3. Anatomy of pituitary gland
Size: 13 mm × 9 mm × 6 mm
Weight: 50 – 100 mg
It is a small oval gland situated at the base of the skull in the sella
turcica within the sphenoid bone.
It consists of anterior pituitary & posterior pituitary.
4. Relations
Anterior: Tuberculum sellae.
Posterior: Dorsum sellae & brain stem.
Inferior: Sphenoidal air sinus.
Superior: Diaphragma sellae, optic
chiasma and hypothalamus.
Lateral: cavernous sinus; within it lies
internal carotid artery, cranial nerves III,
IV, VI and ophthalmic and maxillary
branches of V cranial nerve.
5.
6.
7.
8. Growth hormone (GH)
Single chain polypeptide.
Pulsatile secretion, usually undetectable in the serum, apart from 5
to 6 of 90 min pulses/24h that occur more commonly at night.
The secretion is modified by age and sex.
It is secreted by acidophil cells. There is structural similarity
between it and prolactin so it has a lactogenic activity.
9. Actions
Growth
Linear growth, increase tissue
size, growth of bone &Viscera.
Metabolic
Carbohydrate
↑ blood glucose i.e.
diabetogenic
Protien
Anabolic i.e. +ve
nitrogen balance
Fat
++ Mobilization of fat from
adipose tissue
10. Factors lead to stimulation of growth hormone
Hypoglycemia (insulin stimulation test).
Sleep.
Protein excess.
Arginine aminoacid.
Glucagon.
Clonidine
11. Factors lead to inhibition of growth hormone
↑ Blood glucose (glucose inhibition test).
↑ Cortisol.
↑ Free fatty acids.
12. Acromegaly pathophysiology
Acromegaly is the clinical condition resulting from prolonged
excessive GH and hence IGF-1 secretion in adults.
Loss of pulsatile nature of GH secretion and failure of GH to
become undetectable during the 24h day, unlike normal controls.
It usually starts in the 4th and 5th decades & is mostly due to
acidophil adenoma.
13. Causes of acromegaly
Pituitary adenoma (>99% of cases). Macroadenomas 60–80%,
microadenomas 20–40%. Local invasion is common.
GHRH secretion:
Hypothalamic secretion.
Ectopic GHRH, e.g. carcinoid tumour (pancreas, lung) or other
neuroendocrine tumours.
Ectopic GH secretion.
14. Clinical Picture
Rational
Excess GH/IGF-1
Excess PRL in some (as there is co-secretion of PRL in a minority
(30%) of tumours or, rarely, stalk compression)
Tumour mass
15. Galactorrhea in case of acromegaly
There is structural similarity
between it and prolactin
There is co-secretion of PRL in
a minority (30%) of tumours
Rarely, stalk compression
16. Clinical picture (cont.)
Facies
(old photographs are frequently
useful); coarse facial features or
acromegalic facies
Prominent supraorbital ridges,
big skull.
Increased size of cartilage of ear,
broad nose.
Prognathism with increased
interdental separation, large
tongue.
17.
18. Clinical picture (cont.)
Hand, feet & joints: change in ring
or shoe size…
Increased size of the hands
(spade like hands) with tight
rings, enlargement of feet.
Degenerative changes in joints
lead to osteoarthritis → joint pain
with crepitus in joints.
Visceronmegaly:
Goitre and other organomegaly—
liver, heart, kidney
19. Clinical picture (cont.)
Associated endocrinal disturbances:
Hyperprolactinemia in 30% of patients that leads to hypogonadism,
and amenorrhea, galactorrhoea, poor libido and ED (prolactine
inhibits Gn)
Diabetes: GH is diabetogenic (polyurea, polydipsia, polyphagia):
with insulin resistance
Thyroid enlargement but thyrotoxicosis is rare.
20. Clinical picture (cont.)
Neuropsychiatric manifestations:
Central: Pressure manifestations with pituitary tumors (e.g. bitemporal
hemianopia).
Peripheral:
Diabetic neuropathy, with tingling and numbness.
Entrapment neuropathies e.g. carpal tunnel syndrome (in about
40%).
Psychiatric: emotional instability, hypersomnolence.
21.
22. Clinical picture (cont.)
Other manifestations:
Headaches
Tiredness, lethargy, muscle weakness (generalized myopathy).
Hollow voice or deep voice (laryngeal hypertrophy).
Thick skin and excessive sweating, oily or greasy skin, acanthosis
nigricans,weight gain, edema.
23. Complications
Hypertension (40%).
Insulin resistance and impaired glucose tolerance (40%)/diabetes
mellitus (20%).
Obstructive sleep apnoea—due to soft tissue swelling in
nasopharyngeal region.
Increased risk of colonic polyps and colonic carcinoma.
24.
25. Complications (cont.)
Ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease.
Congestive cardiac failure
Mass effect; tumor expansion
Pituitary apoplexy—rapid expansion of a pituitary tumor due to
infarction or hemorrhage within the tumor. The patient may
complain of sudden severe headache followed by loss of
consciousness. Immediate neurosurgical intervention should be
done.
26. Workup
X-ray:
Skull: thick cortex, enlarged paranasal sinuses, and prognathism
and widening of sella turcica.
Hands: Tufting of terminal phalanges (mushroom appearance).
Soft tissue: showing thickness of the heel pad (18 mm in females
and 21 mm in males).
27.
28.
29.
30. Workup (cont.)
CT and MRI with pituitary
protocol: pituitary
macroadenoma.
MRI usually demonstrates the
tumour (98%) and whether
there is extrasellar extension,
either suprasellar or into the
cavernous sinus.
In 80% of cases it is
macroadenoma.
31. Workup (cont.)
Laboratory investigations:
Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)
An abnormal test is defined by a failure to suppress GH to <0.33
mcg/L (in response to a 75 g oral glucose load), as assessed by
GH measurements every 30 minutes over a 2-hour period.
Random GH: not useful, we may use GH curve
IGF-1
IGF-1 is the single best screening test for acromegaly
32. Workup (cont.)
Laboratory investigations
(cont.):
Pituitary function testing
Serum PRL may be elevated
from stalk effect or GH/PRL
tumors’ cosecretion.
In case of macroadenomas,
assess other anterior pituitary
hormones (e.g., free T4,
cortisol, testosterone or
estradiol) to exclude
hypopituitarism.
33. Workup (cont.)
Visual field should be checked: perimetry
Evaluate for comorbidities: Evaluate and treat potential comorbid
conditions, including:
Impaired glucose intolerance/diabetes
Dyslipidemia
Sleep apnea
Cardiac disease (baseline ECG and echocardiogram)
Colonic polyps (colonoscopy).
34. Activity of the disease is determined by
GH > 10 ng/ml with no response to glucose suppression.
Increased IGF-1
Hyperphosphatemia (due to increased tubular reabsorption by GH)
Excessive sweating.
38. Personal History
N
A = gigantism versus acromegaly
S = male (macroadenoma) versus female (microadenoma)
O
M = married or divorced
R
H
H
39. Chief complaint = بالبلدي العيان كالم
Pain
Swelling
Disturbance of function
+ duration
40. Endocrine Symptomatology
Alteration in height, e.g. increase or decrease
Weight gain or loss
Polyuria and polydipsia
Menstrual irregularity
Thyroid swelling with or without signs of thyrotoxicosis
Hypothyroidism or its features
Gynaecomastia
Hirsutism
Myopathy or muscle weakness.
41. Example of Chief complaint in acromegaly
Progressive enlargement of the body for … months
Weakness and weight gain for … months
Change in voice for … months
Headache for … months
Joint pain for … months
Excessive sweating for … months.
42. Present history = منمق طبي كالم
Analysis of complain: Chronological order of symptoms, mode of
onset, their progression and course
Analysis of symptoms of the same system = نونو
Ask for associated symptoms = نونو
Investigations done (related to symptoms)
Treatment taken: e.g. replacement therapy or oral contraceptives.
43. Present history
General = sweating + heat or cold intolerance + appetite
CVS = symptoms of HF, HTN….
Chest =
NS = central or peripheral +/- psychiatric
GIT = polypi
44. Example of Present history in acromegaly
According to the statement of the patient, he was reasonably well
… years back. Since then, he has been experiencing progressive
enlargement of body, mainly his head, hands and feet. His face is
also enlarged, including the jaw, leading to difficulty in chewing. He
also complains of severe weakness despite significant weight gain.
His voice has recently changed and become hoarse.
The patient also complains of frequent headache involving the
whole head, more marked in the morning, which is not associated
with nausea or vomiting.
45. Present history (cont.)
For the last … months, he is also complaining of joint pain involving
both the knees, ankles and elbows. The pain is aggravated by
activity and relieved by taking rest. It is not associated with morning
stiffness. Recently he noticed excessive sweating even at rest.
There is no history of any visual disturbance, cold intolerance,
sleepiness. His bowel and bladder habits are normal.
47. Family history
DM or any other endocrinal or autoimmune disease.
Similar condition in the family = familial acromegaly
48. Sexual History
Erectile dysfunction
Loss of libido
Dry ejaculation
Galactorrhea
Amenorrhea
Irregular menses
Dysfunctional uterine bleeding
Details of pregnancies or PPH
in females
Menstrual & Obestetric
History
49. General examination
Vital signs General overview
Pulse
BP
Temperature
Respiratory rate
Appearance
Built
Color
Decubitus
Exposure: back & genitalia
Facial expression
Gait
Mental
51. General Examination
Appearance, built, height, weight BMI and body proportions
Face, e.g. periorbital oedema, moon-facies, prognathism, etc.
Eyes, e.g. exophthalmos, proptosis, signs of Grave’s ophthalmopathy,
visual acuity
Ear, e.g. deafness, size
Mouth, e.g. large protruding tongue, thick lips, etc.
Neck, e.g. goitre, carotid, pulsations/bruit, JVP.
52. Face
Look at the face for
coarsening of features, thick,
greasy skin, prominent
supraorbital ridges,
enlargement of the nose,
prognathism (protrusion of the
mandible) and separation of
the lower teeth.
Ask patient to open his mouth
and show his teeth
53. Upper & lower limbs
Shake hands!!
Examine the hands and feet
for soft-tissue enlargement
and tight-fitting rings or shoes,
carpal tunnel syndrome and
arthropathy
Large feet
55. Genitalia & breasts
Look genitalia for hyper or
hypogonadism
Virilisation
Breast development, atrophy
and galactorrhoea.
56. Systemic examination
CNS CVS
Look for higher function,
cranial nerve, speech
Look for abnormal movements
Motor system examination for
brisk or delayed jerks or
myopathy
Sensory system examination
for neuropathy including
carpal tunnel syndrome
Look for cardiomegaly
Auscultate for change in heart
rate, rhythm, murmur or any
other abnormal sound
58. Example of General examination in acromegaly
The patient looks obese with large coarse face, large jaw with
widely apart teeth prominent supraorbital ridge, increased wrinkling
of the forehead and baggy eyelids. Nose, lips and ears are large
Scalp is large (bulldog scalp)
Hands are large, warm and sweaty with doughy feeling, fingers are
spade like
Feet are large
59. General examination (cont.)
Skin is thick, greasy, and sweaty (hyperhydrosis)
Coarse body hair
Voice is husky, cavernous
Gynecomastia: Present
Clubbing: Present (involving all fingers and toes)
60. General examination (cont.)
Thyromegaly (diffusely enlarged)
There is no anemia, jaundice, cyanosis, koilonychia, leukonychia,
edema
There may be kyphosis, scoliosis, axillary skin tag, acanthosis
nigricans.
61. Example of Systemic examination in acromegaly
GIT Nervous system
Tongue, lips and jaw are
enlarged. Lower jaw is
protruded with malocclusion of
teeth (prognathism).
Abdomen—hepatomegaly
(may be).
Voice is hoarse, husky and
cavernous.
Visual field defect—bitemporal
hemianopia.
62. Systemic examination (cont.)
CVS Skeletal
Cardiomegaly (evidenced by
shifting of the apex beat,
which is heaving).
Both the knee and ankle
joints, elbow joints, also joints
of hands are tender, but no
restricted movement.
65. What are the changes in the eyes in
acromegaly?
Visual field defect, usually bitemporal hemianopia (due to pressure
on optic chiasma).
Others—optic atrophy, papilledema, angioid streaks in retina.
66. What are the causes of prominent supraorbital
ridge?
Rickets
Paget's disease
Achrondroplasia
Hydrocephalus
Hereditary hemolytic anemia.
67. What are the causes of macroglossia?
Acromegaly
Hypothyroidism
Amyloidosis
Down's syndrome.
69. Many a times, examiner used to ask:
‘Look at the face. What is your diagnosis? What else do you want
to examine?’
‘Examine the neck of this patient.’
‘Perform the general examination’.
‘Examine the hands of this patient’.
70. Underlying diagnoses by looking at the face may
be:
Graves’ disease (hyperthyroid, euthyroid or hypothyroid) or
thyrotoxicosis (due to any cause).
Hypothyroidism (myxoedema).
Cushing’s syndrome.
Acromegaly.
Pigmentation (in Addison’s disease).
71. Subsequent physical examination depends on
your diagnosis
If your diagnosis is thyroid disease: further clinical examination will
be related to thyroid problems, e.g., signs of thyrotoxicosis, signs of
hypothyroidism, examination of the eye, thyroid gland etc.
If your diagnosis is Cushing’s syndrome: examine other findings in
relation to this (central obesity, striae, proximal myopathy, blood
pressure).
If acromegaly is suspected: then examine the face, hand, visual
field, voice.
An elevated blood prolactin level (hyperprolactinemia) occurring as a result of tumors or other masses within or near the pituitary gland and stalk that block delivery of dopamine (a neurotransmitter) from the hypothalamus to the prolactin secreting cells of the pituitary.