Influences on the Constitution Table HIS/301 Version 8 2 University of Phoenix Material Influences on the Constitution Table Complete each section below. Include citations for your sources. Documents Summary What was its influence on the Constitution? Magna Carta Mayflower Compact Articles of Confederation Declaration of Independence Philosophers Who was this? How did his writings influence the Constitution? Thomas Hobbes John Locke Selected patriots Who was this? What were his views on governmental structure? Benjamin Franklin Alexander Hamilton Patrick Henry Thomas Jefferson James Madison John Adams Discussion Question: Write two paragraphs that address the following question. Be sure to write in complete sentences and use proper grammar and style. Each paragraph should be at least 100 words each. Compare and contrast how the Federalists and anti-Federalists thought about the issue of federalism. Why did one group advocate for a strong federal government, and why did the other group insist on powerful state governments? Copyright © 2015, 2013, 2012, 2010, 2008, 2006, 2005, 2004 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved. Chapter 15 - Environmental Protection Managing Development in a Globalized World: Concepts, Processes, Institutions by Habib Zafarullah and Ahmed Shafiqul Huque Auerbach Publications © 2012 Citation Chapter 15: Environmental Protection It is in man's heart that the life of nature's spectacle exists; to see it, one must feel it. Jean-Jacques Rousseau Relevance, Rationale, and Context Traditionally, environment referred to the surrounding in which a phenomenon existed or an event took place. Over time, the concept has broadened considerably and now includes numerous aspects of social, technical, economic, political, and psychological arrangements, activities, and outcomes. Environment refers principally to ecological conditions, but is closely relevant to the quality of life and the management of natural resources (Buhrs and Bartlett, 1993: 9). Modernization and technological advancement have accorded prominence in the move toward development for many decades, and several countries have been making frantic efforts to achieve them. Consequently, overemphasis on infrastructure development and ruthless exploitation of natural resources have upset the ecological balance, and environmental protection and sustainability have emerged as a critical issue in development. Notes The relevance of development to the environment is obvious. Many of the activities intended to foster development have impacts on the environment. Rapid industrialization and urbanization, mechanization of agriculture, construction of infrastructure, improvements in transportation facilities, and other measures are accomplished at the cost of depletion of forests, overexploitation of natural resources, and diminishing of agricultural land. In addition, the extensive use of fossil fuels, huge carbon emission, and.

1. Influences on the Constitution Table
HIS/301 Version 8
2
University of Phoenix Material
Influences on the Constitution Table
Complete each section below. Include citations for your
sources.
Documents
Summary
What was its influence on the Constitution?
Magna Carta
Mayflower Compact
Articles of Confederation
Declaration of Independence
Philosophers
Who was this?
How did his writings influence the Constitution?
Thomas Hobbes
John Locke
Selected patriots
Who was this?

2. What were his views on governmental structure?
Benjamin Franklin
Alexander Hamilton
Patrick Henry
Thomas Jefferson
James Madison
John Adams
Discussion Question:
Write two paragraphs that address the following question. Be
sure to write in complete sentences and use proper grammar and
style. Each paragraph should be at least 100 words each.
Compare and contrast how the Federalists and anti-Federalists
thought about the issue of federalism. Why did one group
advocate for a strong federal government, and why did the other
group insist on powerful state governments?
Copyright © 2015, 2013, 2012, 2010, 2008, 2006, 2005, 2004
by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved.

3. Chapter 15 - Environmental Protection
Managing Development in a Globalized World: Concepts,
Processes, Institutions
by Habib Zafarullah and Ahmed Shafiqul Huque
Auerbach Publications © 2012 Citation
Chapter 15: Environmental Protection
It is in man's heart that the life of nature's spectacle exists; to
see it, one must feel it.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Relevance, Rationale, and Context
Traditionally, environment referred to the surrounding in which
a phenomenon existed or an event took place. Over
time, the concept has broadened considerably and now includes
numerous aspects of social, technical, economic,
political, and psychological arrangements, activities, and
outcomes. Environment refers principally to ecological
conditions, but is closely relevant to the quality of life and the
management of natural resources (Buhrs and
Bartlett, 1993: 9). Modernization and technological
advancement have accorded prominence in the move toward
development for many decades, and several countries have been
making frantic efforts to achieve them.
Consequently, overemphasis on infrastructure development and
ruthless exploitation of natural resources have
upset the ecological balance, and environmental protection and
sustainability have emerged as a critical issue in
development.
Notes
The relevance of development to the environment is obvious.
Many of the activities intended to foster
development have impacts on the environment. Rapid

4. industrialization and urbanization, mechanization of
agriculture, construction of infrastructure, improvements in
transportation facilities, and other measures are
accomplished at the cost of depletion of forests,
overexploitation of natural resources, and diminishing of
agricultural land. In addition, the extensive use of fossil fuels,
huge carbon emission, and destruction of water
bodies have resulted in serious problems. Therefore,
development strategies need to be reconsidered with special
attention devoted to the protection of the environment, so that
the progress achieved is sustainable.
Notes
Developing countries (DCs) currently face the formidable
challenge of continuing on the path to development and
caring for the environment at the same time. In the context of
development, justice and equity are concerned with
fairness that "deal with the distribution of shares of anything,"
and "there is some inequity in the way the world uses its
resources and manipulates its environment" (Simmons, 1991:
232). The problem of lack of justice and equity is
important because it has implications for efforts to reduce
poverty.
In recent years, awareness about the damage to the environment
has steadily increased because of the outcome
of development efforts as well as the potential impact on a large
number of people in the developing world. It has
been argued that the adoption of "green technology" could
contribute to the protection of the environment.
Unfortunately, DCs lack the financial and technological
resources that are required to ensure compliance with
international standards when they undertake development. Such
demands may delay the progress of
development and add to the cost. Development management

5. needs to address these issues as environmental
protection has become a critical issue across the globe.
Notes
Concepts and Applications
The environment is "the physical realm from which we draw
resources to sustain our lives and our societies"
(O'Lear, 2010: 2), and it occupies an important position in
modern society. The concept of environmental
protection emerged in response to concern over the
consequences of rapid development efforts and increased
awareness of the depletion of common pool resources. Initial
attempts were restricted to the formulation of policies
that would regulate behavior and reduce the pressure on
resources and limit the intensity of damage to the
environment. It was soon realized that the state had to get
involved in protecting the environment as the
magnitude of the task was growing and was beyond the capacity
of other groups to deal with it.
Notes
Several factors deserve consideration in presenting the case for
environmental protection. It involves actions related
to the promotion and protection of water and air quality,
ecosystem management, biodiversity, natural resources,
wildlife, and overall impact on human health. The emphasis is
on sustainability that aims to ensure meeting "the needs
of the present generation without compromising the ability of
future generation to meet their own needs." Such a
notion incorporates

6. the concept of "needs," in particular the essential needs of the
world's poor, to which overriding priority
should be given; and
the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and
social organization on the environment's
ability to meet present and future needs.
World Commission on Environment and Development [WCED]
(1987: 43)
Environmental protection measures are expected to hold
businesses and industries responsible for their actions
that have implications on human health and contribute to
offsetting the costs by influencing behavior through
incentives and sanctions. Protection of common resources is of
utmost importance because they are limited in
supply and must be used to provide benefits to the maximum
number of people.
Notes
Environmental protection is applied through regulations
intended to guide behavior. Many countries rely on economic
incentives, tax exemptions, and imposition of user fees to
achieve this end.
As pressure intensifies for global action to protect the
environment, increasing numbers of developing
country-governments will be confronted with demands that they
adopt policies more sensitive to the
environment and more mindful of the preservation of renewable
resources.
Low (1993: 705)

7. Consequently, environmental organizations of international or
intergovernmental nature helped diffuse the norm of
nation-state responsibility for environmental protection that left
little scope for domestic factors and processes to leave
an impact (Frank et al., 2000).
As environmental protection activities transcend national
boundaries, a number of international treaties, agreements,
and protocols have come into effect to guide its application.
Environmental degradation in one area can have severe
impact across regions, and therefore, organized and coordinated
actions are necessary to deal with the problem. As
Low (1993: 705) argues,
The rights of nations to determine their own policies and
priorities are being challenged in the
environmental sphere because of the global dimension of many
of today's environmental concerns,
whereby one nation's activities may be perceived as affecting
environmental quality in other countries.
These factors have expanded the scope and added to the
complexities of creating mechanisms, organizational
arrangements, and procedures as multiple stakeholders
participate and make monitoring and compliance a formidable
challenge.
Redclift (1991: 40) observes that "the environmental message is
concerned with finding new forms of co-existence
with nature." The danger of balancing the growth of population
and the nonrenewable nature of resource development
is difficult as there is an asymmetric relationship between them.
Commoner (1972: 299) explained that people seem
not to be driven by the social organization intended to control
nature because "means of gaining wealth which conflict
with those which govern nature." It is becoming increasingly

8. difficult to ensure environmental protection as it
generates different types of demands on DCs, international
standards have to be complied with, and "environmental
pollution is translated into threats to human nutrition"
(Dasmann, 1975: 19).
According to Flint (2004: 51), sustainable development (SD) is
"progressive socio-economic betterment without
growing beyond ecological carrying capacity: achieving human
well-being without exceeding the Earth's twin
capacities for natural resource regeneration and waste
absorption." He points out that economic vitality, ecologic
integrity, and social equity are all significant in any policy for
environmental protection (see Figure 15.1).
Notes
"The conceptual model of sustainable development that
illustrates the relationship among
economic, ecologic and social issues of concern in decision
making. The black overlap of the three
circles represents the nexus of connection among issues."
Economic Vitality (Compatible with Nature) development that
protects and/or enhances natural
resource quantities through improvements in management
practices/policies, technology, efficiency,
and changes in life-style.
Ecologic Integrity (Natural Ecosystem Capacity) understanding
natural system processes of
landscapes and watersheds to guide design of sound economic
developement strategies that
preserve these natural systems.

9. Social Equity (Balancing the Playing Field) guaranteeing equal
access to jobs (income), education,
natural resources, and services for all people: total societal
welfare.
Figure 15.1: Sustainability model(Adapted from Flint, R.W.,
Water Resources Update, No. 127, 48–59, January
2004, Universities Council on Water Resources.)
Forms, Strategies, and Outcomes
Environmental protection is facilitated through several
channels, actors, and agencies. State institutions are
instrumental in formulating regulations and structures for
planning and implementing measures to protect the
environment, guide and regulate behavior, and negotiate with
various stakeholders for the best outcomes. This
entails establishing a delicate balance between objectives of
economic growth, social development, and
environmental protection. In general, government agencies have
the primary responsibility of enforcing rules and
regulations that would lead to compliance with established
standards. However, these efforts have to be
supplemented by a myriad of activities by nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs) and community organizations,
who often undertake the lead in promoting practices for
environmental protection.
Notes
Stretton (1976: 4) argues that effective environmental
protection programs have to "be part of a programme of more
general social change," rather than remaining confined to
efforts made by the state organs. Sandbach (1980: 22, 23)
identifies ecological and scientific programs that "influence

10. policy by presenting a valid, scientifically argued case,
based upon ecology and systems analysis" and those that are
"less concerned with environmental systems, but more
with whether or not science and technology are compatible with
humanistic principles." Redclift (1991: 50) listed three
principal objectives of resource conservation as the maintenance
of essential ecological processes and life support
systems, the preservation of genetic diversity, and the
sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems.
Whether the issue is management of natural resources in a
sustainable manner, reducing industrial pollution, or
protecting biodiversity, DCs are increasingly required to
respond to demands from industrial countries for effecting
modifications in their environmental behavior. But it is one
thing for DCs to accept the proposition that safeguarding
the environment is a shared responsibility and quite another to
subscribe uncritically to environmental priorities and
solutions framed in industrial countries. Five basic principles
suggest themselves as useful guidelines within which to
conduct the discussion of how industrially developed countries
and industrializing DCs should interact on
environmental issues (Low, 1993).
The state of environmental protection in China and other rapidly
progressing DCs often gives rise to debates and
controversies. A study found that, in China, the "range of
serious problems included threats to air, water, soil and
vegetation" (Feng and Reisner, 2011: 434). The problems are
often the consequences of actions required for
development, and they are disregarded because of the eagerness
for rapid change. Moreover, with expanding
participation of stakeholders and their multiple "voices, views

11. of development, and understandings of the relationship
between human beings and nature increased through the action
of a new set of players in the international
environmental field" (Keck and Sikkink, 1998: 126).
The World Bank proposed a set of strategies for environmental
protection with reference to the key challenges
confronting environmentally and socially SD. These intend to
Improve people's health by reducing their exposure to
environmental risks such as indoor
and urban air pollution, water- and vector-borne diseases, and
toxic substances.
Support the sustainable management of natural resources—land,
water, forests, and
biodiversity—to enhance poor people's livelihoods today and in
the future.
Reduce people's vulnerability to environmental risks such as
natural disasters, severe
weather fluctuations, and the impacts of climate change.
World Bank (2000b: 9)
The common strategies for environmental protection include
regulation of behavior for less consumption and
environment-friendly measures, sanctions on actions that cause
an environmental damage, and vigorous campaign to
educate the citizens about desirable consumption and behavior.
While the first two strategies are within the jurisdiction
of government agencies, other actors and agencies are involved
in fostering awareness about the problem and
informing people of the consequences. Globally, strategies
emerge out of a number of protocols that have developed
over several decades.

12. Methods and mechanisms adopted by governments for
environmental protection may be influenced by the location
where it takes place. For instance, industrial pollution control
and prevention policies were two key strategies put in
place in the 1970s in China to protect the environment (Zhang
and Wen, 2008: 1260). In the case of Mexico, for
example, policies for protecting the environment in the northern
part of the country "tend to be human centered and
urban oriented. The southern border states remain more rural
and more marginalized, and a significant component of
the government's environmental protection efforts is directed at
managing natural resources and biodiversity"
(Lybecker and Mumme, 2002: 424). The context of the region
and its needs are thus recognized in developing
environmental policies.
A large number of conventions and agreements have been
concluded over the past decades, and some of them have
acquired prominence in the area of environmental protection.
They deal with a variety of issues such as endangered
species, hazardous chemicals and pesticides, organic pollutants,
desertification, wetlands, whaling, and the protection
of the ozone layer.
The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and the Pacific (UNESCAP) mentions
several global and regional conventions, agreements and
protocols developed during the last quarter of
a century such as the Ozone, Basel, CITES, CMS, and the
European Convention on Transboundary Air
Pollution and the like are examples of hard law, while the
Stockholm and Rio Declarations and several
instruments dealing with the management of chemicals, such as
the London Guidelines, are good

13. examples of soft law.
http://www.unescap.org/drpad/vc/orientation/legal/3_intro.htm
The key points of the Rio Declaration and Kyoto Protocol will
be used to illustrate the strategies and expected
outcomes.
Some of the conventions have succeeded in providing support
and contributing to environmental protection. The
Worldwatch Institute (2002: 178, 179) summarized the outcome
of a number of conventions:
1. Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 provided
guidelines for the conservation of biodiversity and
required participating countries to formulate strategies for
achieving them. It stipulated that biodiversity
use must be sustainable and the benefits must be shared between
the source and receiving countries.
Global Environment Facility (GEF) channeled $1.02 billion into
biodiversity funds in 120 developing
countries.
2. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992
succeeded in obtaining agreement among a group
of advanced nations to adopt policies to stabilize greenhouse
gas emission and provide financial
resources for technology transfer. GEF provided $884 million
into climate change projects.
3. Convention to Combat Desertification 1994 created a network
of four regions (Africa, Asia, Latin
America and the Caribbean, and Northern Mediterranean) to

14. design and implement plans tailored to
local needs.
4. Stockholm Treaty on Persistent Organic Pollution 2000
regulates the production of 12 toxic substances
and intends to identify and eliminate stockpiles, and wastes
containing persistent organic pollutants.
The Kyoto Protocol is linked to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and is
relevant in understanding the state of environmental protection
in recent years. It was signed in 1997 and did not
come into force until 2005. Under the Kyoto Protocol,
industrialized countries are expected to reduce their collective
emission of greenhouse gases by 5.2% compared with the level
of the year 1990. Using a number of strategies such
as emissions trading, adoption of clean development
mechanism, and joint implementation, the parties to the
protocol
were expected to meet their targets through national endeavors.
It set "binding targets for 37 industrialized countries
and the European Community for reducing greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions," and "while the Convention encouraged
the industrialized countries to act on it, the Protocol commits
them to do so" (UNFCCC, online accessed on 9 March,
2011; Box 15.1).
Box 15.1—Agenda 21
Underlying Agenda 21 is the notion that humanity has reached a
defining moment in its history. We can continue
our present policies which serve to deepen the economic
divisions within and between countries; which increase
poverty, hunger, sickness and illiteracy worldwide; and which
are causing the continued deterioration of the
ecosystem on which we depend for life on Earth.

15. PRINCIPLES
1. Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable
development. They are entitled to a
healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.
2. States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United
Nations and the principles of international
law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant
to their own environmental and
developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that
activities within their jurisdiction or
control do not cause damage to the environment of other States
or of areas beyond the limits of
national jurisdiction.
3. The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably
meet developmental and environmental
needs of present and future generations.
4. In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental
protection shall constitute an integral
part of the development process and cannot be considered in
isolation from it.
5. All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task
of eradicating poverty as an
indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order
to decrease the disparities in
standards of living and better meet the needs of the majority of
the people of the world.
6. The special situation and needs of developing countries,
particularly the least developed and those
most environmentally vulnerable, shall be given special
priority. International actions in the field of

16. environment and development should also address the interests
and needs of all countries.
7. States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to
conserve, protect and restore the health
and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem. In view of the different
contributions to global environmental
degradation, States have common but differentiated
responsibilities. The developed countries
acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the
international pursuit of sustainable development
in view of the pressures their societies place on the global
environment and of the technologies and
financial resources they command.
8. To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of
life for all people, States should reduce
and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and
consumption and promote appropriate
demographic policies.
9. States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity-
building for sustainable development
by improving scientific understanding through exchanges of
scientific and technological knowledge,
and by enhancing the development, adaptation, diffusion and
transfer of technologies, including
new and innovative technologies.
10. Environmental issues are best handled with the participation
of all concerned citizens, at the
relevant level. At the national level, each individual shall have
appropriate access to information

17. concerning the environment that is held by public authorities,
including information on hazardous
materials and activities in their communities, and the
opportunity to participate in decision-making
processes. States shall facilitate and encourage public
awareness and participation by making
information widely available. Effective access to judicial and
administrative proceedings, including
redress and remedy, shall be provided.
11. States shall enact effective environmental legislation.
Environmental standards, management
objectives and priorities should reflect the environmental and
developmental context to which they
apply. Standards applied by some countries may be
inappropriate and of unwarranted economic
and social cost to other countries, in particular developing
countries.
12. States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open
international economic system that
would lead to economic growth and sustainable development in
all countries, to better address the
problems of environmental degradation. Trade policy measures
for environmental purposes should
not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable
discrimination or a disguised restriction on
international trade. Unilateral actions to deal with
environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction
of the importing country should be avoided. Environmental
measures addressing transboundary or
global environmental problems should, as far as possible, be
based on an international consensus.
13. States shall develop national law regarding liability and
compensation for the victims of pollution

18. and other environmental damage. States shall also cooperate in
an expeditious and more
determined manner to develop further international law
regarding liability and compensation for
adverse effects of environmental damage caused by activities
within their jurisdiction or control to
areas beyond their jurisdiction.
14. States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent
the relocation and transfer to other
States of any activities and substances that cause severe
environmental degradation or are found
to be harmful to human health.
15. In order to protect the environment, the precautionary
approach shall be widely applied by States
according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of
serious or irreversible damage, lack of full
scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing
cost-effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation.
16. National authorities should endeavour to promote the
internalization of environmental costs and the
use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach
that the polluter should, in principle,
bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest
and without distorting international
trade and investment.
17. Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument,
shall be undertaken for proposed
activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact on
the environment and are subject to a
decision of a competent national authority.

19. 18. States shall immediately notify other States of any natural
disasters or other emergencies that are
likely to produce sudden harmful effects on the environment of
those States. Every effort shall be
made by the international community to help States so afflicted.
19. States shall provide prior and timely notification and
relevant information to potentially affected
States on activities that may have a significant adverse
transboundary environmental effect and
shall consult with those States at an early stage and in good
faith.
20. Women have a vital role in environmental management and
development. Their full participation is
therefore essential to achieve sustainable development.
21. The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of the world
should be mobilized to forge a global
partnership in order to achieve sustainable development and
ensure a better future for all.
22. Indigenous people and their communities and other local
communities have a vital role in
environmental management and development because of their
knowledge and traditional practices.
States should recognize and duly support their identity, culture
and interests and enable their
effective participation in the achievement of sustainable
development.
23. The environment and natural resources of people under
oppression, domination and occupation

20. shall be protected.
24. Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable
development. States shall therefore respect
international law providing protection for the environment in
times of armed conflict and cooperate in
its further development, as necessary.
25. Peace, development and environmental protection are
interdependent and indivisible.
26. States shall resolve all their environmental disputes
peacefully and by appropriate means in
accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.
27. States and people shall cooperate in good faith and in a
spirit of partnership in the fulfilment of the
principles embodied in this Declaration and in the further
development of international law in the
field of sustainable development.
Source: United Nations (UN), Agenda 21 Summary, United
Nations Department of Public Information, 1992
(http://jaygary.com/agenda21.shtml).
Strategies for environmental protection include efforts
undertaken at the international, national, local, and community
levels. International agreements, conventions, protocols, and
treaties facilitate the imposition of regulations on actions
that result in environmental degradation and proactive measures
to offer assistance from the advanced and
industrialized nations. At the state level, national institutions
and governmental organizations adopt policies to protect
the environment and supplement the efforts through programs
designed to educate the citizens, provide incentives for
appropriate behavior and conservation, impose sanctions for

21. noncompliance, encourage research on green
technology, and promote campaigns to protect the environment.
Local councils assist with the implementation of
national programs within their jurisdictions. Community groups
and NGOs play an increasingly significant role in
environmental protection by developing and implementing
programs that encourage conservation, recycling, and
environment-friendly behavior among the citizens.
Governments in many DCs were confronted with the challenge
of designing policies and creating a network of
organizations for dealing with environmental protection, and the
task had to be accomplished within a relatively short
period of time. By 1979, it was found that there was some kind
of government agency, ministry, department, or office
in almost every country, and they were charged with ensuring
environmental protection in a variety of areas such as
wildlife, forests, water, natural resources health, or sanitation
(Bassow, 1979: 119). It should also be noted that there
has been a rapid proliferation of NGOs and grassroots
organizations in both the developed and developing world, and
they devote most of their work toward environmental
protection.
The outcomes of environmental protection efforts are generally
positive. They have contributed to awareness about
wastage, rapid depletion of natural resources, and the need to
protect the environment, and new programs have been
introduced to deal with these problems. Consequently, the level
of air and water pollution has been reduced to some
extent. More importantly, new arrangements and technology are
emerging, and they are likely to sustain the progress
as governments realize the actual cost of ignoring
environmental protection. However, much more needs to be
done
as the pace of environmental damage has accelerated, and

22. commitment from some countries toward combating it
seems to be affected by worldwide economic downturn and
ideological shifts on the issue.
Issues and Constraints
Environmental change has a considerable impact on the lives of
people in DCs. It has emerged as one of the most
critical issues because environmental factors influence
agriculture, industries, health, and a host of other policy
sectors. Trade and commerce are also affected because of
increase in the cost of environment-friendly methods and
mechanisms and pressure for compliance with international
standards and protocol. While environmental protection is
extremely important for development, such demands have
serious implications for DCs as they strive to increase
agricultural productivity, achieve rapid industrialization, and
ensure health and other social services to the citizens with
their limited capacity.
Earlier, countries relied on domestic ecosystems for food and
clothing, and "on nature to provide clean air and
waters, minerals, and aesthetic incentives," but now they
"control and manage enormous quantities of the world's
energy, affecting the whole biosphere and displacing
ecosystems" (Odum, 2007: 332). The most common areas of
constraints include the rapid rise of global population,
environmental health risks from "lack of access to safe
drinking water, high levels of indoor and outdoor air pollution,
unsafe use of agro- and industrial chemicals, and
vector-borne diseases (malaria, dengue fever)," tremendous
pressure on natural resources, and natural and man-
made disasters (World Bank, 2000b: 6, 7). Redclift (1991: 41)
also expressed concern over the capacity of

23. ecosystems because of "the increase in human population and
the non-renewability of resource development."
Notes
Linkages between women and the environment have not yet
been adequately explored. Rocheleau et al. (1996)
traced the connection through "gendered science of survival"
that recognizes efforts by women to develop
environmental sciences and movements that reflect local
knowledge and practices, "gendered environmental rights
and responsibilities" related to rights of control and access, and
"gendered environmental politics and grassroots
activism" that considers women's involvement in political
movements for an environmental change. It was found that
women are more concerned over the environment than men (see
Davidson and Freudenburg, 1996; Mohai, 1997;
Szagun and Pavlov, 1995). It is obvious that women and men
"differ in environmental values, attitudes, and behaviors"
(Nugent and Shandra, 2009: 209).
Environmental research is extremely complex in nature as it
draws upon a variety of disciplines. Kuhtz (2011: 80)
believes that "[i]n assessing the potential risks from climate
change and the costs of averting it, researchers and
policymakers encounter pervasive uncertainty." This results in
major differences of opinion regarding the appropriate
policy response as the threat of climate change is assessed in
different ways by experts on various branches of
knowledge. Policy preferences, therefore, reflect the level of
concern felt by specific groups of analysts and, to some
extent, countries. Governments in DCs are under pressure to
pursue economic growth and continue activities to
facilitate industrialization and trade, along with stipulations to
comply with strict guidelines for environmental
protection. Choosing between rapid growth and environmental

24. protection remains an issue of controversy.
The extent of knowledge about environmental issues is a
constraint. A study on China reported that knowledge of
ecology and environmental issues is confined to the urban areas
only, and the vast rural population remained unaware
of this (Harris, 2006). The problem is common in DCs because
of low literacy rates as well as lack of alternative
sources of knowledge and information. It has been assumed that
education and information may contribute to
changes in individual behavior (Baldassare and Katz, 1992).
However, there are other studies that indicate that
environmental concern may not necessarily be reflected in the
behavior of the citizens and groups (Scott and Willis,
1994).
Environmental protection is affected by diverse approaches
adopted by most DCs in managing natural resources.
Financial pressure and the eagerness to achieve rapid
development may guide actions to extract natural resources
unscrupulously instead of using a sustainable approach.
Continued extraction results in depletion of resources and
causes more harm to the financial strength of the country.
Agriculture, forestry, energy production, and mining
generate a considerable component of the gross national product
(GNP) in many DCs and have implications for
livelihood and employment of a large number of people.
"Exports of natural resources remain a large factor in their
economies, especially for the least developed. Most of these
countries face enormous economic pressures, both
international and domestic, to overexploit their environmental
resource base" (WCED, 1987: 6). Continuation with
activities contributing to pollutant discharge in China has
resulted in aggravation in ecological deterioration and was
found to be "a key factor harming public health and restricting
economic growth and social stabilization" (Zhang and

25. Wen, 2008: 1260).
Another issue arises out of the need and tendency for
collaborative action by local, national, and international actors
in ensuring environmental protection. Many DCs are not
adequately connected to the international system to
participate effectively in the process, and their efforts are
affected. Such complexity of relationships poses a major
challenge for environmental management in many DCs (WCED,
1987: 6). The international conventions provide
platforms for the DCs to inform the developed world of their
problems and seek assistance to deal with environmental
issues. Unfortunately, the outcomes of such efforts are not yet
evident as more pressing problems often shift attention
to new activities.
The disruption of a well-organized system and the destruction
of its control mechanisms have severe adverse impacts
(Odum, 2007: 58), and this has been happening to the ecology
over decades. The risks increase considerably
because of the unethical strategies adopted by some industries
who try to entice poor, segregated communities with
promises of employment opportunities and contribution to the
tax base in return for support and permission
(Theodore, 1996: 486). This creates immense stress on countries
with very little or limited sources for raising revenue
and places the offending industries in advantageous positions.
They exploit such opportunities and create formidable
obstacles to the progress of developmental efforts.
DCs are exposed to additional constraints as the developed
world received a head start by industrializing ahead of
them. Massive industrialization caused substantial

26. environmental damage, especially in the absence of strict
regulations on pollution and requirements for compliance with
standards. As environmental protection emerged as a
critical issue, the circumstances have changed and power
relationships shifted. As O'Lear (2010: 198) suggests,
Governments, businesses and consumers in more powerful parts
of the world seek to detract attention
away from their own consumption and pollution levels by
identifying or dramatizing threats emerging
elsewhere. By creating a narrative about external threats to the
state, including environment- and
resource-related threats, attention is shifted away from the role
that politically and economically powerful
actors play in the destruction of the environment within and
beyond their own political borders.
Some environmental problems arise from constraints inherent in
the social, political, and economic arrangements
in DCs. Two volumes of the World Environment Report (1977,
1978) revealed instances of such problems in the
developing world. Taking the Indian case, for instance, in both
rural and urban areas, a large number of people
must use firewood for cooking. In addition, the burning of coal,
emissions from factories, power plants and
vehicles, runoff from pesticides, and other agricultural
chemicals have all contributed to high levels of atmospheric
pollution that has a serious impact on public health. The
"erosion of forested areas" is a major problem in the
Philippines, and air pollution in Malaysia. Continuing
industrialization and rapid population growth contributed to
severe air pollution in Turkey, particularly in urban areas, and
resulted in an increase "in cases of Bronchitis, lung
disease, miscarriages, and premature births." Inadequate supply
of clean water, poor sanitation, lack of waste
disposal facilities, deforestation and erosion, inadequate

27. housing, degradation of agricultural land, and
encroaching deserts in the north were reported to be Nigeria's
main environmental problems (Ojikutu, 1978, cited
in Bassow, 1979: 119).
Notes
Conflicts of interest and differences in objectives among
stakeholders affect the goal of environmental protection. The
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) included
arrangements to promote environmental standards.
Interestingly, the corporations
acted to reduce environmental protection costs, but when faced
with significant attacks, they developed
a variety of different arguments to defend their interests. They
tried to balance low regulatory costs with
consistency in standards when it was convenient for exchange,
and when it suited their interests some
businesses pointed to U.S. standards as a reason to reject the
importation of Mexican goods.
Grossman (2000: 78)
Marchak (1998: 138) observed that the lack of awareness about
environmentally unsafe practices may be
understandable in view of the failure to engage in trading
relationships. The context emerges as a factor for the
variations in programs in Mexico. The choice of strategies is a
critical act, and often countries adopt the same strategy
for all regions. Thus, "it appears that several of the structures
and programs pursued by the Mexican government
have an urban bias, favoring the industrialized and urban areas
of the country," while these programs may not be
appropriate for the more rural and less industrialized regions of
the country (Lybecker and Mumme, 2002: 425).

28. Criticism over unscrupulous overexploitation of natural
resources is strongly voiced from countries that have reached
their developed state in similar ways, sometimes by exploiting
resources beyond their own national boundaries. The
tendency is to persuade DCs to adopt green technology and
minimize the threats to the environment. This is
paradoxical because these countries lack the scientific and
technological expertise and the financial strength to
pursue this option. Consequently, stringent environmental
requirements impose additional costs and affect the DCs
adversely. Before the 1970s, legislation for protecting the
environment was often not comprehensive and was
generally limited to "the imposition of controls in those areas
where environmental damage was most obvious"
(Farquhar, 1984: 268).
Environmental protection, similar to many policy areas, requires
huge financial investments. One of the principal
constraints facing DCs is the lack of adequate financial
resources for providing basic services, and it is very difficult to
contribute to research and experiments that could offset
environmental degradation and promote green technology.
Financial constraints affect innovation and compel these
countries to adopt solutions designed for different contexts.
There are various kinds of costs, and even "the rise in living
standards has been demonstrated to be causing
environmental problems" (Farquhar, 1984: 268). It has been
argued that meeting the cost of emissions reduction is
dependent on the malleability of an economy's stock of capital
and the time available for adjustment (Jacoby and
Wing, 1999).
Despite increased awareness; collaborative efforts by local,

29. national, and international actors; and technological
advancement, the number of issues and constraints in
environmental protection continues to proliferate. Certain
environmental trends have emerged to affect the state of the
planet, desertification has intensified, forests are
destroyed, acid rain damaged forests and lakes, and the "burning
of fossil fuels puts into the atmosphere carbon
dioxide" to cause global warming (WCED, 1987: 2). Gradually,
a number of issues have emerged. They include
environmental ethics that has changed the emphasis of moral
codes and expanded the concept of the "common
good" that lies at the heart of determining whether an action is
ethical (Richardson, 1996: 471). Moreover,
environmental protection policies have redistributed risks and
concentrated them in particular segments of society
(Theodore, 1996: 480), and the vulnerable groups have been
affected the most. Bryant and Mohai (1992) reported
that minority communities and those with low income are
disproportionately exposed to environmental hazards such
as toxic waste disposal sites, lead, pesticides, air pollution, and
contaminated fish.
Issues and constraints are also found in the organization and
management of agencies and movements engaged in
environmental protection. As this is a relatively recent area of
state involvement for many DCs, environmental
protection entailed the establishment of organizational
structures and the deployment of personnel with relevant skills
to administer them. The political institutions have to create
legislation and make regulations, and implement policies in
societies that are not accustomed to environment-friendly
lifestyle. The task becomes even more difficult when
environmental policies affect the interests of the powerful
groups who create obstacles to the programs of the
government.

30. Continuous changes in the environment and efforts to deal with
them will give rise to more issues for governments in
DCs. This has added to the burden of their task along with other
challenges of development. It will be helpful to review
the potentials of policies and practices adopted in some
countries to protect the environment that could assist with the
development of public policies.
Potentials and Best Practices
Environmental protection is no longer regarded synonymously
with "pollution control," nor it is considered "as an
unpleasant byproduct of a highly desirable technological
society" (Bassow, 1979: 120). Increased awareness among
citizens, community groups, and national governments and
policy reforms have contributed to progress in
environmental protection. The foremost factor is recognition of
the threat to the planet and people if environmental
degradation continues. This view has been reinforced by
frequent and violent natural disasters that are attributed to
climate change caused by a variety of factors such as carbon
emission, deforestation, overconsumption, and
overexploitation of natural resources. These served as clear
indications for the need to change consumption style and
behavior.
The second factor that has compelled countries to introduce
legislation and regulations is the pressure emanating
from international agreements and collaborative efforts. In the
wake of globalization, DCs are more integrated in the
world system, and trade, commerce, and development assistance
are increasingly getting linked with environmental
protection. For example, the Kyoto Protocol established a set of
mechanisms including emission trading or the carbon
market and the collaborative implementation of clean
development mechanisms. Tanner (1999: 145) reviewed the

31. literature on environmental behavior and noted the assumption
that it is possible to change attitudes and beliefs of
citizens through education and information, and this could lead
to changes in their actual behavior.
In addition to the establishment of structures and mechanisms
and international collaboration, the mission of
environmental protection depends on support and enthusiasm
within the community. Several NGOs and community
groups are active in promoting environmental awareness and
actions. "Changes in ideas about the relationship
between development and environmental protection encouraged
more participation by actors in developing countries
—state actors, local scientists and conservationists, and other
agents promoting social change" (Keck and Sikkink,
1998: 126).
A study on China recognized that reactive approaches and
instruments used in the past are no longer sufficient and
recommended integrated measures and actions (Box 15.2). They
include
adherence to the state policy of environmental protection and
promotion of the strategy of
sustainable development;
adjustment of the economic structure, such as reducing
industries that deplete resources
and emit pollutant, policy reforms to improve efficiency and
development of environmental
industry to "provide technological support for environmental
protection";
implementation of principles emphasizing ecological
conservation and pollution

32. prevention;
building capacity for sustainable development, through both
government efforts as well as
market and private sector participation for environmental
protection; and
encouragement of international cooperation and wide
participation by government,
industry and business, non-government organizations and the
public.
Zhang and Wen (2008: 1260)
Box 15.2—Kyoto Protocol: Policies and Measures
i. Enhancement of energy efficiency in relevant sectors of the
national economy;
ii. Protection and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of
greenhouse gases not controlled by the
Montreal Protocol, taking into account its commitments under
relevant international environmental
agreements; promotion of sustainable forest management
practices, afforestation and reforestation;
iii. Promotion of sustainable forms of agriculture in light of
climate change considerations;
iv. Research on, and promotion, development and increased use
of, new and renewable forms of
energy, of carbon dioxide sequestration technologies and of
advanced and innovative
environmentally sound technologies;

33. v. Progressive reduction or phasing out of market imperfections,
fiscal incentives, tax and duty
exemptions and subsidies in all greenhouse gas emitting sectors
that run counter to the objective of
the Convention and application of market instruments;
vi. Encouragement of appropriate reforms in relevant sectors
aimed at promoting policies and
measures which limit or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases
not controlled by the Montreal
Protocol;
vii. Measures to limit and/or reduce emissions of greenhouse
gases not controlled by the Montreal
Protocol in the transport sector;
viii. Limitation and/or reduction of methane emissions through
recovery and use in waste management,
as well as in the production, transport and distribution of
energy.
Source: Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change
(http://unfccc.int/essential_background/kyoto_protocol/items/16
78.php).
The World Bank started an initiative of "mainstreaming" the
environment and "greening" the Bank's portfolio. Prior to
that, efforts were directed at using the Bank's
investment portfolio and technical assistance to strengthen the
integration of environmental issues into
the development process. In addition to environmental
assessment procedures and targeted
environmental interventions, the Bank is now moving toward

34. greening its entire portfolio through a
growing number of sector projects, which include environmental
components or incorporate
environmental considerations into project design.
World Bank (2000b: 10)
The gradual recognition of the role of women in environmental
protection is a definite sign of progress. The Women's
Environment and Development Organization carries on
advocacy work to get women involved in environmental
decision making. This practice makes sense because women in
DCs "are in a position of being uniquely and
disproportionately affected by environmental degradation
outcomes due to domestic responsibilities for provision of
water, food and fuel; serving in roles as caregivers; and higher
rates of poverty among women" (Nugent and Shandra,
2009: 208). It is obvious that women have a significant role to
play in identifying, analyzing, and assisting with plans
for implementing programs of environmental protection.
Several studies have found examples of best practices that have
the potential to contribute to effective environmental
protection. Panwar et al. (2011: 1522) examined the role of
renewable energy sources in environmental protection and
observed that the "use of solar drying of agricultural produce
has good potential for energy conservation in developing
countries." One of the most promising alternatives is the
manufacture of biodiesel from nonedible vegetable oil. This
fuel has the potential of reducing the emission of carbon
dioxide and the consumption of petroleum and can replace
conventional diesel as fuel (Carraretto et al., 2004).
Nigeria created a Division of Environmental Planning and

35. Protection within the Ministry of Industries and identified 12
priority areas for an environmental action. The country also
sought assistance from other countries and international
organizations for dealing with environmental problems and
negotiated a visit by a mission from the United States
Environmental Protection Agency "to prepare a feasibility
survey of environmental action priorities in different regions
of the country" (Bassow, 1979: 119, 120).
In Latin America, Venezuela established a Ministry of
Environment and Renewable Natural Resources that exercises
regulatory powers. Over the years, a Law of the Environment
was promulgated to provide the basic framework for
environmental protection, and the Ministry was given the
mandate for establishing priorities and a plan for dealing with
resource conservation and management, pollution control,
development projects, and institutional arrangements to
create support for the national environmental policy with
emphasis on public education and citizen participation
(Gabaldon, cited in Bassow, 1979: 117). Colombia "passed a
comprehensive environmental protection code which
although flexibly enforced is, nonetheless, the law of the land"
(Bassow, 1979: 117). Brazil suffered from pursuing a
strategy of industrial development with no consideration for the
environment and eventually had to impose a ban on
the construction of industrial plants in Sao Paulo (World
Environment Report, 1978).
The Malaysian government created a Division of the
Environment and entrusted the responsibility to deal with
problems of air pollution in Kuala Lumpur as well as for control
of pollutants from petroleum refineries, palm oil
effluents, and power stations. Malaysia, Singapore, and
Indonesia worked in collaboration to reduce pollution by
controlling the traffic of oil tankers sailing between Japan and
the Middle-East (World Environment Report, 1978). In

36. the Philippines, Environmental Protection Council was set up in
1977 to organize measures for reducing sources of
pollution, and the government requires an environmental impact
statement before approving projects for dams, roads,
and power stations (World Environment Report, 1978). Turkey's
response to environmental challenges included the
creation of a new agency by the parliament to deal with the
problem, and the constitution of Sri Lanka stipulates the
government "to protect, preserve and improve the environment
for the benefit of the community" (World Environment
Report, 1978). It was reported in 1979 that "while other
developing countries have not gone as far as Sri Lanka, the
trend towards establishing governmental agencies to deal with
environmental problems is becoming widespread in
Asia" (Bassow, 1979: 117). At that time, Bangladesh, Indonesia,
Iran, Singapore, and Thailand had such agencies,
and subsequently, it has been noticed in many more countries
across the globe.
In addition to initiatives by state and international
organizations, networks of NGOs organized a parallel forum
alongside a UN official conference. It triggered a set of
activities that helped to form and strengthen advocacy
networks across nations. "As it developed, the NGO forum
format led to dialogue, conflict, creativity, and synergy. The
face-to-face contact helped activists from different backgrounds
and countries recognize commonalities and establish
the trust necessary to sustain more distant network contacts
after the conference was over" (Keck and Sikkink, 1998:
123).
Effective pollution prevention and control measures require
careful planning of capital expenditure, efficient operation
of the facilities, and proper monitoring of the process
(Alexander and Harper, 1984: 198). These requirements point to
the need for undertaking a number of activities to prepare the

37. grounds for training relevant personnel on
environmental matters. Theodore (1996: 424–428) listed
academic learning, employee exchange programs, summer
employment and cooperative placements, short-term training,
and self-study among the various arrangements for
developing skills in this area.
Savory and Butterfield (2010) proposed the concept of a holistic
management framework to ensure social,
environmental, and economically sound development. They
claim that this framework helps "people see that they best
serve their own interests by accounting for the environmental,
as well as the social and economic, consequences of
their decisions" (Savory and Butterfield, 2010: 158). A wide
array of plans, strategies, projects, and actions have been
introduced, and several of them seem to be working toward the
goal of environmental protection. Some of these are
too vague to be of much use at this stage, but discrete examples
from specific countries could serve as guidelines.
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v.4.0.78.153
Chapter 15 - Environmental Protection
Managing Development in a Globalized World: Concepts,
Processes, Institutions
by Habib Zafarullah and Ahmed Shafiqul Huque
Auerbach Publications © 2012 Citation

38. Implications for Development Management
Development entails changes to, and adjustments in, ideas,
attitude, outlook, as well as the organization and
operation of government agencies and their relationship with
the private sector. It is a challenging task as there are
multiple parties and interests that compete for attention from
policy makers, and information and intentions have to be
carefully considered in formulating plans and strategies. The
state of the environment has emerged as a critical factor
across the globe because it has implications for livelihood,
health, freedom, security, as well as human rights and
access to essential services.
In the race for development, it has been possible for Western
nations to achieve rapid industrialization and
urbanization at a time when the environment did not feature
prominently in development debates. Earlier,
development involved activities that emphasized immediate
results, and the effects of such actions on the ecology
were not considered. Over time, progress in technology and new
research findings revealed that continuous damage
to the environment can result in serious threats to human life,
and progress achieved over the years may be affected.
Problems related to the environment are not contained by
national boundaries, and thus, environmental protection has
become one of the most prominent issues for all countries
across the globe.
DCs are now confronted with additional challenges to ensure
that environmental protection becomes an integral
element in planning and implementing projects. They have to
abide by national standards and international protocols
and conduct environmental impact assessments (EIAs) before
moving forward with development projects. The issue
is considered at every stage of the process, and the network of
environmental groups and organizations is engaged in

39. upholding the standards and complying with agreements. The
policy framework must be strengthened to allow
adequate scope for identifying priorities and designing
programs that will result in development and environmental
protection at the same time.
Environmental protection contributes to SD and allows
countries to select strategies that are suitable to specific cases.
It has been possible to generate awareness of the implications of
environmental issues among citizens and actors
engaged in developing policies and implementing them. Over
the long run, these strategies are expected to lead to
changes in behavior and relationships to ensure progress
without the undesirable effects that have already caused
considerable damage to the planet. The benefits of development
will be realized, and progress will be achieved
without paying the price of permanent damage to the
environment.
Environmental protection plays an important role in
development management. While specific countries devise and
select policies and practices for protecting the environment, the
international community works together to ensure that
standards are upheld. The task is accomplished through the
formulation of rules and regulations and the
establishment of agencies and organizations. At the same time,
it is found that the scope of environmental protection
is too big to be accomplished by the state agencies, and thus,
the private sector, community groups, and international
organizations are also involved. A number of agreements and
protocols have been concluded to coordinate
environmental protection. However, some of the parties have
not yet been able to live up to their commitments in full.
Environmental protection is a complex and difficult task, and
governments encounter obstacles in ensuring it. The

40. problems arise from social, economic, and political
arrangements as well as the context and nature of the
community.
Several countries have been able to develop methods and
practices that have helped to make progress in protecting
the environment. They include recognition of the need for
environmental protection, development of awareness
among citizens and providing scope for their participation in the
process, creation of agencies to perform specific
tasks, and promotion of technology and innovation to ensure
progress without adverse impacts on the environment.
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in the Terms of Use.
The UN Commission on Sustainable DevelopmentStine Madland
Kaasa
The UN Commission on Sustainable
Development: Which Mechanisms
Explain Its Accomplishments?
•
Stine Madland Kaasa*
The UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) was
established in
1993 in order to follow up the commitments from the UN
Conference on Envi-
ronment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
An overall goal
was to enhance the integration of environmental, economic and

41. social dimen-
sions of sustainable development at the national, regional and
international
levels. The CSD was established as the ªrst and only true
sustainable develop-
ment commission. Agenda 21 called for the establishment of the
CSD within
the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).1
A special session
of ECOSOC in 1993 agreed on the CSD’s mandate: to monitor
and review prog-
ress on the implementation of Agenda 21 at local, national and
international
level; to develop policy recommendations; and to promote
dialogue and build
partnerships for sustainable development among governments,
the interna-
tional community, and major groups.2
The establishment of the CSD was seen as one of the main
outcomes of
UNCED, as it was agreed that the follow-up activities would be
of vital impor-
tance for sustainable development. However, there has been
growing concern as
to whether the CSD has succeeded in fulªlling its mandate and
has further ad-
vanced the sustainable development agenda.3 Some observers
have even argued
that the CSD is merely a “talk shop.” A question that should be
answered is
whether this criticism is well founded.
The main objective for the analysis in this article is to evaluate
which
mechanisms affect the work of the CSD, in order to understand

42. how it would be
107
* This case study is part of the research project “The Role of
the UN in Global Environmental
Governance: Potential for Increased Effectiveness?” at The
Fridtjof Nansen Institute at Lysaker,
Norway, ªnanced by the Research Council of Norway. I
gratefully acknowledge useful com-
ments and suggestions to earlier drafts from Steinar Andresen,
Lars H. Gulbrandsen, Kristin
Rosendal, Jørgen Wettestad, Peter Johan Schei and Elin Lerum
Boasson at The Fridtjof Nansen
Institute.
1. UN 1992.
2. Chasek 2000, 383ff; and UN 1993a.
3. Chasek 2000, 379.
Global Environmental Politics 7:3, August 2007
© 2007 by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
possible to enhance the potential for effectiveness. A starting
point for the eval-
uation is an assessment of the CSD’s accomplishments during
its ªrst ten years.
The study is based heavily on interviews, which have served as
sources of infor-
mation that has been difªcult to obtain through written
documents.4 Earlier
work on the CSD has also been very useful for this analysis.
Given the scope of
the analysis, some limitations have been made. After the World

43. Summit on Sus-
tainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg in 2002, the
delegates at the
CSD’s eleventh annual meeting (CSD-11) decided to introduce
several reforms.
As it is considered premature to determine the effects of these
reforms, the CSD
sessions after WSSD have not been evaluated in this study.
Also, an evaluation
of the CSD’s relations to other UN bodies, and possible
spillover effects from
the CSD process to other processes, have not been included here
due to the
need for brevity.
The ªrst section of the article will present the analytical
framework. In Sec-
tion Two, the analysis will focus on evaluating the CSD’s
accomplishments
against the goals formulated by the commission’s mandate.
Based on my analyt-
ical framework, I will evaluate which mechanisms explain the
CSD’s goal attain-
ment and summarize the main ªndings in Section Three. In
Section Four, some
of the future prospects for the CSD will be discussed.
1. Analytical Framework
One of the main challenges concerning research on regimes and
institutions has
been how to evaluate and measure effectiveness. In general, “a
regime [or an in-
stitution] can be considered effective to the extent that it
successfully performs a
certain (set of) function(s) or solves the problem(s) that

44. motivated its establish-
ment.”5 The concept of effectiveness has evolved as scholars
have addressed the
question of why some efforts at developing and implementing
joint solutions
to international problems succeed while others fail.6
In order to evaluate and measure effectiveness, scholars often
distinguish
between three types of institutional consequences: output,
outcome and im-
pact.7 When an agreement is made and an institution is
established, this will
lead to consequences such as the norms, principles, and rules
generated by the
108 • The UN Commission on Sustainable Development
4. As the study is based heavily on interviews, it is important to
note some shortcomings. The se-
lection of respondents has been based on availability, on their
degree of involvement and/or
their position in the decision-making process. Availability has
been one of the main challenges
when selecting respondents. Thus, almost half of the interviews
have been conducted in Oslo,
with representatives from the Norwegian Ministry of
Environment and Ministry of Foreign Af-
fairs. As the eleven interviewees are not a representative
sample, the information might be
somewhat imbalanced.
5. Underdal 2001, 4.
6. Underdal 2001, 3. For more in-depth discussions, see for
instance Levy, Young, and Zürn 1995;

45. Krasner 1983; Keohane 1984; Keohane, Haas, and Levy 1993;
Young 1994; Underdal 1992; and
Young and Levy 1999.
7. Easton 1965, 351f.
institution itself, that is, the output. Further, when an agreement
is imple-
mented, it is expected that this will lead to consequences in
form of behavioral
changes, which is regarded as the outcome of the agreement.
Finally, when mea-
sures are in effect and target groups are adjusted, this may in
turn affect the
physical problem at hand, that is, the impact of the agreement.8
Preferably, a study of effectiveness should concern the effects
of an institu-
tion (impact), but such a study can be extremely difªcult due to
methodological
problems. Thus, most studies are concerned with the output or
the outcome.9 In
order to study the outcome, the consequences of an institution
must be evalu-
ated several years after the institution’s entry into force.10 As
the CSD can be con-
sidered an immature institution, it is too early to determine
possible behavioral
change of target groups. I will therefore base my study of the
CSD on data about
the output, in order to indicate its potential for effectiveness. In
this regard, it
can be noted that isolating the effect of the CSD is a
methodological challenge.

46. The CSD’s accomplishments may be affected by a complex
interplay between
multiple factors. A correlation between the CSD and the actual
achievements
does not necessarily indicate a causal relationship. As the
correlation may be
spurious, the ªndings of the analysis are not necessary robust.
Underdal proposes two perspectives, “problem-solving
capacity” and “the
character of the problem”, to evaluate effectiveness.11 To
explain which mecha-
nisms affect the performances of the CSD, the former
perspective is the most
fruitful approach to use. Whereas the “character of the problem”
is a more static
explanatory perspective, the “problem-solving capacity”
perspective can provide
useful insights on how to improve the work of the CSD. In
general, the “prob-
lem-solving capacity” perspective may explain why some
problems are solved
more effectively than others due to variations in the
institutional design or be-
cause they are attacked with greater skill or energy.12 Based on
“problem-solving
capacity,” two perspectives will serve as a starting point for the
analysis of the
CSD: “distribution of capabilities” and “institutional setting.”13
1.1 Distribution of Capabilities
It is reasonable to assume that the distribution of capabilities—
understood here
as economic and intellectual resources—among state actors will
affect the prob-

47. lem-solving process and have an impact on an institution’s
effectiveness. In or-
der to evaluate how the relevant capabilities are distributed, it
is ªrst necessary
to explore the state actors’ interests in order to understand the
positions states
Stine Madland Kaasa • 109
8. Andresen and Skjærseth 1999, 4; and Underdal 2001, 7
9. Underdal 2001, 6f.
10. Underdal 1992, 230.
11. Underdal 2001.
12. Underdal 2001, 23.
13. See Underdal 2001.
have in the negotiation process. Presumably, interests will
affect whether a state
acts as a pusher or a laggard.14 However, states’ positions
alone do not deter-
mine which states achieve actual breakthrough in the
negotiation process. It is
capabilities that give the states the potential for inºuence.15 The
distribution of
capabilities among state actors will presumably affect the
decision-making pro-
cess of an institution, because the decisions most often reºect
the interests of
the most powerful actors. It is therefore necessary to take the
state actors’ capa-
bilities into account when identifying which states have been
the most powerful
in the negotiation process and have achieved actual

48. breakthrough for their in-
terests.
1.2 Institutional Setting
Even though a basic presumption here is that institutions matter,
some interna-
tional institutions have more impact and contribute to greater
effectiveness
than others, due to their speciªc institutional features. It is
therefore important
to analyze how an institution is designed in order to understand
why it is effec-
tive or ineffective, and moreover, to understand how it would be
possible to en-
hance its effectiveness. For the case of the CSD, the exploration
of institutional
design will concern several institutional factors: the role of the
secretariat, repre-
sentation of state sectors, access and participation of
nongovernmental organi-
zations (NGOs) and entrepreneurial leadership.
The role of the secretariat: Since state actors often have
different interests and pref-
erences, a well-functioning secretariat can assist actors in
cooperating and
thereby solving the problems at hand more effectively.16 A
distinction between
two main roles of secretariats can be made: assistant or player.
The assistant secre-
tariat acts as a behind-the-scenes adviser; provides
administrative assistance to
the parties in document preparation as requested; and collects
and compiles fol-
low-up reports from the parties. The player secretariat is an

49. active and independ-
ent actor, as it initiates and actively participates in agenda
setting and protocol
development; facilitates, and in some cases initiates, the
development of negoti-
ating texts; frames central questions; acts as moderator or
mediator in the event
of negotiation stalemates; and takes an active role in the
analyses and dissemi-
nation of the parties’ follow-up reports.17 It will be assumed
that a player secre-
tariat may affect goal attainment to a larger degree than an
assistant secretariat.
110 • The UN Commission on Sustainable Development
14. The term “pusher” refers here to an actor who wants a
strong CSD and a high degree of goal at-
tainment, and therefore tries to enhance the decision-making
process and push it in a positive
direction. The opposite, an actor who wants a weak CSD and a
low degree of goal attainment,
and attempts to slow down the decision-making process, will be
referred to as a “laggard”
(Rosendal 2000, 117).
15. Rosendal 2000, 117.
16. Andresen and Skjærseth 1999, 2, 6.
17. Wettestad 1999, 26–27.
Representation of state sectors: It is important to evaluate the
sectors of the na-
tional arena from which the ministers at the CSD are drawn,
because “national

50. interests” are most often represented differently by different
sectors.18 Exempli-
ªed by Allison’s words, “where you stand depends on where you
sit,” ministers from
different sectoral ministries are expected to promote their
sector’s issues and in-
terests.19 The CSD’s work concerns advancing the
environmental, social and
economical dimensions of the sustainable development agenda.
In order to ad-
dress sustainable development issues in a comprehensive way,
broad and
diversiªed participation of sector ministers should be
represented. It can also be
noted that some sector ministries are likely to have more power
in their home
governments than others, underscoring the importance of which
sectors are rep-
resented. Following this, it will be assumed that a broad sector
representation is
needed to advance the sustainable development agenda and,
thus, will enhance
the CSD’s goal attainment.
Access and participation of nongovernmental organizations:20
Concerning the effect
of NGOs’ access and participation, it is important to evaluate
the difference be-
tween open and inclusive rules of access and exclusive
opportunities for partici-
pation.21 In general, NGOs can be considered a diverse group
of actors with
multiple and often conºicting interests. However, as a starting
point, it will be
assumed that broad participation of NGOs may have a positive
impact on the

51. work of the CSD.22 It will therefore be assumed that NGOs may
enhance
the CSD’s achievements by providing information, creativity
and new ideas
to the process; helping states to identify their interests; framing
issues for collec-
tive debate; proposing speciªc policies; and identifying salient
points for nego-
tiation.23
Entrepreneurial leadership:24 Entrepreneurial leadership refers
to a person who
“relies on negotiating skill to frame issues in ways that foster
integrative bar-
gaining and to put together deals that would otherwise elude
participants en-
deavoring to form international regimes through institutional
bargaining.”25
Stine Madland Kaasa • 111
18. Rosendal 2000, 87.
19. Allison 1971, 176.
20. In broad terms, a nongovernmental organization can be
deªned as any organization that does
not have a formal or legal status as a state or agent of a state
(Raustiala 2001, 97f). In this regard,
it is important to note that the term is “challenged by a host of
alternative usages” (Gordenker
and Weiss 1996, 18). However, as noted by Gordenker and
Weiss, “there seems no quarrel [. . .],
with the notion that these organizations consist of durable,
bounded, voluntary relationships
among individuals to produce a particular product, using speciªc
techniques.”

52. 21. Wettestad 1999, 21.
22. This point is further discussed in the analysis of
institutional setting in Section 3.
23. Haas 1992, 2.
24. Scholars often distinguish among three types of leadership.
Young refers to structural, entrepre-
neurial and intellectual leadership. Interest-based perspectives,
such as the problem-solving
perspective, are mostly concerned with entrepreneurial
leadership (Young 1991, 287).
25. Young 1991, 293.
The political engineering of effective solutions may be a central
dimension to
evaluate in order to explain an institution’s effectiveness. An
entrepreneurial
leader’s ability to ªnd means to solve collective solutions is
determined by his
or her capabilities, that is, skills, energy and status.26 The
means an entrepreneur-
ial leader uses can be linked to the different tasks facing a
leader. Underdal
points out three major tasks: designing substantive solutions
that are politically
feasible; designing institutional arrangements that are
conducive to the devel-
opment, adoption, and implementation of effective solutions;
and designing
actor strategies that can be effective in inducing constructive
cooperation.27 En-
trepreneurial leadership is exercised if an individual performs

53. one or more of
these tasks.
2. To what Degree has the CSD Achieved its Goals?
In order to explain which mechanisms affect the work of the
CSD, it is necessary
to begin with an evaluation of what the CSD has accomplished
during its ªrst
ten years. Its performance will be evaluated against the goals
formulated by the
Commission’s mandate. As the CSD was established with a very
vague mandate
and a broad program of work, there is quite a lot of room for
interpretation of
what the CSD actually has achieved.28 Thus, evaluating and
determining the
CSD’s goal attainment is a difªcult matter. In broad terms, the
mandate consists
of three major goals:
• monitoring and reviewing progress on the implementation of
Agenda 21;
• elaborating policy guidance and options for future initiatives
aimed at
achieving sustainable development; and
• promoting dialogue and building partnerships for sustainable
develop-
ment between governments, the international community, and
major
groups.29
Monitoring and Reviewing Progress on the Implementation of
Agenda 21

54. In order for the CSD to monitor and review progress on the
implementation of
Agenda 21, it was decided that the CSD would analyze and
evaluate reports
from governments, NGOs and UN bodies. The CSD’s mandate
does not, how-
ever, oblige states and others to submit information to the
Commission.30 Due
112 • The UN Commission on Sustainable Development
26. Skills, both substantial and political, are here understood as
negotiation skills. Energy refers to
a combination of capacity and interest, while status includes
both formal position in the nego-
tiations and the vaguer notion of “reputation.”
27. Underdal 2001, 35.
28. Chasek 2000, 383.
29. Chasek 2000, 383ff; and UN 1993b.
30. Yamin 1998/99, 53ff. According to Bergesen and Botnen
(1996, 47), a strong coalition of devel-
oping countries headed by India, China and Brazil, with support
from the US, argued that sov-
to the voluntary nature of the national reports, it is therefore up
to the govern-
ments to decide on the timing, format, and content of reports.31
Concerning the actual record of eliciting reports from national
govern-
ments, the CSD has been rather successful.32 Eighty of 114

55. countries that re-
ported to the CSD during the period 1993–1997 did so on more
than one occa-
sion. Also, 105 of 149 countries submitted reports to the CSD
more than once
during the period 1998–2002.33 However, the formatting of the
reports has
been difªcult, as the reporting guidelines proved to be too vague
to facilitate a
comprehensive reporting process.34 The commission has
therefore worked on
streamlining the national reporting, developing sustainable
development indi-
cators and introducing country proªles.35 As many of the
countries, and espe-
cially the developing countries, are still concerned about too
much reporting to
the various UN bodies, the CSD has continued its streamlining
process.36
There have also been several problems concerning the content
of the re-
ports. First, the reports are difªcult to compare. Since the CSD
does not have any
“baseline” for measuring performance, many of the reports are
based on esti-
mates rather than on statistical data, and much of the
information reported is of
a qualitative nature.37 Even though the CSD has worked on
developing sustain-
able development indicators, the use of indicators has not
functioned as well as
intended.38 Second, widespread use of self-reporting also raises
a general ques-
tion of the reliability of the reports. However, Yamin points out
that systematic

56. falsiªcation is rare; non-reporting or provision of incomplete
information is a
more typical state reaction.39 It seems that many states tend to
make their imple-
mentation performance look good, or perhaps better than it is in
practice. It ap-
pears that some states are also reluctant to give information on
certain issues,
such as climate-related issues.40 Due to reporting problems, the
national reports
have therefore played a marginal role when the Commission
meets.41
However, the reporting process receives credit for strengthening
coordina-
tion and dialogue among government agencies and between
them and major
groups. The report preparation process has also served as a good
starting point
Stine Madland Kaasa • 113
ereign states cannot be required to submit formal reports under
Agenda 21. Most of the African
countries and most of the OECD countries were in favor of a
formal reporting arrangement.
31. UN 1993c.
32. Agarwal et al. 2001, 183.
33. 1992–1997 ªgures from DPCSD table (Yamin 1998/99).
1998–2002 ªgures from DPCSD table
(on ªle with author).
34. Chasek 2000, 384.
35. Country proªles were introduced at the UN General
Assembly’s Special Session in 1997. These

57. proªles were ªrst compiled by the CSD Secretariat by using all
past reports, and then sent to
their respective governments for updates and corrections. They
have since been updated on an
annual basis (Yamin 1998/99, 55).
36. Mabhongo 2005 [interview].
37. Chasek 2000, 384; Yamin 1998/99, 56; and Zhu and Morita-
Lou 2005 [interview].
38. Skåre 2005 [interview].
39. Yamin 1998/99, 56.
40. Eidheim and Hofseth 2005 [interview]; and Yamin 1998/99,
56.
41. Bergesen and Botnen 1996, 53; and Eidheim and Hofseth
2004 [interview].
for states’ preparation for the annual CSD session. Moreover,
national reporting
is a useful mechanism to get ªrst-hand information from the
states, instead of
getting the information from other sources.42 The reports have
also contributed
to outward- and inward-looking processes, where countries have
been able to
“monitor their own progress, provide transparency and share
experience and in-
formation with others, and indicate areas of priority, progress
and constraint,”
and where stakeholders at the national level have been brought
together to re-
view their progress, interact, and work towards a common
assessment and com-
mon purpose.43

58. Developing Policy Recommendations
The CSD’s record in elaborating policy guidance is a mixed
one. As the Com-
mission does not have a mandate to make legally binding
agreements for states,
its task on policy guidance is limited to passing resolutions that
“recommend”
and “urge.”44 It has also been challenging for the CSD to
achieve any substantial
results on difªcult issues such as consumption and production
patterns, atmo-
sphere, energy and agriculture. The agenda-setting role has,
however, been high-
lighted by many, as the CSD puts issues on the agenda and
initiates processes
that continue into other forums.45 The main issue areas where
the CSD has had
some success are forests, oceans and freshwater.
Forests: In order to follow up the Forest Principles from Rio,
the CSD was to dis-
cuss the issue of forests at its third session in 1995. The
delegates then called for
the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests
(IPF). This deci-
sion was seen as a watershed event that helped focus the
international dialogue
on forests.46 In 1997, the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests
replaced the IPF.
Even though both forums came up with several good
recommendations, some
countries stressed the need for a more permanent and legally
binding instru-
ment on forests.47 At CSD-8, the delegates were not able to

59. agree on a legally
binding treaty, and instead recommended ECOSOC and the
General Assembly
(GA) to form a permanent intergovernmental body charged with
fostering a
multilateral process on forests. This recommendation was acted
on, and the
United Nations Forum on Forests was established.48
Oceans: When the issue of oceans and seas was on the agenda at
CSD-7, the del-
egates stressed the importance of ªnding ways and means to
enhance the an-
114 • The UN Commission on Sustainable Development
42. Mabhongo 2005 [interview]; Wagner 2005, 115; and Yamin
1998/99, 57.
43. UN 1997, 25.
44. Chasek 2000, 385.
45. Eidheim and Hofseth 2005; and Mabhongo 2005
[interviews].
46. Chasek 2000, 382.
47. Agarwal et al. 2001, 202; and Chasek 2005 [interview].
48. UN 2000, 40.
nual debate on oceans and the law of the sea. A recommendation
to the GA re-
sulted in the establishment of the UN Open-Ended Informal
Consultative
Process on Oceans.49 The aim was to take stock of the inputs
provided by UN
bodies, facilitate deliberations in the GA on developments in
oceanic affairs and

60. strengthen international coordination and cooperation for
achieving a more
holistic approach.50 As noted by Hyvarinen and Brack, the
process “may con-
tribute to revitalizing the Assembly’s oceans debate.”51
Freshwater: At CSD-2, the CSD requested preparation of a
Comprehensive As-
sessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World to be
submitted at its ªfth
session in 1997.52 As a consequence of the assessment, the
CSD decided to
make freshwater a priority issue at CSD-6. Since there has not
been a body
within the UN system on the issue of freshwater, the CSD has
been important
for putting freshwater on the agenda and keeping it there.
Following this, the
CSD has had some success in agenda setting, but the
discussions carried out
during the CSD sessions have resulted in few action-oriented
proposals.53
Promoting Dialogue and Building Partnerships for Sustainable
Development54
Achieving the goal of promoting dialogue and building
partnerships for sus-
tainable development between governments, the international
community, and
NGOs is generally seen as the most successful accomplishment
of the CSD. One
of the main reasons is that the CSD has been in the forefront of
involving
NGOs.55 Agenda 21 identiªed nine major groups of nonstate
actors and recog-

61. nized that the participation of these groups would be necessary
for advancing
the sustainable development agenda.56 At CSD-1, the
importance of engaging
the major groups in dialogue and interaction was
acknowledged.57 The multi-
stakeholder dialogues, which were introduced at CSD-6, have
been seen as the
most innovative measure to involve major groups as they
participate in a
roundtable discussion with state delegates on relevant issues.
The intention was
to generate action-oriented dialogue between governments and
major groups
and identify future policies and actions that would contribute to
advancing sus-
tainable development objectives.58
One major problem of the dialogues, however, has been that not
enough
Stine Madland Kaasa • 115
49. ENB 1999a; UN 1999; and Wagner 2005, 116.
50. Hyvarinen and Brack 2000, 28.
51. Ibid.
52. Chasek 2000, 385.
53. Agarwal et al. 2001, 172.
54. The term “partnerships” is used here as a general term.
55. Chasek 2005 [interview].
56. The nine major groups identiªed in Agenda 21 are women,
youth and children, indigenous
people, nongovernmental organizations, local authorities,
workers and trade unions, business
and industry, scientiªc and technological communities, and

62. farmers (Agarwal et al. 2001, 196).
57. UN 1993c.
58. Dodds et al. 2002b, 25.
NGOs from developing countries have been participating. Also,
while the dia-
logues have been interesting and useful in terms of information
sharing, they
have not had a clear impact on the intergovernmental process.
As noted by
Dodds et al., “The dialogues remained tied to the effectiveness
of the chair to
ensure that governments receive the conclusions of the
dialogues.”59 One reason
has been that many of the diplomats do not attend the dialogues.
The mecha-
nism of linking stakeholder contributions to the decision-
making process has
therefore been a shortcoming. The multi-stakeholder dialogues
have, however,
been an important mechanism for building partnerships between
relevant par-
ties in the work on sustainable development.
3. Which Mechanisms explain the CSD’s Accomplishments?60
Distribution of Capabilities
Most states have used negotiating coalitions at the CSD. I will
therefore focus
primarily on these coalitions.
The European Union (EU): The EU, which consisted of 15

63. member states for
most of the period 1993–2001, has addressed sustainable
development issues
domestically for many years.61 Some respondents note that the
coalition has
had some problems with internal disputes, but has become a
much more coor-
dinated actor in international negotiations. As the EU has a
centralized bureau-
cracy in Belgium, the states’ representatives have been able to
develop common
positions prior to most conferences, including the CSD
sessions.62 According to
Wagner, this allows the coalition “to arrive at the CSD with
relatively well pre-
pared positions and alternatives and a ‘driving strategy’; thus, it
often presents
action proposals rather than solely responding to others’
suggestions.”63 The po-
sition and priorities change somewhat, depending on the issue
and on who has
the (rotating) EU presidency. This affects whether the EU is
willing to compro-
mise or takes a hard line. The EU is often seen as a pusher on
environmental is-
sues, as it has become a progressive actor in international
negotiations. On
other issues, the EU has had a more intermediate position, and
has mediated
some disputes between the United States and the G-77/China.64
Even though
the EU would like to have a green image, it is not willing to
part with the neces-
sary resources. Most of the EU countries have not fulªlled their
commitment to

64. 116 • The UN Commission on Sustainable Development
59. Ibid.
60. When not speciªed, the information is based on interviews
with Chasek 2005; Eidheim and
Hofseth 2004; Eidheim and Hofseth 2005; Leiro 2004; Pietracci
2005; Schei 2004; Skåre 2005;
Strandenæs 2006; and Zhu and Morita-Lou 2005.
61. Wagner 2005, 113. The EU was expanded from 12 to 15
member states in 1995, and from 15 to
25 states in 2004 (Europa 2006).
62. Wagner 1999, 113f.
63. Wagner 2005, 113.
64. Wagner 1999, 114.
reach the UN target of 0.7 percent of GNP for Ofªcial
Development Assistance
(ODA).65 On issues such as agricultural subsidies, the EU has
acted more as a
laggard.
JUSCANZ: The JUSCANZ group consists of Japan, the United
States, Canada,
Australia and New Zealand. Norway, Switzerland and other
non-EU OECD
countries also consult with this relatively unstructured group.
The group mem-
bers discuss their views during the CSD sessions, but do not
develop a joint po-
sition to be presented by a single speaker.66 The interests and
positions of the

65. group members are quite broad, with Norway and Switzerland
on one wing, the
US and Australia on the other, and Japan, Canada and New
Zealand somewhere
in the middle. The positions of Canada and New Zealand have
changed some-
what during the 1990s. Where they often used to share the same
position as the
Nordic countries, they now cooperate more often with the US
and Australia.
Norway, together with the Nordic states of Denmark and
Sweden, has often
been given credit for acting as a pusher on environmental and
developmental
issues. However, Denmark and Sweden are restricted to pushing
their interests
through the EU, due to their EU membership. The Nordic
countries, together
with the Netherlands, are the only countries that have achieved
the ODA
target.67
The US position, however, is a different matter. In general, the
US counters
proposals from others more often than exploring options.68 It
has also been re-
luctant to make any commitments. According to several
respondents, a main
reason is that the US position has been greatly affected by
domestic politics and
constituency, and the negotiators are very much guided by
instructions from
home. The US has often stressed economic interests, and has
opposed any in-
crease in ªnancial aid to developing countries.69 According to
one respondent,

66. the US does not look upon the CSD as an arena to promote its
interests so
much as a place to explore and test proposals: “If they get some
good feedback
on proposals, they may want to launch the proposals elsewhere,
where it may
matter more.” In general, the US has been considered as a
laggard on most is-
sues.
The Group of 77 and China: The G-77/China group consists of
132 developing
countries.70 Internally, the group has often had diverging
interests, with the
small island states on one side and the oil-producing states on
the other.71
Nonetheless, this group most often presents a joint position by a
single speaker
Stine Madland Kaasa • 117
65. Only four countries have achieved the 0.7 percent of GNP
target for ODA: Norway, Denmark,
the Netherlands and Sweden (Agarwal et al. 2001, 221).
66. Wagner 1999, 114; and Wagner 2005, 113.
67. Agarwal et al. 2001, 221.
68. Wagner 1999, 115.
69. The US has never accepted the UN target of 0.7 percent of
GNP for ODA (Brown 1998, 4)
70. G-77 2006.
71. Wagner 2005, 112.

67. at the CSD. One reason is that the countries realize that they are
strong as long
as they stand together and have a joint position. However, they
most often “do
not have the time, resources, or a centralized bureaucracy
comparable to the
EU’s to prepare a joint position prior to the CSD sessions.”72
Therefore, the G-
77/China has many coordination meetings during the sessions,
which often
leave the countries focused on their joint position because they
lack time to de-
velop alternatives or fallback positions.73 Since it is difªcult for
the group to
agree on many issues such as atmosphere and energy, the G-
77/China tends to
focus on issues for which the countries have shared interests,
that is, issues re-
lated to ªnance and technology transfer. Consequently, the G-
77/China group
has consistently stressed the industrialized countries’
commitment to reach the
ODA target. According to some of the respondents, they have
been reluctant to
accept any commitments for themselves as long as the Northern
countries have
not met the ODA target.
The focus on ªnancial matters and technology transfer can also
be ex-
plained by the fact that many of the G-77 delegates are
diplomats from the per-
manent UN missions in New York.74 As most diplomats are
generalists, they do
not necessarily have great knowledge on sustainable
development issues. Since

68. the G-77 diplomats do not always consult their capitals or the
people who have
expertise on these issues, they often attend the CSD with
limited knowledge on
the sectoral issues on the agenda.75 As a result, they have often
stressed the im-
portance of ªnance and technology transfer, without discussing
these cross-sec-
toral issues in the context of the sectoral issues.76 Wagner
points out that “con-
sideration of the cross-sectoral themes in the context of the
sectoral and
economic sector issues provided greater opportunities to
identify concrete con-
cerns and shared values, which should lead to more problem
solving and inte-
grative outcomes.”77 Since ªnancial concerns and technology
transfer have often
been emphasized without being connected to the sectoral issues,
the G-77/
China group have often given general and rhetorical statements
rather than ac-
tion-oriented and concrete policy recommendations.78
Further, it seems that the chair of the G-77/China group has a
role in de-
ciding the positions and the main interests of the group. One
example is the po-
sitions on energy-related issues during the period 1998–2001,
when most of the
G-77/China chairs were from the OPEC countries.79 According
to one respon-
118 • The UN Commission on Sustainable Development
72. Wagner 1999, 113.

69. 73. Ibid.
74. One reason is that the CSD secretariat has limited funds to
support participation from develop-
ing countries (Zhu and Morita-Lou 2005 [interview]).
75. Chasek 2005 [interview].
76. Interviews; and Wagner 2005, 112.
77. Wagner 1999, 126.
78. Interviews; and Wagner 2005, 112.
79. The G-77 had chairs from three OPEC countries during this
period: Indonesia (1998), Nigeria
(2000) and Iran (2001) (G-77 2006).
dent, the group often acted as a laggard on energy-related issues
during this pe-
riod due to the interests of the chair.
Considering the possibility to achieve breakthrough in the
decision-
making process, the EU and the JUSCANZ countries have had
the best potential
because of the group members’ varied arsenal of capabilities.
Based on the as-
sessment of the CSD’s accomplishments, however, the actors
with the potential
for inºuence did not necessarily achieve breakthrough. The
evaluation showed
that the CSD has had some problems achieving results in
reviewing progress
and has accomplished few results in policy guidance. As noted,
a strong coali-
tion of developing countries, headed by India, China and Brazil,
as well as the

70. US, opposed a formal reporting arrangement, whereas a
majority of African
countries and most of the OECD countries were in favor of such
arrangements.
On policy guidance, both the US and the G-77/China have been
reluctant to
make any commitments, while the EU has had a “driving
strategy” and has of-
ten presented proposals for action. Considering the
accomplishments of the
CSD, it seems that the US and the G-77/China group have
achieved break-
through for their interests, rather than the EU.
In this regard, it is important to note that the CSD practices the
rule of
consensus, like the UN in general. Underdal points out that in a
system practic-
ing the rule of consensus, “coalition size will be an asset,
exerting social pressure
on a reluctant minority.”80 The G-77/China group is by far the
largest coalition.
As noted, the G-77/China and the US have acted as laggards on
most issues; to-
gether, these states represent the majority at the CSD. Due to
the consensus rule,
these states have been able to achieve breakthrough for their
interests. Thus, it is
reasonable to say that the G-77/China and the US have
contributed to slowing
down the decision-making process and reducing the CSD’s
performances.
Thus, the perspective of “distribution of capabilities” does not
provide a
signiªcant explanation as to which mechanisms affect the work

71. of the CSD.
However, the evaluation of the coalitions’ interests and
positions has still been
useful for understanding why the CSD has not been able to
achieve more re-
sults, especially in the area of policy guidance. Since the
majority of states have
acted as laggards, however, one would have expected low goal
attainment over-
all. In order to gain a broader understanding of the mechanisms
that affect the
CSD’s accomplishments, I will now turn to evaluation of the
institutional set-
ting.
Institutional Setting
The Role of the Secretariat: States gave the CSD secretariat, the
Division for Sus-
tainable Development, a very dependent role at the time of its
establishment.
The CSD was placed within ECOSOC, which in turn is under
the UN General
Assembly. Lack of ªnancial resources has been a continuous
problem, which
Stine Madland Kaasa • 119
80. Underdal 2001, 31.
has led to difªculties when organizing expert meetings and other
intersessional
meetings. Moreover, the secretariat has only been able to
support the atten-