1- Give a brief synopsis of your selected case study 2- Ide.docx

1- Give a brief synopsis of your selected case study ?
2- Identify problems to be addressed ( research question) ?
3- What organizational behavior theory will you use ?
4- What is the objective of the study ?
5- What course of action will you take to complete this
assignment ?
6- What do you hope to achieve in the completion of this
assignment ?
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Questions
1.
What factors do you think make some organizations ineffective
at managing emotions?
2.
Do you think the strategic use and display of emotions serve to
protect employees, or does covering your true emotions at work

lead to more
problems than it solves?
3.
Have you ever worked where emotions were used as part of a
management style? Describe the advantages and disadvantages
of this approach
in your experience.
4.
Research shows that acts of co-workers (37 percent) and
management (22 percent) cause more negative emotions for
employees than do acts of
customers (7 percent).130 What can Laura’s company do to
change its emotional climate?
Sources: A. Kreamer, “Go Ahead—Cry at Work,” Time (April
4, 2010), www.time.com; J. S. Lerner and K. Shonk, “How
Anger Poisons
Decision Making,” Harvard Business Review (September 2010),
p. 26; and J. Perrone and M. H. Vickers, “Emotions as Strategic
Game in a
Hostile Workplace: An Exemplar Case,” Employee
Responsibilities and Rights Journal 16, no. 3 (2004), pp. 167–
178.
CASE INCIDENT 2 Can You Read Emotions from Faces?
We mentioned previously that some researchers—the
psychologist Paul Ekman is the best known—have studied
whether facial expressions
reveal true emotions. These researchers have distinguished real
smiles (so-called Duchenne smiles, named after French
physician Guillaume

Duchenne) from “fake” smiles. Duchenne found genuine smiles
raised not only the corners of the mouth (easily faked) but also
cheek and eye
muscles (much more difficult to fake). So, one way to determine
whether someone is genuinely happy or amused is to look at the
muscles
around the upper cheeks and eyes—if the person’s eyes are
smiling or twinkling, the smile is genuine. Ekman and his
associates have
developed similar methods to detect other emotions, such as
anger, disgust, and distress. According to Ekman, the key to
identifying real
emotions is to focus on micro-expressions, or those facial
muscles we cannot easily manipulate.
Dan Hill has used these techniques to study the facial
expressions of CEOs and found they vary dramatically not only
in their Duchenne smiles
but also in the 124125degree to which they display positive
versus negative facial expressions. The accompanying table
shows Hill’s analysis
of the facial expressions of some prominent male executives:
Jeff Bezos, Amazon 51% positive
Warren Buffet, Berkshire Hathaway 69% positive
Michael Dell, Dell Computers 47% positive
Larry Ellison, Oracle 0% positive
Bill Gates, Microsoft 73% positive
Steve Jobs, Apple 48% positive
Phil Knight, Nike 67% positive

Donald Trump, The Trump Organization16% positive
It’s interesting to note that these individuals, all of whom are
successful in various ways, have such different levels of
positive facial
expressions. It also raises the question: is a smile from Larry
Ellison worth more than a smile from Bill Gates?
Questions
1.
Most research suggests we are not very good at detecting fake
emotions, and we think we’re much better at it than we are. Do
you believe
training would improve your ability to detect emotional displays
in others?
2.
Do you think the information in this case could help you tell
whether someone’s smile is genuine?
3.
Is your own impression of the facial expressions of the eight
business leaders consistent with what the researcher found? If
not, why do you
think your views might be at odds with his?
4.
http://devry.vitalsource.com/books/9781269551120/content/id/c
h4en130
http://www.time.com/

4.
One research study found people’s ratings of the positive affect
displayed in CEO’s faces had very little correlation to their
company’s profits.
Does that suggest to you that Hill’s analysis is immaterial?
5.
Assuming you could become better at detecting the real
emotions in facial expressions, do you think it would help your
career? Why or why
not?
Sources: Based on P. Ekman, Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in
the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage (New York: W. W.
Norton & Co.,
2009); D. Jones, “It’s Written All Over Their Faces,” USA
Today (February 25, 2008), pp. 1B–2B; and N. O. Rule and N.
Ambady, “The Face
of Success,” Psychological Science 19, no. 2 (2008), pp. 109–
111.
ENDNOTES
1.
See, for instance, C. D. Fisher and N. M. Ashkanasy, “The
Emerging Role of Emotions in Work Life: An Introduction,”
Journal of
Organizational Behavior, Special Issue 2000, pp. 123–129; N.
M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hartel, and W. J. Zerbe (eds.), Emotions

in the
Workplace: Research, Theory, and Practice (Westport, CT:
Quorum Books, 2000); N. M. Ashkanasy and C. S. Daus,
“Emotion in the
Workplace: The New Challenge for Managers,” Academy of
Management Executive (February 2002), pp. 76–86; and N. M.
Ashkanasy, C. E. J.
Hartel, and C. S. Daus, “Diversity and Emotion: The New
Frontiers in Organizational Behavior Research,” Journal of
Management 28, no. 3
(2002), pp. 307–338.
2.
See, for example, L. L. Putnam and D. K. Mumby,
“Organizations, Emotion and the Myth of Rationality,” in S.
Fineman (ed.), Emotion in
Organizations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1993), pp. 36–57;
and J. Martin, K. Knopoff, and C. Beckman, “An Alternative to
Bureaucratic
Impersonality and Emotional Labor: Bounded Emotionality at
the Body Shop,” Administrative Science Quarterly (June 1998),
pp. 429–469.
3.
B. E. Ashforth and R. H. Humphrey, “Emotion in the
Workplace: A Reappraisal,” Human Relations (February 1995),
pp. 97–125.
4.
S. G. Barsade and D. E. Gibson, “Why Does Affect Matter in
Organizations?” Academy of Management Perspectives
(February 2007), pp. 36–
59.

5.
See N. H. Frijda, “Moods, Emotion Episodes and Emotions,” in
M. Lewis and J. M. Haviland (eds.), Handbook of Emotions
(New York:
Guilford Press, 1993), pp. 381–403.
6.
H. M. Weiss and R. Cropanzano, “Affective Events Theory: A
Theoretical Discussion of the Structure, Causes and
Consequences of Affective
Experiences at Work,” in B. M. Staw and L. L. Cummings
(eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 18
(Greenwich, CT: JAI Press,
1996), pp. 17–19.
7.
See P. Ekman and R. J. Davidson (eds.), The Nature of
Emotions: Fundamental Questions (Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press, 1994).
8.
Frijda, “Moods, Emotion Episodes and Emotions,” p. 381.
9.
See Ekman and Davidson (eds.), The Nature of Emotions.
10.
See, for example, P. Ekman, “An Argument for Basic
Emotions,” Cognition and Emotion (May/July 1992), pp. 169–

200; C. E. Izard, “Basic
Emotions, Relations Among Emotions, and Emotion–Cognition
Relations,” Psychological Bulletin (November 1992), pp. 561–
565; and J. L.
Tracy and R. W. Robins, “Emerging Insights into the Nature
and Function of Pride,” Current Directions in Psychological
Science 16, no. 3
(2007), pp. 147–150.
11.
R. C. Solomon, “Back to Basics: On the Very Idea of ‘Basic
Emotions,’” Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 32, no.
2 (June 2002), pp.
115–144.
12.
R. Descartes, The Passions of the Soul (Indianapolis: Hackett,
1989).
13.
P. Ekman, Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings
to Improve Communication and Emotional Life (New York:
Times
Books/Henry Holt and Co., 2003).
14.
P. R. Shaver, H. J. Morgan, and S. J. Wu, “Is Love a ‘Basic’
Emotion?” Personal Relationships 3, no. 1 (March 1996), pp.
81–96.

P. R. Shaver, H. J. Morgan, and S. J. Wu, “Is Love a ‘Basic’
Emotion?” Personal Relationships 3, no. 1 (March 1996), pp.
81–96.
15.
Ibid.
125 126
16.
Ashforth and Humphrey, “Emotion in the Workplace,” p. 104;
B. Plasait, “Accueil des Touristes Dans les Grands Centres de
Transit Paris,”
Rapport du Bernard Plasait (October 4, 2004),
www.tourisme.gouv.fr/fr/navd/presse/dossiers/att00005767/dp_
plasait.pdf; B. Mesquita,
“Emotions in Collectivist and Individualist Contexts,” Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology 80, no. 1 (2001), pp. 68–
74; and D. Rubin,
“Grumpy German Shoppers Distrust the Wal-Mart Style,”
Seattle Times (December 30, 2001), p. A15.
17.
Solomon, “Back to Basics.”
18.
Weiss and Cropanzano, “Affective Events Theory,” pp. 20–22.
19.

Cited in R. D. Woodworth, Experimental Psychology (New
York: Holt, 1938).
20.
D. Watson, L. A. Clark, and A. Tellegen, “Development and
Validation of Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect:
The PANAS
Scales,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1988),
pp. 1063–1070.
21.
A. Ben-Ze’ev, The Subtlety of Emotions (Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 2000), p. 94.
22.
“Flight Attendant War Stories . . . Stewardess,”
AboutMyJob.com, www.aboutmyjob.com/?p=2111.
23.
A. Ben-Ze’ev, The Subtlety of Emotions, p. 99.
24.
J. T. Cacioppo and W. L. Gardner, “Emotion,” in Annual
Review of Psychology, vol. 50 (Palo Alto, CA: Annual
Reviews, 1999), pp. 191–214.
25.
D. Holman, “Call Centres,” in D. Holman, T. D. Wall, C. Clegg,
P. Sparrow, and A. Howard (eds.), The Essentials of the New

Work Place: A
Guide to the Human Impact of Modern Working Practices
(Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2005), pp. 111–132.
26.
M. Eid and E. Diener, “Norms for Experiencing Emotions in
Different Cultures: Inter- and International Differences,”
Journal of Personality &
Social Psychology 81, no. 5 (2001), pp. 869–885.
27.
S. Oishi, E. Diener, and C. Napa Scollon, “Cross-Situational
Consistency of Affective Experiences Across Cultures,” Journal
of Personality &
Social Psychology 86, no. 3 (2004), pp. 460–472.
28.
Eid and Diener, “Norms for Experiencing Emotions in Different
Cultures.”
29.
L. M. Poverny and S. Picascia, “There Is No Crying in
Business,” Womensmedia.com, October 20, 2009,
www.womensmedia.com/new/Crying-at-Work.shtml.
30.
A. R. Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the
Human Brain (New York: Quill, 1994).
31.

Ibid.
32.
J. Haidt, “The New Synthesis in Moral Psychology,” Science
316 (May 18, 2007), pp. 998, 1002; I. E. de Hooge, R. M. A.
Nelissen, S. M.
Breugelmans, and M. Zeelenberg, “What is Moral about Guilt?
Acting ‘Prosocially’ at the Disadvantage of Others,” Journal of
Personality and
Social Psychology 100 (2011), pp. 462–473; and C. A.
Hutcherson and J. J. Gross, “The Moral Emotions: A Social-
Functionalist Account of
Anger, Disgust, and Contempt,” Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology 100 (2011), pp. 719–737.
33.
http://www.tourisme.gouv.fr/fr/navd/presse/dossiers/att0000576
7/dp_plasait.pdf
http://aboutmyjob.com/
http://www.aboutmyjob.com/?p=2111
http://womensmedia.com/
http://www.womensmedia.com/new/Crying-at-Work.shtml
33.
R. J. Larsen and E. Diener, “Affect Intensity as an Individual
Difference Characteristic: A Review,” Journal of Research in
Personality 21
(1987), pp. 1–39.

34.
D. Watson, Mood and Temperament (New York: Guilford Press,
2000).
35.
J. J. A. Denissen, L. Butalid, L. Penke, and M. A. G. van Aken,
“The Effects of Weather on Daily Mood: A Multilevel
Approach,” Emotion 8,
no. 5 (2008), pp. 662–667; M. C. Keller, B. L. Fredrickson, O.
Ybarra, S. Cĉté, K. Johnson, J. Mikels, A. Conway, and T.
Wagner, “A Warm
Heart and a Clear Head: The Contingent Effects of Weather on
Mood and Cognition,” Psychological Science 16 (2005) pp.
724–731; and
Watson, Mood and Temperament.
36.
Watson, Mood and Temperament, p. 100.
37.
J. A. Fuller, J. M. Stanton, G. G. Fisher, C. Spitzmüller, S. S.
Russell, and P. C. Smith, “A Lengthy Look at the Daily Grind:
Time Series
Analysis of Events, Mood, Stress, and Satisfaction,” Journal of
Applied Psychology 88, no. 6 (December 2003), pp. 1019–1033.
38.
See “Monday Blahs,” May 16, 2005,
www.ashidome.com/blogger/housearrest.asp?c=809&m=5&y=20
05.

39.
A. M. Isen, “Positive Affect as a Source of Human Strength,” in
L. G. Aspinwall and U. Staudinger (eds.), The Psychology of
Human Strengths
(Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2003),
pp. 179–195.
40.
Watson, Mood and Temperament.
41.
Sleep in America Poll (Washington, DC: National Sleep
Foundation, 2005), www.kintera.org/atf/cf/%7Bf6bf2668-a1b4-
4fe8-8d1a-
a5d39340d9cb%7D/2005_summary_of_findings.pdf.
42.
M. Lavidor, A. Weller, and H. Babkoff, “How Sleep Is Related
to Fatigue,” British Journal of Health Psychology 8 (2003), pp.
95–105; and J.
J. Pilcher and E. Ott, “The Relationships Between Sleep and
Measures of Health and Well-Being in College Students: A
Repeated Measures
Approach,” Behavioral Medicine 23 (1998), pp. 170–178.
43.
E. K. Miller and J. D. Cohen, “An Integrative Theory of
Prefrontal Cortex Function,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 24
(2001), pp. 167–202.

44.
B. A. Scott and T. A. Judge, “Insomnia, Emotions, and Job
Satisfaction: A Multilevel Study,” Journal of Management 32,
no. 5 (2006), pp.
622–645.
45.
P. R. Giacobbi, H. A. Hausenblas, and N. Frye, “A Naturalistic
Assessment of the Relationship Between Personality, Daily Life
Events,
Leisure-Time Exercise, and Mood,” Psychology of Sport &
Exercise 6, no. 1 (January 2005), pp. 67–81.
46.
L. L. Carstensen, M. Pasupathi, M. Ulrich, and J. R.
Nesselroade, “Emotional Experience in Everyday Life Across
the Adult Life Span,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79, no. 4 (2000),
pp. 644–655.
47.
M. LaFrance and M. Banaji, “Toward a Reconsideration of the
Gender–Emotion Relationship,” in M. Clark (ed.), Review of
Personality and
Social Psychology, vol. 14 (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992),
pp. 178–197; and A. M. Kring and A. H. Gordon, “Sex
Differences in Emotion:
Expression, Experience, and Physiology,” Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology (March 1998), pp. 686–703.
48.

M. G. Gard and A. M. Kring, “Sex Differences in the Time
Course of Emotion,” Emotion 7, no. 2 (2007), pp. 429–437; M.
Jakupcak, K.
Salters, K. L. Gratz, and L. Roemer, “Masculinity and
Emotionality: An Investigation of Men’s Primary and Secondary
Emotional
Responding,” Sex Roles 49 (2003), pp. 111–120; and M.
Grossman and W. Wood, “Sex Differences in Intensity of
Emotional Experience: A
Social Role Interpretation,” Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology (November 1992), pp. 1010–1022.
http://www.ashidome.com/blogger/housearrest.asp?c=809&m=5
&y=2005
http://www.kintera.org/atf/cf/%7Bf6bf2668-a1b4-4fe8-8d1a-
a5d39340d9cb%7D/2005_summary_of_findings.pdf
*
What is motivation?
What can we learn from the needs theories of motivation?
What is the equity theory of motivation?
What are the insights of the expectancy theory of motivation?
What is the goal-setting theory of motivation?
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

*
Motivation
Individual forces that account for the direction, level, and
persistence of a person’s effort expended at work.
Direction - an individual’s choice when presented with a
number of possible alternatives.
Level - the amount of effort a person puts forth.
Persistence - the length of time a person sticks with a given
action.
5-*
*
Because motivation influences productivity and job satisfaction,
part of being a good manager is understanding what motivates
employees to work at their full potential.
Motivation is an internal process that energizes, directs, and
sustains behavior. Individual differences have a strong impact
on behavior motivation patterns.
However, all motivated behavior relies to a larger or lesser
extent on the forces of direction, level, and persistence.
Level is concerned with how hard a person tries.
However, unless effort is channeled in a direction that benefits
the organization and the individual, high level of effort is not a
guarantee of high performance on the job.
Finally, persistence (how long a person can maintain effort) is
important. A motivated person stays with a task long enough to
achieve his or her goal.

Types of motivation theories
Content theories
Focus on individual needs – that is, physiological or
psychological deficiencies that individuals feel a compulsion to
reduce or eliminate.
Process theories
Focus on the thoughts, or cognitive processes, that take place
within the minds of individuals and that influence their
behavior.
5-*
*
Theories of both types contribute to our understanding of
motivation to work. But none offers a complete explanation.
Content Theories – Deal with ‘what’ – What internal factors
cause us to behave the way that we do.
Primarily focused on needs, feelings of satisfaction, and our
efforts to satisfy those needs.
Process Theories – Deal with ‘how and why’ motivation arises
- the interaction between the individual and the environment,
and their active thoughts about what is motivating and what is
not.
Motivation Across Cultures
Motivation theories are largely developed from a North
American perspective.

They are subject to cultural limitations and contingencies.
5-*
*
The determinants of motivation and the best ways to deal with it
are likely to vary considerably across the cultures of Asia,
South America, Eastern Europe, and Africa.
We must not assume that people in all cultures are motivated by
the same things in the same ways – because they are not.
Managers who are placed in global assignments must be
knowledgeable about what the members of the culture value.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Identifies five levels of individual needs.
Assumes that some needs are more important than others and
must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators.
5-*
*
Needs range from self-actualization and esteem at the top, to
social, safety, and physiological at the bottom.
Physiological needs must be satisfied before safety needs are
activated – safety needs must be satisfied before social needs
are activated.
5-*

*
Maslow’s theory has some limitations. It presumes that people
have to have one need met before the next need emerges.
Satisfying the higher-order needs can present more of a
challenge, and individuals are different in terms of their ‘level’
of need and at what point they are satisfied. As an individual
moves through their career, different needs may vary.
To address some of the limitations of Maslow's hierarchy,
Clayton Alderfer proposed the ERG theory. It orders needs as a
hierarchy (like Maslow).
5-*
Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation
ERG theory helps to explain why a lower-level need can become
activated when a higher-level need cannot be satisfied. E.g., if
an individual is frustrated in trying to move forward in their
growth needs (career advancement), relatedness needs can
become key motivations.
*
5-*

McClelland developed the TAT, to identify the three basic
needs that people develop over a lifetime. The TAT is a
projective test that presents people with a series of ambiguous
pictures and asks them to develop a story about the pictures.
The assumption is that the person will project his or her needs
or drives onto the pictures.What do you see?
Acquired needs theory
Need for achievement (nAch).
The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve
problems, or to master complex tasks.
Need for affiliation (nAff).
The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations
with others.
Need for power (nPower).
The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to
be responsible for others.
5-*
*
According to McClelland, the presence of these motives or
drives in an individual indicates a predisposition to behave in
certain ways.
McClelland encourages managers to learn how to identify the
presence of nAch, nAff, and nPower in themselves and others,
since each need can be linked with a set of work preferences
and motivation. Since these three needs are acquired,
McClelland believes it may be possible to teach people to

develop profiles for success in various types of jobs.
For example, a low nAff can predispose an executive to make
difficult decisions without undue worry about being disliked.
Two-Factor Theory
Identifies two different factors as primary causes of job
satisfaction and job dissatisfaction.
Also known as the motivator-hygiene theory.
5-*
*
Herzberg asked workers to report the times they felt
exceptionally good about their jobs and the times they felt
exceptionally bad about them. Researchers noticed that people
talked about very different things when they reported feeling
good or bad about their jobs.
Hygiene factors
Sources of job dissatisfaction associated with job context.
Job dissatisfaction results when hygiene factors are poor.
Improving the hygiene factors only decreases job
dissatisfaction.
5-*
*

Herzberg found that a low base salary or wage makes people
dissatisfied, but that paying more does not necessarily satisfy or
motivate them.
Motivator factors
Sources of job satisfaction related to job content.
Presence or absence of motivators is the key link to satisfaction.
5-*
*
When motivator factors are minimal, low job satisfaction
decreases motivation and performance.
When motivator factors are substantial, high job satisfaction
raises motivation and performance.
5-*
*
Equity Theory
Any perceived inequity
becomes a motivating state
of mind.

People are motivated to behave in ways that restore equity in
situations.
Foundation of equity is social comparison.
5-*
*
Motivation is a function of how one evaluates rewards relative
to efforts made, and as compared to the rewards received by
others relative to their efforts made.
A key word in this comparison is “fairness.” Everyone does not
have to receive the same rewards, but the rewards should be in
accordance with individual contributions.
5-*
Individual Outcomes
Individual Efforts
Others’ Outcomes
Others’ Efforts
=
*
Perceived inequity occurs when someone believes that the
rewards received for their work contributions compare
unfavorably to the rewards other people appear to have received
for their work.
We compare our efforts and resultant outcomes to the efforts

and outcomes of others. If we find they are equivalent, we are
satisfied and motivated. When the comparison is out of balance,
we are dissatisfied and lose motivation.
Equity theory prediction:
Negative inequity.
Individual feels he/she has received relatively less than others
in proportion to work inputs.
Positive inequity.
Individual feels he/she has received relatively more than others
in proportion to work inputs.
5-*
*
When people believe that an inequity exists, the theory states
that they will be motivated to act in ways that remove the
discomfort and restore a sense of felt equity.
People who feel they are overpaid are likely to try and increase
the quantity and quality of their work.
Those who feel they are underpaid are likely to try and decrease
the quantity and quality of their work.
Equity restoration behaviors.
Change work inputs.
Change the outcomes received.
Leave the situation.
Change the comparison person.
Psychologically distort the comparisons.
Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of the comparison

person.
5-*
*
Steps for managing equity dynamics
Recognize that equity comparisons are inevitable in the
workplace.
Anticipate felt negative inequities when rewards are given.
Communicate clear evaluations for any rewards given.
Communicate an appraisal of performance on which the reward
is based.
Communicate comparison points that are appropriate in the
situation
5-*
*
A reward given by a team leader and expected to be
motivational to a team may or may not work as intended. Unless
it is perceived as fair and equitable in comparison with results
for other teammates, the reward may create negative equity
dynamics and work just the opposite of what the team leader
expected.
You regularly work longer hours than anyone else in your

department. Yet, you do not feel that you are being adequately
recognized or rewarded. According to equity theory, you will
most likely ….
Increase your efforts by working longer hours.
Ask for a raise or bonus.
Reduce your efforts by decreasing hours.
Frame the situation as a learning experience and beneficial for
your future career.
5-*
You will most likely reduce your efforts (3.) or try to restore
equity by increasing our outcomes (2.)
*
Organizational justice
How fair and equitable people view the practices of their
workplace.
5-*
*
In ethics, the justice view of moral reasoning considers
behavior to be ethical when it is fair and impartial in the
treatment of people. Organizational justice notions are
important in OB. It refers to the ways in which people perceive
they are being treated at work in respect to procedural,
distributive, and interactional justice are likely to affect their
motivations.

It is their perceptions of these justice types that create the
ultimate motivational influence.
Distributive justice - degree to which all people are treated the
same under a policy, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, age
or any other demographic characteristic.
Interactional justice - degree to which the people affected by a
decision are treated with dignity and respect.
Procedural justice, degree to which the rules and procedures
specified by policies are properly followed.
5-*
*
A person’s motivation is a multiplicative function of
expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (M = E x I x V).
5-*
*
Expectancy theory posits that motivation is a result of a rational
calculation – people will do what they can do when they want to
do it.

Expectancy
effort will yield acceptable performance
Instrumentality
performance will be rewarded
Valence
value of the rewards is highly positive
5-*
*
Equity theory is based on the concept of fairness.
Expectancy theory is based on the concept of effort.
How much effort should be put out to achieve a desired
outcome?
Expectancy is the probability assigned by an individual that
work effort will be followed by a given level of achieved task
performance.
Instrumentality is the probability assigned by an individual that
a given level of achieved task performance will lead to various
work outcomes.
Valence is the value attached by the individual to various work
outcomes.
5-*

*
Motivational implications of expectancy theory.
Motivation is sharply reduced when, expectancy,
instrumentality, or valence approach zero or are negative.
Motivation is high when expectancy and instrumentality are
high and valence is strongly positive.
5-*
*
Expectancy logic argues that managers should always try to
intervene actively in work situations to maximize work
expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences that support
organizational objectives.
Even though the theory has received substantial support, some
components, such as the multiplier effect, remain subject to
some question.
5-*
*

Goal setting
The process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing the
targets or objectives that a person is responsible for
accomplishing.
5-*
*
The basic precepts of goal-setting theory are an important
source of advice for managing human behavior in the work
setting.
Reasonably Difficult goals are more likely to lead to higher
performance than are less difficult ones.
Specific goals are more likely to lead to higher performance
than vague or very general ones.
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If the goals are seen as too difficult, the relationship with
performance no longer holds.
All too often people work with very general goals such as the
encouragement to “do your best.”
Task feedback is likely to motivate people toward higher

performance by encouraging the setting of higher performance
goals.
Goals are most likely to lead to higher performance when
people have the abilities and the feelings of self-efficacy
required to accomplish.
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Feedback lets people know where they stand and whether they
are on course or off course in their efforts.
The individual must be able to accomplish the goals and feel
confident in those abilities.
Goals are most likely to motivate people toward higher
performance when they are accepted by the individual, and
there is commitment to them.
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Participating in the goal-setting process helps build acceptance
and commitment. It creates a sense of “ownership”.
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Process of joint goal setting between a supervisor and a
subordinate.
5-*

*
MBO involves managers working with their team members to
establish performance goals and make plans that are consistent
with higher level work unit and organizational objectives. When
done throughout an organization, MBO helps clarify the
hierarchy of objectives as a series of well-defined means-end
chains.
5-*
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