This is a North Central University course (EDUC 8102-6): Applied Research and Adult Learn. It is written in APA format, has been graded by an instructor (A), and includes references. Most higher-education assignments are submitted to turnitin, so remember to paraphrase. Let us begin.

1. Running head: A7: RESEARCH APPLICATION PAPER 1
A7: Research Application Paper #3
Orlanda Haynes
Walden University
Author Note
This paper was prepared for Richard W. Riley School of Education and Leadership
EDUC 8102-6 Applied Research and Adult Learn
Ed. D Student
Spring 2015

2. A7: RESEARCH APPLICATION PAPER 2
Abstract
This paper is an overview of quantitative and qualitative research techniques and designs as well
as contextualizing research for social change. The following articles are used in this discussion:
(1) Stress Factors and Community College Deans: The Stresses of Their Role Identified by Wild,
Ebber, Shelley, and Gmelch (2003); (2) The Effects of Message Framing on College Students’
Career Decision Making by Tansley, Jome, Hasse, and Martens (2007); (3) Conflict Resolution
and Transformative Pedagogy a Grounded Theory Research Project on Learning in Higher
Education” by Fetherston and Kelly (2007); and (4) “Gender Differences in Smoking and
Meanings of Smoking in Asian-American College Students” by Hsia and Spruijt-Metz (2008).

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A7: Research Application Paper #3
Quantitative Research Techniques and Designs
Quantitative Design
In the study “The Effects of Message Framing on College Students’ Career Decision
Making,” Tansley, Jome, Hasse, and Martens (2007) use a descriptive survey design. They
believed that a substantial number of college students were unfamiliar with the process of career-
decision making. Since cognition plays a major role in human perceptions, beliefs, and
behaviors, they reasoned that academic traits and characteristics such as acquiring positive self-
efficacy, as far as learning career decision making techniques, improving self-confidence, raising
career achievement and expectation levels, learning how to constructively set goals, and learning
self-motivation techniques could be positively influenced through written persuasive messages.
Therefore, they devised a study which was based on two theoretical frameworks: social
cognitive career theory and prospect theory. In doing so, the research team sought to address
several issues:
[a] to improve college students’ career decision making skills through written persuasive
messages [b] to fill gaps in literature and/or to expand theories to which their research is
based, [c] to explore the effects of gain-and loss-framed messages in the career decision-
making domain, [d] to explore the role that message framing plays in students’ career
decision-making cognitions, [e] to explore the degree to which students engaged in career
decision-making–related behaviors, [f] [and to] investigated the degree to which career
decision-making self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and intentions were related to the
number of career exploration activities undertaken by participants 1 week after receiving
the persuasive messages. (Tansley et al., 2007, pp. 2-14).

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Quantitative Methods
They proposed three research questions and two hypotheses:
(1) Do written persuasive messages affect the career decision-making self-efficacy,
outcome expectations, and intentions of college students to a greater extent than a
placebo control message? (2) Does the way a message is framed (either loss or gain
framed) differentially affect college students’ career decision-making self-efficacy,
outcome expectations, and intentions? (3) What effect do persuasive messages have on
students’ engagement in career exploration behaviors? (p. 2).
(1) . . . That the two treatment groups (gain-framed and loss-framed) would score
significantly higher than the control group on career decision-making self-efficacy,
outcome expectations, intentions, and career-related behaviors. (2) In addition, the group
that received the loss-framed message was hypothesized to report significantly higher
levels of career decision-making self-efficacy, outcome expectations, intentions, and
behaviors than the group that received the gain-framed message. (3) Finally, we
hypothesized that the career cognitions would be significantly related to career-related
behaviors (p. 4).
Quantitative analytical techniques included: A 5-point and 10-point Likert-type scales;
data validation, response partitioning, data coding, standard analysis, means and standard
deviations; ordinal and nominal data analysis; Cronbach alpha; multiple regression analysis;
Bonferroni analysis (tests for differences among groups/ adjusts confidence levels); and, among
others, the multivariate statistical analysis, which check the multivariate normality among
variables (Tansley et al., 2007, pp. 8-10).
The population and the sample framework (convenience sampling) consisted of 126

5. A7: RESEARCH APPLICATION PAPER 5
undergraduate students . . . from one community college. . . . (Tansley et al., 2007, p. 14).
Measurement variables included: reading of three essays (written persuasive) prior to the
completion of a manipulation check list, then completion of three questionnaires: demographic
questionnaire, the Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale–Short Form, the Career Decision-Making
Outcome Expectations Scale; and the Career Exploratory Intentions Scale (Tansley et al., 2007,
p. 4, as cited in Haynes, 2015, p. 9).
In terms of data analysis, they used: a pilot study, a 5-point and 10-point Likert-type
scales; data validation, response partitioning, data coding, standard and multiple regression
analysis, means and standard deviations; ordinal and nominal data analysis; Cronbach alpha;
Bonferroni analysis; and . . . the internal consistency reliability coefficients in the areas of career
decision-making intentions and career-related behaviors were .63, which was below results of
similar studies (Betz & Voyten 1997, .73; Ochs & Roessler, 2001, .81 and .72, p. 7, as cited in
Tansley et al., 2007). However, they achieved a Cronbach alpha score of .91 (career decision-
making self-efficacy), which is significant (pp. 6-11, as cited in Haynes, 2015, p. 10).
Quantitative Analysis
Although several findings were reported, this paper includes only primary results. The
research team discovered that, “written persuasive messages regarding career decision making
were related to college students’ career decision-making outcome expectations, intentions, and
behaviors” (Tansley et al., 2007, p. 11). In fact, outcome expectation behaviors proved
significant in terms of predicting positive career related behaviors as well as influencing
students’ career decision-making cognition (Tansley et al., 2007, pp. 11-12). As expected,
findings filled gaps in literature by substantiating claims that positive message framing have
influential effects on students’ decision-making behaviors.

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Although most findings confirmed original hypotheses, some results were quite
surprising. In that, research suggests negative framed messages could also have influential
properties in terms of inducing positive behaviors and encouraging students to accept guidance
from knowledgeable persons. In terms of confirming aspects of social cognitive career theory,
results indicated that written persuasive messages which emphasized career-decision making
constructs could improve students’ decision making outcome expectations and intensions. These
results also apply to essays written with theoretical inference (Tansley et al., 2003, pp. 11-14).
According to Tansley et al., (2007), the internal consistency reliability coefficients in the
area of career decision-making intentions and career-related behaviors were .63, which was
below results of similar studies (Betz & Voyten 1997, .73; Ochs & Roessler, 2001, .81 and .72
(p. 7). However, they achieved a Cronbach alpha score of .91 (career decision-making self-
efficacy), which is significant. They also used multiple regression analysis to test hypothesizes
(p. 11). Other validity and reliability measures were used including constructing a pilot study and
using the results to recheck for possible internal validity issues (p. 6).
Qualitative Research Techniques and Designs
Qualitative Design
In the study “Stress Factors and Community College Deans: The Stresses of Their Role
Identified, Wild et al. (2003) sought to identify which stressors community colleges’ deans
faced. In doing so, they used a descriptive, one-shot survey design, which is also known as a
non-experimental research design. Characteristics of this framework included: (a) an inquiry to
explore and understand human perceptions, (b) The 2000 National Survey of Community and
Technical College Academic Deans, (c) questionnaire (five-point Likert scale), (d) no follow-
ups, (e), stratified random sampling, (f) validity of research, (g) generalizability, (h) survey

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administration, including response rate, and (i) ordinal and nominal data analysis, (k) as well as
statistical scoring, means (pp. 6-9).
Rather than pose a research question or a hypothesis, they clearly stated the nature of
their inquiry: to identify which occupational stressors were most prevalent in the careers of
community college deans. Although significant studies regarding occupational stressors had
been done at both the secondary and postsecondary branches of education—there was
insufficient research on stressors that impacted the roles of community college deans. However,
their literature review revealed that, although limited, studies by Selye (1994), McGrath (1970,
76), and Gmelch (1998) were theoretically similar to their area of interest. In light of this, they
used these results as foundational elements for their study (pp. 1- 2).
Qualitative Method
Seven hundred and fifty community college deans received The 2000 National Survey of
Community and Technical College Academic Deans and The Community College Dean's Stress
Inventory (324 returned). Wild’s research team used PCA with varimax rotation; mean scoring
of participants’ responses; data validation, response partitioning, and data coding; reporting and
interpreting data; identification of themes; and standard analysis (i.e., range, ordinal, and
nominal). It appears, however, that no pilot study was done (pp. 2-13). Other tools included a 5
point Likert scale and stratified random, which facilitated generalizability (pp. 1- 2).
Qualitative Analysis
Wild’s research team discovered that nine stress factors impacted the roles of community
college deans. Of which, the most prevalent was “too many time-consuming meetings.” They use
PCA with varimax rotation which summarized stress inventory factors into associative clusters.
This approach not only identified primary stressors but their correlational relationships. In other

8. A7: RESEARCH APPLICATION PAPER 8
words, the data also revealed underlying factors with potential to elevate stress levels including
administrative identity (factor 7), fiscal responsibilities (factor 8), and factor 9: external
constituency (pp. 9-10). Wild’s research team argued that to be effective in their roles—deans as
well as their administrators and the communities in which they served—should not only
thoroughly understand the duties and responsibilities of their roles, but also which stressors and
associative factors could impede their success.
Major issues that complicated the inquiry included (a) no commonly used definition for
the term academic dean and (b) insufficient research regarding stress related issues of academic
deans. They concluded that such knowledge would not only assist with recruiting and retaining
highly skilled candidates but also it would serve as a guideline for addressing stress-related
preventive health measures (Wild, et al., 2003, pp. 2-13).
Reporting and Contextualizing Research for Social Change
Synthesis of Results, Implications for Practice, and recommendation
Fetherston and Kelly (2007) used a grounded theory, nonrandom sample design to
conduct their study “Conflict Resolution [CR] and Transformative Pedagogy a Grounded Theory
Research Project on Learning in Higher Education.” They evaluated an introductory CR course
that had been revised using transformative learning principles. The result revealed, among
others, four clusters of transformative learning that could facilitate theory to practice more
efficiently than their previous program. Findings also identified underlying constructs that
adversely affected the course’s outcomes. Because they chose a nonrandom sampling technique,
Fetherston and Kelly suggested generalization as a factor for future research.
On the other hand, Hsia and Spruijt-Metz (2008) “Gender Differences in Smoking and
in Smoking and Meanings of Smoking in Asian-American College Students” used a correlation

9. A7: RESEARCH APPLICATION PAPER 9
design to determine if relationships existed between smoking habits and meanings in Asian-
American college students. They based their theoretical and conceptual framework on Spruijt-
Metz’s 1999 study. The results showed that statistically significant relationships existed. And
those sufficient levels were gender related. The research team proposed, therefore, that findings
could be used to create gender-specific smoking prevention programs within Asian communities
(as cited in Haynes, 2015, pp. 4-10).
Intended Audience and Journals
Fetherston and Kelly’s (2007) audiences included career specialists, college
administrators, and practitioners. Therefore, their article appears in academic journals and trade
publications. Hsia and Spruijt-Metz (2008), on the other hand, targeted Asian-American college
students and their communities, education communities, and manufacturers of gender-specific
smoking prevention programs, especially Asian-Americans. Therefore, additional publication
categories such as “popular and news” could be beneficial.
Facilitation of Social and/or Institutional Change
Both studies fulfill this requirement. Fetherston and Kelly’s research, for example, not
only revealed the effectiveness of an education program but also how practitioners could
efficiently transit from theory to practice. Likewise, Hsia and Spruijt-Metz (2008) results
confirmed their original hypothesis and provided new insights. In essence, these studies filled
gaps in the literature, expanded knowledge bases, and facilitated practices, all of which facilitates
social and institutional changes.
In summary, the purpose of this paper was to discuss quantitative and qualitative research
techniques and designs as well as contextualizing research for social change. The articles used in
this assignment include: (1) “Stress Factors and Community College Deans: The Stresses of

10. A7: RESEARCH APPLICATION PAPER 10
Their Role Identified” by Wild, Ebber, Shelley, and Gmelch (2003); (2) “The Effects of Message
Framing on College Students’ Career Decision Making” by Tansley, Jome, Hasse, and Martens
(2007); (3) “Conflict Resolution and Transformative Pedagogy a Grounded Theory Research
Project on Learning in Higher Education” by Fetherston and Kelly (2007); and (4) “Gender
Differences in Smoking and Meanings of Smoking in Asian-American College Students” by
Hsia and Spruijt-Metz (2008).
Both Wild et al. (2003 and Tansley et al. (2007) used non-experimental research designs;
however, Tansley’s research team chose a nonrandom sampling technique which eliminated the
possibility of generalizability, but they did included an equal number of research questions and
hypotheses; whereas in Wild et al. (2003) study, a hypotheses was not directly stated, but they
clearly asserted the nature of the research inquiry. Results from both studies supported the
hypotheses, as were expected, but with elements of surprise.
In that, Tansley et al. (2007) research team believed that a substantial number of college
students were unfamiliar with the process of career-decision making, so, using social cognitive
career and prospect theory (foundational elements), they explored several issues but emphasized
their desire to discover if college students’ career decision making skills could be positively
influenced through written persuasive messages. The results not only confirmed the possibility
of such, but also by framing negative written messages similar results could be mimicked. In
addition, they expanded both theoretical percepts of which they based their research.
On the other hand, Wild et al. (2003) research inquiry was concerned with discovering
which stressors impacted occupational roles of community college deans. While the research
findings answered this question, they also revealed underlying stress related factors which could
have pose future stress concerns. In addition, as with Tansley et al (2007) study, because

11. A7: RESEARCH APPLICATION PAPER 11
literature involving the subject matter was highly limited, the research results helped to fill gaps
in literature by expanding current data on occupational stress, especially subject matters involved
with stresses that impact the roles of community college deans. Equally important, however, is
that generalizability was possible because their sampling technique was stratified random.
In contrast, Fetherston and Kelly’s (2007) research explored the effectiveness of a revised
CR course: implemented transformative learning principles. Findings identified, among others,
four clusters of transformative learning, data that supported the effectiveness of the revised CR
course, and appropriate means to transition from theory to practice. Hsia and Spruijt-Metz (2008)
used a correlation design to determine if relationships existed between smoking habits and
meanings in Asian-American college students. The results showed that statistically significant
relationships existed. And those sufficient levels were gender related. The research team
proposed, therefore, that findings could be used to create gender-specific smoking prevention
programs within Asian communities.

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References
Fetherston, B., & Kelly, R. (2007). Conflict Resolution and Transformative Pedagogy a
Grounded Theory Research Project on Learning in Higher Education. Journal of
Transformative Education, 5(3), 262-285. doi: 10.1177/1541344607308899
Haynes, O. (2015). A4: Research Application Paper #1. Unpublished manuscript. Walden
University
Hsia, F., & Spruijt-Metz, D. (2008). Gender differences in smoking and meanings of smoking in
Asian-American College students. Journal of Health Psychology, 13, 459–463.
doi: 10.1177/1359105308088516
Tansley, D. P., Jome, L. M., Hasse, R. F., & Martens, M. P. (2007). The effects of message
framing on college students’ career decision making. Journal of Career Assessment, 15,
301–316. Retrieved from
http://jhh.sagepub.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/content/2/1/73.full.pdf+html
Wild, L., Ebber, L. H., Shelley, M. C., & Gmelch, W. H. (2003). Stress factors and community
college deans: The stresses of their role identified. Community College Review, 31(3), 1-
23. Retrieved from
http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/detail/detail?sid=4fc2996e-
d295-4aba-a7de 9b0f4d009a70%40sessionmgr4002&vid=1&hid=4209&bdata=JnNjb3
BlPXNpdGU%3d#AN=12700932&db=a9h