half of the 20th century experienced three
major disasters -World War I, a
consequence of nationalism (mainly German), Hitlerism, and
communism. These encouraged the
perpetually existing beliefs that the world is getting worse.
There are always good trends in some aspect of country's life
and bad trends in others. Many bad trends
are predicted in advance by some but don't get reversed till they
actually cause pain. Science permits
more to be addressed in advance, but inaccurate anticipation can
be a source of instability.
Send comments to [email protected] I sometimes accept
suggestions for changes..Tahn
IOrlcCarthv
The number of hits on this page since 1995 October 29th. ~~
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The History of Archimedes Page 1 of 4
♦ ~ ~ ~
PALIMPSEST
HISTORY
ARCHIMEDES
CONSERVATION
IMAGING
SCHOLARSHIP
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
e. , ,~~ Archimedes was born in the city of Syracuse on the
island
of Sicily in 287 BC. He was the son of an astronomer and
mathematician named Phidias. Aside from that, very little
`~!r is known about the early life of Archimedes or his family.
=~i Some maintain that he belonged to the nobility of
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Syracuse, and that his family was in some way related to
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that of Hiero II, King of Syracuse.
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In the third century BC, Syracuse was a hub of
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commerce, art and science. As a youth in Syracuse
.
Archimedes developed his natural curiosity and penchant
for problem solving. When he had learned as much as he
could from his teachers, Archimedes traveled to Egypt in order
to study in Alexandria.
Founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BC, Alexandria had, by
Archimedes' time, earned a
reputation for great learning and scholarship.
influenced the work of Archimedes.
Euclid was one of the most well-known
scholars who lived in Alexandria prior to
Archimedes' arrival in the city. Euclid was a
renowned mathematician, perhaps best
remembered for collecting all of the existent
Greek geometrical treatises and assembling
them in a logical and systematic order in his

book, "The Elements." This compilation was
fundamental to the study of geometry for
over 2,000 years, and undoubtedly
http:!/archimedespalimpsest.org/about/history/archimedes.php
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After his studies in Alexandria, Archimedes returned to
Syracuse and pursued a life of
thought and invention. Many apocryphal legends record how
Archimedes endeared himself
to King Hiero II, discovering solutions to problems that vexed
the king.
ARCHIMEDES' SCREW
One such story recounts how a perplexed King Hiero was unable
to empty rainwater from the hull of one of his ships. The King
called
"' ' upon Archimedes for assistance. Archimedes' solution was
to
create a machine consisting of a hollow tube containing a spiral
that could be turned by a handle at one end. When the lower end
~~ J'~~ of the tube was placed into the hull and the handle
turned, water
was carried up the tube and out of the boat. The Archimedes

Screw is still used as a method of irrigation in developing
countries.
THE PUZZLE OF KING HIERO'S CROWN
King Hiero had commissioned a new royal crown for
which he provided solid gold to the goldsmith. When
the crown arrived, King Hiero was suspicious that the
goldsmith only used some of the gold, kept the rest
for himself and added silver to make the crown the
correct weight. Archimedes was asked to determine
whether or not the crown was pure gold without
harming it in the process. Archimedes was perplexed
but found inspiration while taking a bath. He noticed
that the full bath overFlowed when he lowered himself
into it, and suddenly realized that he could measure
the crown's volume by the amount of water it
displaced. He knew that since he could measure the
crown's volume, all he had to do was discover its
weight in order to calculate its density and hence its
purity. Archimedes was so exuberant about his

THE "EUREKA" STORY
ILLUSTRATED BY KEVIN
KALLAUGHER.
discovery that he ran down the streets of Syracuse
naked shouting, "Eureka!" which meant "I've found it!" in
Greek.
ARCHIMEDES AND THE DEFENSE OF SYRACUSE
During Archimedes' lifetime Sicily was a hotspot for both
geological and political events. The
volcanic Mount Etna loomed threateningly over the island,
while on all sides the titanic Punic
Wars raged between Rome and Carthage. Situated strategically
between the two great
powers, Sicily naturally became an object of contention. Self
preservation demanded that the
kings of Syracuse negotiate with the great powers, and as a
result the small city-state often
found itself allied with one against the other. Such was the case
in 214 BC, when pro-
Carthaginian factions within the city chose to side with
Carthage against Rome. Shortly
thereafter, legions of the Roman army sailed to Syracuse and
laid siege to the city walls.
http://archimedespalimpsest.org/about/history/archimedes.php
3/19/2015

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King Hiero II had anticipated such an eventuality. Before his
death in 216 BC, Hiero set
Archimedes to work, strengthening the walls of Syracuse and
modifying its great stronghold,
the Euryelos fortress. Archimedes also constructed war
machines to defend Syracuse.
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When the Romans arrived under the command of the famed
general Marcellus, Archimedes
was prepared. The Roman historian Polybius relates that
Archimedes now made such
extensive preparations, both within the city and also to guard
against an attack from the sea,
that there would be no chance of the defenders being employed
in meeting emergencies but
that every move of the enemy could be replied to instantly by a
counter move.... huge beams
were suddenly projected at the [Roman] ships from the walls,
which sank some of them with
great weights plunging down from on high; others were seized
at the prow by iron
claws....drawn straight up into the air, and then plunged stern
foremost into the depths....
with great destruction of the fighting men on board, who
perished in the wrecks....in reality all
the rest of the Syracusans were but a body for the designs of
Archimedes, and his the one

soul moving and managing everything; for all other weapons
laid idle, and his alone were
then employed by the city both in offense and defense.
THE DEATH OF ARCHIMEDES
For two years the genius of Archimedes repelled the Romans,
enabling the city to survive the
lengthy siege. Nevertheless, in 212 BC the forces of Marcellus
prevailed and took the city.
Marcellus had great respect for Archimedes, and immediately
dispatched soldiers to retrieve
his foe. Apparently, the great mathematician was unaware that
his enemy had stormed the
http://archimedespalimpsest.org/about/history/archimedes.php
3/19/2015
city, so deeply were his attentions focused on a mathematical
problem. When a soldier
demanded Archimedes accompany him to the quarters of
Marcellus he simply refused, and
continued his ruminations. The enraged soldier flew upon
Archimedes, striking the 75 year-
old eccentric dead. Marcellus was greatly distressed upon
hearing the news of Archimedes'
death, and ordered that he be buried with honors. Archimedes'
tombstone was, as he had
wished, engraved with an image of a sphere within a cylinder,
after one of his geometrical

treatises.
ARCHIMEDES' LEGACY
Despite the many fantastic tales surrounding the life of
Archimedes, we are most indebted to
him for his mathematical treatises and the contributions he
made to the understanding of
fundamental physical phenomena. Through the medium of
geometry, he was able to
elucidate the principles for such basic devices as the pulley, the
fulcrum and the lever—
devices still utilized today. Archimedes is also credited with the
discovery of the principle of
buoyancy, or the power of a fluid to exert an upward force on a
body placed in it. His further
research into volume and density was fundamental to the
development of theories of
hydrostatics-the branch of physics dealing with liquids at rest.
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The story of the survival of Archimedes' treatises down to our

own time is intricate and
complicated, and has been traced in extraordinary detail. But an
essential point is this: it is
through three manuscripts that we know the texts of Archimedes
treatises in Greek. One was
last heard of in 1311, a second was last heard of in the 1550s,
and the third is The
Archimedes Palimpsest, now at The Walters Art Museum in
Baltimore, and the subject of this
website. Because this is just the start of a fascinating story.
_.
• ~ ~,..
http:Uarchimedespalimpsest.org/about/history/archimedes.php
3/19/2015
Southernization
LYNDA SHAFFER
Tufts University
TxE term southernization is a new one. It is used here to referto
a multifaceted process that began in Southern Asia and
spread from there to various other places around the globe. The
process included so many interrelated strands of development
that it is impossible to do more here than sketch out the general
outlines of a few of them. Among ehe most important that will
be
omitted from this discussion are the metallurgical, the medical,
and the literary. Those included are the development of mathe-

matics; the production and marketing of subtropical or tropical
spices; the pioneering of new trade routes; the cultivation, pro-
cessing, and marketing of southern crops such as sugar and cot-
ton; and the development of various related technologies.
The term southernization is meant to be analogous to westerni-
zation. Weseernization refers to certain developments that first
occurred in western Europe. Those developments changed Eu-
rope and eventually spread to other places and changed them as
well. In the same way, southernization changed Southern Asia
and
later spread eo other areas, which then underwent a process of
change.
Southernization was well under way in Southern Asia by the
fifth century e.E., during the reign of India's Gupta kings (320-
535
c.E.). It was by that time already spreading to China. In the
eighth
century various elements characteristic of southernization began
spreading through the lands of the Muslim caliphates. Both in
China and in the lands of the caliphate, the process led to dra-
matic changes, and by the year iaoo it was beginning to have an
impact on the Christian Mediterranean. One could argue that
Jrnernal of World History, Vol. 9, No. r
O iggq by University of Hawaii Press
JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, SPRING 1994.
within the Norehern Hemisphere, by this time the process of
southernization had created an eastern hemisphere characterized
by a rich south and a north that was poor in comparison. And
one

might even go so far as to suggest that in Europe and its
colonies,
the process of southernization laid the foundation for
westerniza-
tion.
THE INDIAN BEGINNING
Southernization was the result of developments that took place
in
many parts of southern Asia, both on the Indian subcontinent
and
in Southeast Asia. By the time of the Gupta kings, several of its
constituent parts already had a long history in India. Perhaps
the
oldest strand in the process was the cultivation of cotton and the
production of cotton textiles for export. Cotton was first
domesti-
cated in the Indus River valley some time between a3oo and
z76o
s.c.E.,l and by the second millennium B.c.E., the Indians had
begun
to develop sophisticated dyeing techniques.z During these early
millennia Indus River valley merchants are known eo have lived
in
Mesopotamia, where they sold cotton textiles.3
In the first century e.E. Egypt became an important overseas
market for Indian cottons. By the next century there was a
strong
demand for these textiles both in the Mediterranean and in East
Africa,4 and by the fifth century they were being traded in
South-
east Asia.S The Indian textile trade continued to grow
throughout
the next millennium. Even after the arrival of European ships

in Asian ports at the turn of the sixteenth century, it contin-
ued unscathed. According to one textile expert, "India virtually
clothed the world" by the mid-eigheeenth century.6 The
subconti-
~ Andrew Watson, Agricultural bmovatioxi in the Early Islamic
World: The Dif-
fusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, yoo—i roo
(Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press,i983)~ P• 32•
2 Mattiebelle Gittinger, Master Dyers to the World: Technique
and Trade in
Early Indian Dyed Cotton Textiles (Washington, D.C.: Textile
Museum, i98z), p. sq.
For a discussion of the significance of cotton textiles in
Indonesia, see Gittinger,
Splendid Symbols: Textiles aiud Tradition iti htdonesia
(Washington, D.C.: Textile
Museum, ig~q).
' Moti Chandra, Trade and Ti•ade Routes of Ancient India
(Ne~v Delhi: Abhinav
Publications, i977)~ P• 35•
~ Ibid., p, za6.
5 Gittinger, Splendid Symbols, pp. i3> 19.
6 Ibid., p. z5.
Shaffer: Southernization
vent's position was not undermined until Britain's Industrial
Rev-
olution, when steam engines began to power ehe production of
cotton textiles.

Another strand in the process of southernization, the search
for new sources of bullion, can be traced back in India to the
end
of the Mauryan Empire (32i—z85 B.c.E.). During Mauryan rule
Sibe-
ria had been India's main source of gold, but nomadic distur-
bances in Central Asia disrupted the traffic between Siberia and
India at about the time that the Mauryans fell. Indian sailors
then
began to travel to the Malay peninsula and the islands of
Indone-
sia in search of an alternative source,? which they most likely
"discovered" with the help of local peoples who knew the sites.
(This is generally the case with bullion discoveries, including
those made by Arabs and Europeans.) What the Indians (and
oth-
ers later on) did do was introduce this gold to international
trade
routes.
The Indians' search for gold may also have led them to the
shores of Africa. Although its interpretation is controversial,
some archaeological evidence suggests the existence of Indian
influence on parts of East Africa as early as 30o c.E. There is
also
one report that gold was being sought in East Africa by
Ethiopian
merchants, who were among India's most important trading part-
ners. The sixeh-century Byzantine geographer Cosmas Indico-
pleustes described Ethiopian merchants who went to some loca-
tion inland from the East African coast to obtain gold. "Every
other year they would sail far to the south, then march inland,
and in return for various made-up articles they would come back
laden with ingots of gold."$The fact that the expeditions left
every

other year suggests that it took two years to get to their destina-
7 Paul Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the
Historical Geography
of the Malay Peninsula Before A.D. r$oo (Westport, Conn.:
Greenwood Press, 1973)>
p. z88.
8 D. W. Phillipson, "The Beginnittgs of the Iron Age in
Southern Africa," in
UNESCO General History of Africa, vol, z: Ancient
Civilizations of Africa, ed.
G. Mokhtar (Berkeley: University of California Press, i98i), pp.
6~g-8o, 688—go. In
the same volume, see also M. Posnansky, "The Societies of
Africa South of the
Sahara in the Early Iron Age," p. ~z6. Phillipson indicates that
there is evidence of
exchange between Zimbabwe and the coast in this early period,
and Posnansky
refers to the work of R. F. H. Summers who believes that early
prospecting and
mining techniques in East Africa reveal Indian influence. The
description of Ethio-
pian merchants seeking gold in East Africa is from Steven
Runciman, Byzantine
Style and Civilization (Middlesex, England: Penguin Books,
i975)> P• 132• Informa-
tion about the monsoon is from A. M. H. Sheriff, "The East
Africa Coast and Its
Role in Maritime Trade," in Ancient Civilizations of Africa, ed.
Mokhtar, pp. 556-57•
c} JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY SPRING I()()~}

Lion and return. If so, their destination, even at this early date,
may have been Zimbabwe. The wind patterns are such that
sailors
who ride the monsoon south as far as Kilwa can catch the return
monsoon to the Red Sea area within the same year. But if they
go
beyond Kilwa to the Zambezi River, from which they might go
inland to Zimbabwe, they cannot return until the following year.
Indian voyages on the Indian Ocean were part of a more gen-
eral development, more or less contemporary with the Mauryan
empire, in which sailors of various nationalities began to knit
together the shores of the "Southern Ocean," a Chinese term
referring to all the waters from the South China Sea to the
eastern
coast of Africa. During this period there is no doubt that the
most
intrepid sailors were the Malays, peoples who lived in what is
now
Malaysia, Indonesia, the southeastern coast of Vietnam, and the
Philippines.9
Sometime before 30o s.c.E. Malay sailors began to ride the
monsoons, the seasonal winds that blow off the continent of
Asia
in the colder months and onto its shores in the warmer months.
Chinese records indicate that by the third century s.c.E.
"Kunlun"
sailors, the Chinese term for the Malay seamen, were sailing
north to the southern coasts of China. They may also have been
sailing east to India, through the straits now called Malacca and
Sunda. If so they may have been the first to establish contact
between India and Southeast Asia.
Malay sailors had reached the eastern coast of Africa at least

by the first century s.c.E., if not earlier. Their presence in East
African waters is teseified to by the peoples of Madagascar,
who
still speak a Malayo-Polynesian language. Some evidence also
sug-
gests that Malay sailors had settled in the Red Sea area. Indeed,
it
appears that they were the first to develop along-distance trade
in a southern spice. In the last centuries s.c.E., if not earlier,
Malay sailors were delivering cinnamon from South China Sea
ports to East Africa and the Red Sea,lo
By about 40o c.E. Malay sailors could be found two-thirds of
9 Anthony Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce,
r45o—r68o, a vols. (New
Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, x988-93)~ I~4~
'o Keith Taylor, "Madagascar in the Ancient Malayo-Polynesian
Myths," in
Explorations in Early Soti~theast Asian. History: The Origins of
Southeast Asian
Statecraft, ed. Kenneth Hall and John Whitmore (Ann Arbor:
University of Michi-
gan, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, 1976), p. 39.
An excellent source
on the early spice trade is James Innes Miller, The Spice Trade
of the Roman
Empire, zg s.C. to A.D. 649 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, x969).
the way around the world, from Easter Island to East Africa.
They

rode the monsoons without a compass, out of sight of land, and
often at laeitudes below the equator where the northern pole star
cannot be seen. They navigated by the wind and the stars, by
cloud formations, the color of the water, and swell and wave
pat-
terns on the ocean's surface. They could discern the presence of
an island some thirty miles from its shores by noting the
behavior
of birds, the animal and plant life in the water, and the swell
and
wave patterns. Given their manner of sailing, their most likely
route to Africa and the Red Sea would have been by way of the
island clusters, the Maldives, the Chagos, the Seychelles, and
the
Comoros.11
Malay ships used balance lug sails, which were square in
shape and mounted so that they could pivot. This made ie
possible
for sailors to tack against the wind, that is, to sail into the wind
by
going diagonally against it, first one way and then the ocher.
Due
to the way the sails were mounted, they appeared somewhat
trian-
gular in shape, and thus the Malays' balance lug sail may well
be
the prototype of the triangular lateen, which can also be used to
tack against the wind. The latter was invented by both the
Polyne-
sians to the Malays' east and by the Arabs to their west,1z both
of
whom had ample opportunity to see the Malays' ships in action.
It appears that the pepper trade developed after the cinnamon
trade. In the first century e.E. southern India began supplying

the
Mediterranean with large quantities of pepper. Thereafter,
Indian
merchants could be found living on the island of Socotra, near
the
mouth of the Red Sea, and Greek-speaking sailors, including the
anonymous author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, could
be
found sailing in the Red Sea and riding the monsoons from there
to India.
Indian traders and shippers and Malay sailors were also
responsible for opening up an all-sea route to China. The
traders'
desire for silk drew them out into dangerous waters in search of
a
more direct way to its source. By ehe second century e.E. Indian
merchants could make the trip by sea, but the route was slow,
and
it took at least two years to make a round trip. Merchants
leaving
from India's eastern coast rounded the shores of the Bay of
Bengal. When they came to the Isthmus of Kra, the narrowest
11 Taylor, "Madagascar," pp. 3o-31> 52•
1z George Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the hidian Ocean in
Ancient and Medie-
val Titnes (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, i95r), p.
ioz.
JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, SPRING 199c}
part of the Malay peninsula, the ships were unloaded, and the

goods were portaged across to the Gulf of Thailand. The cargo
was then reloaded on ships that rounded the gulf until they
reached Funan, a kingdom on what is now the Kampuchea-Viet-
nam border. There they had to wait for the winds to shift, before
embarking upon a ship that rode the monsoon to China.13
Some time before 40o c.E. travelers began to use a new all-sea
route to China, a route that went around the Malay peninsula
and
thus avoided the Isthmus of Kra portage. The ships lefe from Sri
Lanka and sailed before the monsoon, far from any coasts,
through either the Strait of Malacca or the Strait of Sunda into
the Java Sea. After waiting in the Java Sea port for the winds to
shift, they rode the monsoon eo southern China.l~ The most
likely
developers of this route were Malay sailors, since the new stop-
over ports were located wiehin their territories.
Not until the latter part of the fourth century, at about the
same time as the new all-sea route began to direct commercial
traffic through the Java Sea, did the fine spices—cloves,
nutmeg,
and mace—begin to assume importance on international
markets.
These rare and expensive spices came from the Moluccas,
several
island groups about a thousand miles east of Java. Cloves were
produced on about five minuscule islands off the western coast
of
Halmahera; nutmeg and mace came from only a few of the
Banda
Islands, some ten islands with a total area of seventeen square
miles, located in the middle of the Banda Sea. Until i62r these
Moluccan islands were the only places in the world able to
produce cloves, nutmeg, and mace in commercial quantities.ls

The Moluccan producers themselves brought their spices to the
international markets of the Java Sea ports and created the mar-
ket for them.16
It was also during the time of ehe Gupta kings, around 35o c.E.,
that the Indians discovered how to crystallize sugar.i~ There is
considerable disagreement about where sugar was first domesti-
13 Kenneth Hall, Maritime Trade and State Formation in
Southeast Asia (Hono-
lulu: University of Hawaii Press, ig85), p, zo.
I~ Ibid., p. ~z.
15 Henry N. Ridley, Spices (London: Macmillan, i9ra), p. io5.
16 Hall, Maritime Trade and State Formation, p. zi.
17 Joseph E. Schwartzberg, A Histortcal Atlas of South Asia
(Chicaga Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, iq~8). The date 35o c.a. appears in "A
Chronology of South
Asia," a pocket insert in the atlas.
Gated. Some believe that the plant was native to New Guinea
and
domesticated there, and others argue that it was domesticated by
Southeast Asian peoples living in what is now southern
China.18
In any case, sugar cultivation spread to the Indian subcontinent.
Sugar, however, did not become an important item of trade until
the Indians discovered how to turn sugarcane juice into granu-
lated crystals that could be easily stored and transported. This
was a momentous development, and it may have been

encouraged
by Indian sailing, for sugar and clarified butter (ghee) were
among the dietary mainstays of Indian sailors.19
The Indians also laid the foundation for modern mathematics
during the time of the Guptas. Western numerals, which the
Euro-
peans called Arabic since they acquired ehem from the Arabs,
actually come from India. (The Arabs call them Hindi numbers.)
The most significant feature of the Indian system was the inven-
tion of the zero as a number concept. The oldest extant treatise
that uses the zero in the modern way is a mathematical appen-
dix attached to Aryabhata's text on astronomy, which is dated
499
c.E.zo
The Indian zero made the place-value system of writing num-
bers superior to all others. Without it, the use of this system,
base
ten or otherwise, was fraught with difficulties and did not seem
any better than alternative systems. With the zero the Indians
were able to perform calculations rapidly and accurately, to per-
form much more complicated calculations, and to discern
mathe-
matical relationships more aptly. These numerals and the mathe-
matics that the Indians developed with them are now universal
—just one indication of the global significance of
southernization.
As a result of these developments India acquired a reputation
as a place of marvels, a reputation that was maintained for many
18 For a discussion on its domestication in southern China by
the ancestors of
the Southeast Asians, see Peter Bellwood, "Southeast Asia

before History," in
Nicholas Tarling, ed., Cambridge History of Southeast Asia
(Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, i99z), i:qo—qz. Also see Sidney W.
Mintz, Saveetness and
Poaver: The Place of Stcgar in Modern. History (New York:
Viking, i985)> P• 19. Mintz
agrees with those who argue that sugar was domesticated in
New Guinea. He also
suggests that crystallized sugar may have been produced in
India as early as 400-
35o s.c.E.
19 Chandra, Trade and Trade Routes of Ancient India, p. 6z.
20 Georges Ifrah, From One to Zero: A Universal History of
Numbers, trans.
Lowell Blair (New York: Viking, i985)> PP• 38z, 434• This is
an excellent book that
explains many mysteries and contradictions in the literature.
Even those who are
not mathematically inclined will enjoy it.
H JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY SPRING IO94
centuries after the Gupta dynasty fell. As late as the ninth
century
`Amr ibn Bahr al Jahiz (ca. ~~6-868), one of the most
influential
writers of Arabic, had the following to say about India:
As regards the Indians, they are among the leaders in
astronomy,
mathematics—in particular, they have Indian numerals—and

medicine; they alone possess the secrets of the latter, and use
them to practice some remarkable forms of treatment. They have
the art of carving statues and painted figures. They possess the
game of chess, tivhich is the noblest of games and requires
more
judgment and intelligence than any other. They make Kedah
swords, and excel in their use. They have splendid music....
They
possess a script capable of expressing the sounds of all
languages,
as well as many numerals. They have a great deal of poetry,
many
long treatises, and a deep understanding of philosophy and let-
ters; the book Kalila wa-Dimna originated with them. They are
intelligent and courageous.... Their sound judgment and sensi-
ble habits led them to invent pins, cork, toothpicks, the drape of
clothes and the dyeing of hair. They are handsome, attractive
and
forbearing, their women are proverbial, and their country pro-
duces the matchless Indian aloes which are supplied to kings.
They were the originators of the science of filer, by which a
poison
can be counteracted after it has been used, and of astronomical
reckoning, subsequently adopted by the rest of the world. When
Adam descended from Paradise, it was to their land that he
made
his way. 21
THE SOUTHERNIZATION OF CHINA
These Southern Asian developments began to have a significant
impact on China after 35o c.E. The Han dynasty had fallen in
a2i
c.E., and for more than 35o Years thereafter China was ruled by
an
ever changing collection of regional kingdoms. During these

cen-
turies Buddhism became increasingly important in China, Bud-
dhist monasteries spread throughout the disunited realm, and
cultural exchange between India and China grew accordingly.zz
By 58r, when the Sui dynasty reunited the empire, processes
asso-
ciated with southernization had already had a major impact on
zt `Amr ibn Bahr al Jahiz, The Life and Worlu of Jahiz, trans.
from Arabic by
Charles Pellat, trans. from French by D. W. Hauler (Berkeley:
University of Cali-
fornia Press, i969)> PP• 197-9$•
~~ See Liu Xinru, Ancient India and Ancient China: Trade and
Religious
Exchanges, n.D. r—boo (Delhi: Oxford University Press, ig88).
China. The influence of southernization continued during the
Tang (6z8—gob) and Song (96o—ra79) dynasties. One might
even go so
far as to suggest that the process of southernization underlay the
revolutionary social, political, economic, and technological
devel-
opments of the Tang and Song.
The Chinese reformed their mathematics, incorporating the
advantages of the Indian system, even though they did not adopt
the Indian numerals at that eime.23 They then went on to
develop
an advanced mathematics, which was flourishing by the time of

the Song dynasty.2̀~ Cotton and indigo became well established,
giving rise to the blue-black peasant garb that is still
omnipresent
in China. Also in the Song period the Chinese first developed
cot-
ton canvas, which they used to make a more efficient sail for
ocean-going ships,zs
Although sugar had long been grown in some parts of southern
China it did not become an important crop in this region until
the
process of southernization was well under way. The process also
introduced new varieties of rice. The most important of these
was
what the Chinese called Champa rice, since it came to China
from
Champa, a Malay kingdom located on what is now the
southeast-
ern coast of Vietnam. Champa rice was adrought-resistant, early
ripening variety that made it possible to extend cultivation up
well-watered hillsides, thereby doubling the area of rice cultiva-
tion in China.26 The eleventh-century Buddhist monk Shu Wen-
ying left an account explaining how the Champa rice had
arrived
in China:
Emperor Cheng-tsung [Zhengzong (998—zozz)], being deeply
con-
cerned with agriculture, came to know that the Champa rice was
drought-resistant and that the green lentils of India were famous
for their heavy yield and large seeds. Special envoys, bringing
pre-
cious things, were dispatched [to these states], with a view to
securing these varieties... ,When the first harvests were reaped
in the autumn, [the emperor] called his intimate ministers to
taste

23 ffrah, From One to Zero, p. 46r.
z~ Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, 6 vols.
to date, vol. 3:
Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and Earth
(Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, r959)> PP• 4~-5~•
25 Lo Jung-pang, "The Emergence of China as a Sea Power
during the Late
Sung and Early Yuan Dynasties," Far Eastern Economic
Revieav r4 ~1955)~ 500.
zb Ho Ping-ti, "Early-Ripening Rice in Chinese History,"
Economic History
Revieav 9 (1956): zoi.
IO JOURNAL OF ~~✓ORLD HISTORY, SPRING 1994.
them and composed poems for Champa rice and Indian green
lentils.z7
In southern China the further development of rice production
brought significant changes in the landscape. Before the
introduc-
tion of Champa rice, rice cultivation had been confined to low-
lands, deltas, basins, and river valleys. Once Champa rice was
introduced and rice cultivation spread up the hillsides, the Chi-
nese began systematic terracing and made use of sophisticated
techniques of water control on mountain slopes. Between the
mid-
eighth and the early twelfth century the population of southern
China tripled, and the total Chinese population doubled.

Accord-
ing to Song dynasty household registration figures for z zo2 and
nio—figures that Song dynasty specialists have shown to be
reli-
able—there were zoo million people in China by the first decade
of
the twelfth century.28
Before the process of southernization, northern China had
always been predominant, intellectually, socially, and
politically.
The imperial center of gravity was clearly in the north, and the
southern part of China was perceived as a frontier area. But
southernization changed this situation dramatically. By 600,
southern China was well on its way to becoming the most
prosper-
ous and most commercial part of the empire.29 The most telling
evidence for this is the construction of the Grand Canal, which
was completed around 6ro, during the Sui dynasty. Even though
the rulers of the Sui had managed to put the pieces of the
empire
back together in 58r and rule the whole of China again from a
sin-
gle norehern capital, they were dependent on the new southern
crops. Thus it is no coincidence that this dynasty felt the need
to
build a canal that could deliver southern rice to northern
cities.30
The Tang dynasty, when Buddhist influence in China was espe-
cially strong, saw two exceedingly important technological
inno-
vations—the invention of printing and gunpowder. These
develop-
ments may also be linked to southernization. Printing seems eo
have developed within the walls of Buddhist monasteries

between
boo and 750, and subtropical Sichuan was one of the earliest
cen-
Z~ Ibid., p. zoo.
z8 Ibid., pp. z r r—r 2.
z9 Ibid., PP. aos-6.
30 Ibid., p, zo6.
Shaffer: Southernization r i
ters of the art.31 The invention of gunpowder in China by
Daoist
alchemists in the ninth century may also be related to the
linkages
between India and China created by Buddhism. In 64,4 an
Indian
monk identified soils in China that contained saltpeter and dem-
onstraeed the purple flame that results from its ignition.32 As
early as 919 c.E. gunpowder was used as an igniter in a flame
thrower, and the tenth century also saw the use of flaming
arrows,
rockets, and bombs thrown by catapults.33 The earliest evidence
of a cannon or bombard (ria~) has been found in Sichuan, quite
near the Tibetan border, across the Himalayas from India.34
By the time of the Song the Chinese also had perfected the
"south-pointing needle," otherwise known as the compass. Vari-
ous prototypes of ehe compass had existed in China from the
third
century s.e.E., but the new version developed during the Song
was
particularly well suited for navigation. Soon Chinese mariners
were using the south-pointing needle on the oceans, publishing

"needle charts" for the benefit of sea captains and following
"nee-
dle routes" on the Southern Ocean.35
Once the Chinese had the compass they, like Columbus, set out
to find a direct route to the spice markets of Java and ultimately
to the Spice Islands in the Moluccas. Unlike Columbus, they
found them. They did not bump into an obstacle, now known as
31 Thomas Francis Carter, The Ittveittion of Printing in China
aitd Its Spread
Westward (New York: Columbia University Press, 1955)> PP•
68> 3$-4~•
32 For a reference to the Indian monk, see Arnold Paley,
Technology in World
Civilization: A Thousand Year History (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT
Press, i99i), p, z6.
Other information on gunpowder included here comes from
Joseph Needham,
"Science and China's Influence on the World," in Raymond
Dawson, ed., The Leg-
acy of China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964), p. a46.
This article is an excel-
lent brief account of Chinese science and technology and their
global significance.
James R. Partington's A History of Greek Fire and Gtmpowder
(Cambridge: W. Heffer,
ig6o), is still useful.
33 Lo, "The Emergence of China as a Seapo~ver," pp. Soo—
Soi.
'~ Lu Gwei-Djen, Joseph Needham, and Phan Che-Hsing, "The
Oldest Represen-
tation of a Bombard," in Joseph Needham, Science and

Civilisation. in China, vol. 5,
part ~: Military Technology: The Gttnpoavder Epoch
(Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1986), appendix A, pp. 58o-8r. (I am indebted to
Robin Yates for this
information. )
35 Lo, "The Emergence of China as a Seapower," p. 500. Other
useful articles by
Lo include: "Maritime Commerce and Its Relation to the Song
Navy," Journal of
the Economic and Social History of the Orient rz (r969): 57—
ioi; and "The Termina-
tion of the Early Ming Naval Expeditions," in Papers in Hoitor
of Professor Wood-
bridge Binghamr A Festschrift for His Seventy-Fifth Birthday,
ed. James B. Parsons
(San Francisco: Chinese Materials Center, 1976), pp. iz7-4r.
I2 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, SPRING 19Oq
the Western Hemisphere, on their way, since it was not located
between China and the Spice Islands. If it had been so situated,
the Chinese would have found it some 50o years before
Columbus.
Cities on China's southern coasts became centers of overseas
commerce. Silk remained an important export, and by the Tang
dynasty it had been joined by a true porcelain, which was devel-
oped in China sometime before 40o c.E. China and its East
Asian
neighbors had a monopoly on the manufacture of true porcelain
until the early eighteenth ceneury. Many attempts were made to
imitate it, and some of the resulting imitations were

economically
and stylistically important. China's southern ports were also
exporting to Southeast Asia large quantities of ordinary con-
sumer goods, including iron hardware, such as needles, scissors,
and cooking pots. Although iron manufacturing was
concentrated
in the north, the large quantity of goods produced was a direct
result of the size of the market in southern China and overseas.
Until the British Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth
century,
no other place ever equaled the iron production of Song
China.36
THE MUSLIM CALIPHATES
In the seventh century c.E. Arab cavalries, recently converted to
the new religion of Islam, conquered eastern and southern Medi-
terranean shores that had been Byzantine (and Christian), as
well
as the Sassanian empire (Zoroastrian) in what is now Iraq and
Iran. In the eighth century they went on to conquer Spain and
Turko-Iranian areas of Central Asia, as well as northwestern
India. Once established on the Indian frontier, they became
acquainted with many of the elements of southernization.
The Arabs were responsible for the spread of many important
crops, developed or improved in India, to the Middle East,
North
Africa, and Islamic Spain. Among the most important were
sugar,
16 Robert Hartwell, "A Revolution in the Chinese Iron and Coal
Industries dur-
ing the Northern Sung, 96o—iiz6 A.D.," Journal of Asian
Studies ii (ig6z): i55; and
Hartwell, "Markets, Technology, and the Structure of Enterprise

in the Develop-
ment of the Eleventh-Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry,"
Journal of Eco-
nomic History z6 (zg66): 54. See also Hartwell, "A Cycle of
Economic Change in
Imperial China: Coal and Iron in Northeast China, 750—i35o,"
Jottrttal of the Social
and Economic History of the Orient ro (i96~): ioz—Sg. For an
excellent overview of
the transformations in Tang and Song China, see Mark Elvin,
The Patterns of the
Chinese Past (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1973).
Shaffer: Southernization i3
cotton, and citrus fruits.37 Although sugarcane and cotton
cultiva-
tion may have spread to Iraq and Ethiopia before the Arab con-
quests,38 only after the establishment of the caliphates did
these
southern crops have a major impact throughout the Middle East
and North Africa.
The Arabs were the first to import large numbers of enslaved
Africans in order to produce sugar. Fields in the vicinity of
Basra,
at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, were the most important
sugar-producing areas within the caliphates, but before this land
could be used, it had to be desalinated. To accomplish this task,
the Arabs imported East African (Zanj) slaves. This African
com-
munity remained in the area, where they worked as agricultural
laborers. The famous writer al Jahiz, whose essay on India was
quoted earlier, was a descendant of Zanj slaves. In 869, one

year
after his death, the Zanj slaves in Iraq rebelled. It took the
caliphate fifteen years of hard figheing to defeat them, and
there-
after Muslim owners rarely used slaves for purposes that would
require eheir concentration in large numbers.39
The Arabs were responsible for moving sugarcane cultivation
and sugar manufacturing westward from southern Iraq into other
relatively arid lands. Growers had to adapt the plant to new
condi-
tions, and they had to develop more efficient irrigation
technolo-
gies. By r000 or so sugarcane had become an important crop in
the Yemen; in Arabian oases; in irrigated areas of Syria,
Lebanon,
Palestine, Egypt, and the Mahgrib; in Spain; and on Mediterra-
nean islands controlled by Muslims. By the tenth century cotton
also had become a major crop in the lands of the caliphate, from
Iran and Central Asia to Spain and the Mediterranean islands.
Cotton industries sprang up wherever the plant was cultivated,
producing for both local and distant markets,4o
The introduction of Indian crops, such as sugar and cotton, led
to a much more intensive agriculture in the Middle East and
some
parts of the Medieerranean. Before the arrival of these crops,
farmers had planted in ehe fall to take advantage of autumn
rains
and harvested in the spring. In the heat of the summer their
fields
37 Watson, Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World,
pp. ~8-80.
'a Sheriff, "The East African Coast." p. 566.
'~ William D. Phillips, Slavery from Roman Times to the Early

Transatlantic
Trade (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985), p.
~6.
~0 Watson, Agricultural Iniwvation in the Early Islamic Wrn•ld,
pp. a9~ 39-41•
Iq JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY SPRING IC~94
usually lay fallow. But the new southern crops preferred the
heat
of the summer, and thus farmers began to use their fields
throughout the year. They also began to use a system of
multiple
cropping, a practice that seems to have come from India. This
led
to an increased interest in soil fertility, and to manuals that
advised farmers about adding such things as animal dung and
vegetable and mineral materials to the soil to maintain its
produc-
tivity.'}1
Under Arab auspices, Indian mathematics followed the same
routes as the crops.4~ Al-Kharazmi (ca. ~8o-8q.~) introduced
Indian
mathematics to the Arabic-reading world in his Treatise on
Calcu-
lation wieh the Hindu Numerals, written around 8a5,
Mathemati-
cians wiehin the caliphates then could draw upon the Indian
tradi-
tion, as well as the Greek and Persian. On this foundation
Muslim
scientists of many nationalities, including al-Battani (d. 9z9),

who
came from the northern reaches of the Mesopotamian plain, and
the Persian Umar Khayyam (d. ria3), made remarkable advances
in
both algebra and trigonometry.43
The Arab conquests also led to an increase in long-distance
commerce and the "discovery" of new sources of bullion. Soon
after the Abbasid caliphate established its capital at Baghdad,
the
caliph al-Mansur (r. X45-75) reportedly remarked, "This is the
Tigris; there is no obstacle between us and China; everything on
the sea can come to us."4̀ ~ By this time Arab ships were plying
the
maritime routes from the Persian Gulf to China, and they soon
outnumbered all others using ehese routes. By ehe ninth century
they had acquired the compass (in China, mose likely), and they
may well have been the first to use it for marine navigation,
since
the Chinese do not seem to have used it for this purpose until
after
the tenth century.
After eheir conquest of Central Asia the Arabs "discovered" a
silver mine near Tashkent and a veritable mountain of silver in
present-day Afghanistan, a find quite comparable to Potosi in
South America. The Arabs mined and coined so much silver that
4~ Ibid., PP. iz3—z5.
~2 Ifrah, From One to Zero, p. 465.
~' R. M. Savory, Introduction to Islmnic Civilization
(Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, iq~6), pp. iz6—i~.
~~ C. G. F. Simkins, The Traditional Trade of Asia (Oxford:
Oxford University

Press, 1968), p. 8r.
Shaffer: Southernization 15
by 85o its value, relative to gold, had fallen from io:i to
i7:z.`~5 By
94o the ratio had recovered to zz:i, in large part because the
Arabs
had access to larger quantities of gold. After the conquest of
North Africa they had discovered that gold came across the
Sahara, and they then became intent on going to Ghana, its
source.
Thus it was that the Arabs "pioneered" or improved an exist-
ing long-distance route across the Sahara, an ocean of sand
rather
than water. Routes across this desert had always existed, and
trade and other contacts between West Africa and the
Mediterra-
nean date back at least to the Phoenician period. Still, the num-
bers of people and animals crossing this great ocean of sand
were
limited until the eighth century when Arabs, desiring to go
directly to the source of the gold, prompted an expansion of
trade
across the Sahara. Also during the eighth century Abdul al-
Rahman, an Arab ruler of Morocco, sponsored the construction
of
wells on the trans-Saharan route from Sijilmasa to Wadidara to
facilitate this traffic. This Arab "discovery" of West African
gold
eventually doubled the amount of gold in international circula-
tion.46 East Africa, too, became a source of gold for the Arabs.

By
the tenth century Kilwa had become an important source of
Zim-
babwean gold.47
DEVELOPMENTS AFTER I200: THE MONGOLIAN
CONQUEST AND
THE SOUTHERNIZATION OF THE EUROPEAN
MEDITERRANEAN
By z zoo the process of Southernization had created a
prosperous
south from China to the Muslim Mediterranean. Although
mathe-
matics, the pioneering of new ocean routes, and "discoveries" of
~5 Sture Bolin, "Mohammed, Charlemagne, and Ruric,"
Scandinavian Eco-
nomic History Revieav z (1953) i6. In the past, Sture's
interpretation of the Carolin-
gians has been disputed. The article has, however, stood the test
of time. For
example, see the assessment of it in Richard Hodges and David
Whitehouse, Mo-
haimned, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe (Ithaca:
Cornell University
Press, ig83). The information about Scandinavia's relationship
with the caliphates
is especially valuable.
46 Anthony Hopkins, Apt Economic History of West Africa
(New York: Columbia
University Press, i973)~ P~ 82•
47 F. T. Masao and H. W. Mutoro, "The East African Coast and

the Comoro
Islands, in UNESCO General History of Africa., vol. 3: Africa
from the Seventh to the
Eleventh Century, ed. M. El Fasi (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1988), pp.
6ri—is.
ZE) JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, SPRING 19C)~}
bullion are not inextricably connected to locations within forty
degrees of the equator, several crucial elements in the process
of
southernization were closely linked to latitude. Cotton generally
does not grow above the fortieth parallel. Sugar, cinnamon, and
pepper are tropical or subtropical crops, and the fine spices will
grow only on particular tropical islands. Thus for many centu-
ries the more southern parts of Asia and the Muslim Mediterra-
nean enjoyed the profits that these developments brought, while
locations that were too far north to grow these southern crops
were unable to participate in such lucrative agricultural enter-
prises.
The process of southernization reached its zenith after z zoo, in
large part because of the tumultuous events of the thirteenth
cen-
tury. During that century in both hemispheres there were major
transformations in the distribution of power, wealth, and pres-
tige. In the Western Hemisphere several great powers went
down.
Cahokia (near East St. Louis, Illinois), which for three centuries
had been the largest and most influential of the Mississippian
mound-building centers, declined after z zoo, and in Mexico
Toltec
power collapsed. In the Mediterranean the prestige of the

Byzan-
tine empire was destroyed when Venetians seized its capital in
z2oq.. From z2zz to zz~o the Christians conquered southern
Spain,
except for Granada. In West Africa, Ghana fell to Sosso, and so
did
Mali, one of Ghana's allies. But by about ra3o Mali, in the
process
of seeking its own revenge, had created an empire even larger
than Ghana's. At the same time Zimbabwe was also becoming a
major power in southern Africa.
The grandest conquerors of the thirteenth century were the
Central Asians. Turkish invaders established ehe Delhi sultanate
in India. Mongolian cavalries devastated Baghdad, the seat of
the
Abbasid caliphate since the eighth century, and they captured
Kiev, further weakening Byzantium. By the end of the century
they had captured China, Korea, and parts of mainland
Southeast
Asia as well.
Because the Mongols were pagans at the time of their con-
quests, the western Europeans cheered them on as they laid
waste
to one after another Muslim center of power in the Middle East.
The Mongols were stopped only when they encountered the
Mamluks of Egypt at Damascus. In East Asia and Southeast
Asia
only the Japanese and the Javanese were able to defeat them.
The
victors in Java went on to found Majapahit, whose power and
prestige then spread through maritime Southeast Asia.

Shaffer: Southernization r ~
Both hemispheres were reorganized profoundly during this
turmoil. Many places that had flourished were toppled, and
power gravitated to new locales. In the Eastern Hemisphere the
Central Asian conquerors had done great damage to traditional
southern centers just about everywhere, except in Africa, south-
ern China, southern India, and maritime Southeast Asia. At the
same time the Mongols' control of overland routes between
Europe and Asia in the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries
fostered unprecedented contacts between Europeans and peoples
from those areas that had long been southernized. Marco Polo's
long sojourn in Yuan Dynasty China is just one example of such
interaction.
Under the Mongols overland trade routes in Asia shifted north
and converged on the Black Sea. After the Genoese helped the
Byzantines to retake Constantinople from the Venetians in i26i,
the Genoese were graneed special privileges of trade in the
Black
Sea. Italy then became directly linked to the Mongolian routes.
Genoese traders were among the first and were certainly the
most
numerous to open up trade with the Mongolian states in
southern
Russia and Iran. In the words of one Western historian, in their
Black Sea colonies they "admitted to citizenship" people of
many
nationalities, including those of "strange background and ques-
tionable belief," and they "wound up christening children of the
best ancestry with such uncanny names as Saladin, Hethum, or
Hulugu."48
Such contacts contributed to the southernization of the Chris-
tian Mediterranean during this period of Mongolian hegemony.
Although European conquerors sometimes had taken over sugar

and cotton lands in the Middle East during the Crusades, not
until
some time after r2oo did the European-held Mediterranean
islands become important exporters. Also after iz.00 Indian
math-
ematics began to have a significant impact in Europe. Before
that
time a few western European scholars had become acquainted
with Indian numerals in Spain, where the works of al-Kharazmi,
al-Battani, and other mathematicians had been translated into
Latin. Nevertheless, Indian numerals and mathematics did noe
become important in western Europe until the thirteenth
century,
~8 Robert S. Lopez, "Market Expansion: The Case of Genoa,"
Journal of Eco-
ttomic History z4 ~1964)~ 447-49• See also Lopez, "Back to
Gold, izsz," in Economic
History Review 9X1956): zrq—qo. The latter includes a
discussion of the relationship
between western European coinage and the trans-Saharan gold
trade.
IH JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, SPRING 199 }
after the book Liber abaci (r Zoa ), written by Leonardo
Fibonacci of
Pisa (ca. rr~o—z25o), introduced them to the commercial
centers of
Italy. Leonardo had grown up in North Africa (in what is now
Bejala, Algeria), where his father, consul over the Pisan mer-
chants in that port, had sent him to study calculation with an
Arab master. }̀9

In the seventeenth century, when Francis Bacon observed the
"force and virtue and consequences of discoveries," he singled
out
three technologies in particular that "have changed the whole
face and state of things throughout the world."50 These were all
Chinese inventions—the compass, printing, and gunpowder. All
three were first acquired by Europeans during this time of
hemis-
pheric reorganization.
It was most likely the Arabs who introduced the compass to
Mediterranean waters, either at the end of the twelfth or in the
thirteenth century. Block printing, gunpowder, and cannon
appeared first in .Italy in the fourteenth century, apparently
after
making a single great leap from Mongolian-held regions of East
Asia to Italy. How this great leap was accomplished is not
known,
but the most likely scenario is one suggested by Lynn White,
Jr.,
in an article concerning how various other Southern (rather than
Eastern) Asian technologies reached western Europe at about
this
time. He thought it most likely that they were introduced by
"Tatar" slaves. Lama Buddhists from the frontiers of China
whom
the Genoese purchased in Black Sea marts and delivered to
Italy.
By rq,5o when this trade reached its peak, there were thousands
of
ehese Asian slaves in every major Italian city.51
Yet another consequence of the increased traffic and commu-
nication on the more northern trade routes traversing the Eura-
sian steppe was the transmission of the bubonic plague from
China to the Black Sea. The plague had broken out first in

China
in i33i, and apparently rats and lice infected with the disease
rode
westward in the saddlebags of Mongolian post messengers,
horse-
men who were capable of traveling one hundred miles per day.
By
'~9 Ifrah, From One to Zero, pp. 465, 48i. See also Joseph and
Frances Gies,
Leonardo of Pisa and the Neav Mathematics of the Middle Ages
(New York: Crowell,
1969).
so Bacon is cited in Needham, "Science and China's Influence
on the World,"
p. 24z.
s' Lynn White, Jr., "Tibet, India, and Malaya as Sources of
Western Medieval
Technology," American Historical Review 65 (z96o): Sig—a6.
This is an important, if
little-known, article.
Shaffer: Southernization rq
1346 it had reached a Black Sea port, whence it made its way to
the
Middle East and Europe.5z
During the latter part of the fourteenth century the unity of
the Mongolian empire began to disineegrate, and new regional
powers began to emerge in its wake. Throughout much of Asia
the

chief beneficiaries of imperial disintegration were Turkic or
Turko-Mongolian powers of the Muslim faith. The importance
of
Islam in Africa was also growing at this time, and the peoples
of
Southeast Asia, from the Malay peninsula to the southern
Philip-
pines, were converting to the faith.
Indeed, the world's most obvious dynamic in the centuries
before Columbus was the expansion of the Islamic faith. Under
Turkish auspices Islam was even spreading into eastern Europe,
a
development marked by the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople
in 1453 • This traumatic evene lent a special urgency to Iberian
expansion. The Iberians came to see themselves as the chosen
defenders of Christendom. Ever since the twelfth century, while
Christian Byzantium had been losing Anatolia and parts of
south-
eastern Europe to Islam, they had been retaking ehe Iberian pen-
insula for Christendom.
One way to weaken the Ottomans and Islam was to go around
the North African Muslims and find a new oceanic route to the
source of West African gold. Before the Portuguese efforts,
sailing
routes had never developed off the western shore of Africa,
since
the winds there blow in the same direction all year long, from
north to south. (Earlier European sailors could have gone to
West
Africa, but they would not have been able to return home.)
The Portuguese success would have been impossible without
the Chinese compass, Arabic tables indicating the declination of
the noonday sun at various latitudes, and the lateen sail, which

was also an Arab innovation. The Portuguese caravels were of
mixed, or multiple, ancestry, with a traditional Atlantic hull and
a
rigging that combined the traditional Atlantic square sail with
the
lateen sail of Southern Ocean provenance. With the lateen sail
the
Portuguese could tack against the wind for the trip homeward.
The new route to West Africa led to Portugal's rounding of
Africa and direct participation in Southern Ocean trade. While
making the voyages to West Africa, European sailors learned
the
wind patterns and ocean currents west of Africa, knowledge that
Sz William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City,
N.Y.: Anchor Press,
r976)> PP• 133 145•
20 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, SPRING 1994
made the Columbian voyages possible. The Portuguese moved
the
sugarcane plant from Sicily to Madeira, in the Atlantic, and
they
found new sources of gold, first in West Africa and then in East
Africa. Given that ehere was little demand in Southern Ocean
ports for European trade goods, they would noe have been able
to
sustain their Asian trade without this African gold.
THE RISE OF EUROPE'S NORTH
The rise of the north, or more precisely, the rise of Europe's

north-
west, began with the appropriation of those elements of
southern-
ization that were not confined by geography. In the wake of
their
southern European neighbors, they became partially southern-
ized, but they could not engage in all aspects of the process due
to
their distance from the equator. Full southernization and the
wealth that we now associate with northwestern Europe came
about only after their outright seizure of tropical and
subtropical
territories and their rounding of Africa and participation in
Southern Ocean trade.
In the West Indies and along the coast of South America, the
Dutch, the French, and the English acquired lands where for the
first time they were able to become producers of sugar and cot-
ton, though with African labor on Native American land. In
West
Africa the Dutch seized the Portuguese fort at Elmina,
Portugal's
most important source of gold. And in the East Indies, the
Dutch
seized Portuguese trading posts in the Moluccas and in z6zi
con-
quered the Banda Islands, thereby gaining a stranglehold on the
fine spices. Without such southern possessions the more
northern
Europeans had been unable to participate fully in the southerni-
zation process, since their homelands are too far north to grow
either cotton or sugar, much less cinnamon, pepper, or the fine
spices.
Even though the significance of indigenous developments in
the rise of northwestern Europe should not be minimized, it

should be emphasized that many of the most important causes of
the rise of the West are not to be found within the bounds of
Europe. Rather, they are the result of the transformation of
west-
ern Europe's relationships with other regions of the Eastern
Hemi-
sphere. Europe began its rise only after the thirteenth-cen-
tury reorganization of the Eastern Hemisphere facilitated its
southernization, and Europe's northwest did not rise until it too
was reaping the profits of southernization. Thus the rise of the
Shaffer: Southernization 2 r
North Atlantic powers should not be oversimplified so that it
appears to be an isolated and solely European phenomenon, with
roots that spread no farther afield than Greece. Rather, it should
be portrayed as one part of a hemisphere-wide process, in which
a
northwestern Europe ran to catch up with a more developed
south—a race not completed until the eighteenth century.
CONCLUSION
The patterns of southernization become apparent when one con-
siders "the long duration," more or less from ehe fourth century
to the eighteenth. It began as a Southern Asian phenomenon and
spread through the warmer latitudes of the Eastern Hemisphere
north of the equator. Both in China and in the Middle East it
stim-
ulated new developments and acquired new elements, and its
po-
teneial continued to unfold. After r Zoo the radical
transformations
throughout the Eastern Hemisphere brought about by the

Mongo-
lians and many others created conditions that led to the spread
of
southernization to Europe and Europe's colonies in the Western
Hemisphere. Ultimately it transformed East Asia, the Middle
East, Africa, the Mediterranean, northwestern Europe, and por-
tions of the Western Hemisphere, more or less in that order.
Southernization was not overtaken by westernization until the
Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century. At that time the
nations of northwestern Europe were catapulted into a position
of
global dominance, an event marked by the British takeover of
Bengal and other parts of India. By the nineteenth century,
using
the new "tools of empire" provided by the Industrial Revolution,
the northern powers for the first time were capable of imposing
their will and their way on the rest of the world.53
Both the ocean crossing that knit together two hemispheres
and the Industrial Revolution were indeed unprecedented. But
their roots are inseparable from the process of southernization.
Only after the northwestern Europeans had added to their own
repertoire every one of the elements of southernization did the
world became divided into a powerful, prestigious, and rich
north
and an impoverished south perceived to be in need of develop-
ment.
s3 The term comes from Daniel Headrick's excellent book, The
Tools of Empire:
Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth
Century (New York:
Oxford University Press, i98i).

Discussion Questions 3
There are many examples of businesses using IT for strategic
purposes. I'd like each of you in Group A to do some research,
or draw from your own experience, and tell us about a company
that used some form of information technology for STRATEGIC
purposes. Please be sure to tell us what the strategy was that
they were working toward. There are many examples in the
textbook, and our discussion will be much richer if you select
something that is not covered there.
Discussion Questions 2
Websites are a genre of technical writing and the easiest to
study when first learning what technical communication is and
how best to apply its principles to your own documents.
I am going to give you three very different websites and you
will need to study them for how well they conform to the
principles of technical communication and how successful they
are in achieving their goals. I apologize if you find any of these
websites offensive. It is not my intent to offend any of you. I
only want to provide an interesting and diverse array of
websites that you are not likely to be familiar with so we may
critique and analyze them.
http://www.despair.com/
http://www.mcsweeneys.net/
http://perezhilton.com/
Please answer the following questions for this week's
discussion:
1. Who do you think are the target (primary) readers (audience)
of these websites?
2. What is the purpose or subject matter of the websites? Is that
purpose clear?
3. What are the persuasive strategies and objectives used by the

web page creator(s) to obtain readers? In other words, what
choices in design, color, text layout and content did the writers
make to best reach their intended audience and keep them
interested?
4. Do you think the websites are successful in reaching their
intended audience(s)? Why or why not?
Please see the website hyperlink listed in the word document as
sources
Let’s use this thread to discuss the meaning of technology and
progress. Read McCarthy’s item called “What is Progress?” and
view “Disney’s Carousel of Progress”, then share some thoughts
(1-2 paragraphs) related to the following questions. Read your
classmates’ postings first so we can all avoid reading
repetitious comments. If you feel these questions have been
covered by the time you post your own comments, feel free to
share something you found noteworthy, but didn’t really fall
under these specific questions.
Are technology and progress the same thing? Does all
technology lead to progress? Does all progress require the use
of technology? Give some examples to back up your comments.
Where has Technology Occurred?
Actions for where has Technology Occurred?
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Read Shaffer’s “Southernization” and view “Global History and
AP World Review”.
Most of us tend to believe that technology is a western
phenomenon, but after looking at these two items, it’s clear that

technology has developed all over the world. Share some
thoughts on a development which occurred and tell us when,
where, and why it occurred. What impact did it have (or might
it have had) on those living at the time?
When Did Technology Begin?
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Read “Aristotle” (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) and
“Archimedes of Syracuse”.
I would bet that most of you, when you signed up for this class,
assumed we would be discussing more recent technology like
the gadgets you have around you right now (cell phones, tablets,
laptops, etc). Not many of you would likely have thought we
would be looking at technology in the years prior to 1AD. After
reading these two items, share some thoughts on the technology
which was evident at the time. These readings will probably
cause you to question whether or not technology is the same as
inventions. Were there technologies evident in these readings
which did not involve inventions? Can ideas be technologies?
How did they (or might they have) impacted those living at the
time?
If these technologies are covered by the time you weigh in,
share some thoughts on the impact these technologies have had
on more recent history.

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