Middle childhood, from ages 6 to 12, is characterized by efforts to develop competence in meeting challenges from parents, peers, school and the modern world. Children's views of themselves become more complex, comprising personal and academic aspects. Their self-esteem develops in various spheres and may improve overall, though it sometimes declines due to school transitions or other factors. Friendships provide social and emotional support during this period.
Presentation by Andreas Schleicher Tackling the School Absenteeism Crisis 30 ...
Comparing growth between children and adolescents based on examples from provided chapters
1. After reading Chapters 1 through 10, how would you compare
growth between children and adolescents? Provide examples
from the book. Be elaborative with your answer.
Once you finish your post, you
must comment on a classmates post for all points.
Plagiarism with result in an automatic 0.
Who Am I?
During middle childhood, children begin to view
themselves:Less in terms of external physical attributes
More in terms of psychological traits
*
Psychosocial Development in Middle Childhood
Success in the industry-versus-inferiority stage brings with it
feelings of mastery and proficiency and a growing sense of
competenceIndustry = feelings of mastery and proficiency and a
growing sense of competence
Inferiority = feelings of failure and inadequacy
2. *Lasting from roughly age 6 to age 12, the industry-versus-
inferiority stage is characterized by a focus on efforts to meet
the challenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the other
complexities of the modern world.
Erik Erikson's middle childhoodEncompasses the INDUSTRY-
VERSUS-INFERIORITY STAGEPeriod from ages 6 to 12 years
of ageCharacterized by a focus on efforts to attain competence
in meeting the challenges related to:ParentsPeersSchoolOther
complexities of the modern world
*
Understanding One's Self: A New Response to “Who Am I?”
How do school-agers change?Children realize they are good at
some things and not so good at others
Self-concept and self-esteem continue to develop
Children's self-concepts become divided into personal and
academic spheres
*
Looking Inward: The Development of Self
3. As children get older, their views of self become more
differentiated, comprising several personal and academic
spheres.
What cognitive changes make this possible?
(Source: Based on Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976.)
*
Social Comparison
Children use social comparison to themselves to abilities,
expertise, and opinions of others
Festinger (1959)When objective measures are absent children
rely on social reality How others act, think, feel, and view the
world
Festinger is known for the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
which suggests a tendency for individuals to seek consistency
among their cognitions, and if conflict exists between attitude
and behavior, attitude will likely change first.
*
Sometimes…
Children Make Downward Social Comparisons
With others who are:Less competentLess
4. successful
To raise or protect their self-esteem
*
Self-Esteem: Developing a Positive-or Negative-View of the
Self
Develops in important ways during middle childhoodChildren
increasingly compare themselves to others
Children are developing their own standards
For most children self-esteem improves in middle childhood
As children progress into the middle childhood years, however,
their self-esteem is higher for some areas and lower in others.
For example, a boy's overall self-esteem may be composed of
positive self-esteem in some areas (such as the positive feelings
he gets from his artistic ability) and more negative self-esteem
in others (such as the unhappiness he feels over his athletic
skills). On the other hand, students with high self-esteem travel
a more positive path, falling into a cycle of success. Having
higher expectations leads to increased effort and lower anxiety,
increasing the probability of success. In turn, this helps affirm
their higher self-esteem that began the cycle.
*
Change and Stability in Self-Esteem
Generally, overall self-esteem is high during middle childhood,
but it begins to decline around the age of 12School transition
5. Chronically low self-esteem for some
Breaking the Cycle of Failure Promoting development of self-
esteem
Using authoritative child-rearing style
Why do you think this style is recommended?
*Authoritative parents are warm and emotionally supportive,
while still setting clear limits for their children's behavior. In
contrast, other parenting styles have less positive effects on
self-esteem.Parents who are highly punitive and controlling
send a message to their children that they are untrustworthy and
unable to make good decisions—a message that can undermine
children's sense of adequacy. Highly indulgent parents, who
indiscriminately praise and reinforce their children regardless o f
their actual performance, can create a false sense of self-esteem
in their children, which ultimately may be just as damaging to
children.
Race and Self-Esteem
Early research found that African Americans had lower self-
esteem than whites More recent research shows these early
assumptions to be overstatedAfrican AmericansHispanic
AmericansAsian Americans
*Set of pioneering studies a generation ago found that African
American children shown black and white dolls preferred the
white dolls over the black ones (Clark & Clark, 1947).Picture is
6. more complex regarding relative levels of self-esteem between
members of different racial and ethnic groups. For example,
although white children initially show higher self-esteem than
black children, black children begin to show slightly higher
self-esteem than white children around the age of 11. This shift
occurs as African-American children become more identified
with their racial group, develop more complex views of racial
identity, and increasingly view the positive aspects of their
group membership.Hispanic children, also show an increase in
self-esteem toward the end of middle childhood, although even
in adolescence their self-esteem still trails that of whites. In
contrast, Asian-American children show the opposite pattern:
their self-esteem in elementary school is higher than whites and
blacks, but by the end childhood, their self-esteem is lower than
that of whites.
Why Does This Occur?
Social Identity Theory Members of a minority group accept
negative views held by majority group only if they perceive
little realistic possibility of changing power and status
differences between groups
*If minority group members feel that prejudice and
discrimination can be reduced, and they blame society for the
prejudice and not themselves, self-esteem should not differ
between majority and minority groups.As group pride and
ethnic awareness on the part of minority group members has
grown, differences in self-esteem between members of different
ethnic groups have narrowed.
Are Children of Immigrant Families Well Adjusted?Tend to
7. have equal or better grades than children with US born parents
Often more highly motivated to succeed and place greater value
on education than do children in nonimmigrant families
Show similar levels of self-esteem to nonimmigrant children
Report feeling less popular and less in control of their lives
*More than 13 million children in the U.S. are either foreign
born or the children of immigrants—some one-fifth of the total
population of children.The story is less clear, however, when
immigrant children reach adolescence and adulthood.
Moral Development: KohlbergProposes series of fixed stages in
development of moral reasoning
Uses moral dilemmas to assess moral reasoning
Provides good account of moral judgment but not adequate at
predicting moral behavior
*
Kohlberg Stages
8. *
Kohlberg CriticismsBased solely on observations of members of
Western cultures
Theory initially based largely on data from males
*Cross-cultural research finds that members of more
industrialized, technologically advanced cultures move through
the stages more rapidly than members of nonindustrialized
countries.Nature of morality may differ in diverse cultures.
Carol GilliganWay boys and girls raised leads to differences in
moral reasoning
Suggests Kohlberg's theory inadequate and places girls’ moral
reasoning at lower level than boys’
*Boys view morality primarily in terms of justice and
fairness.Girls see morality in terms of responsibility and
compassion toward individuals and a willingness to sacrifice for
relationships.
Gilligan's Stages of Morality in Girls
*“Orientation toward individual survival” - where females
9. concentrate on what is practical and best for them.“Goodness as
self-sacrifice” - where females think they must sacrifice their
own wishes to what others want.“Morality of nonviolence” -
women come to see hurting anyone as immoral, including
themselves.
Friends in Middle ChildhoodProvide emotional support and help
kids to handle stress
Teach children how to manage and control their emotions
Teach about communication with others
Foster intellectual growth
Allow children to practice relationship skills
*
Damon's Stages of Friendship
*
Damon's Stages of Friendship
10. *
Damon's Stages of Friendship
*
Likes me…likes me not!
*Children develop clear ideas about which behaviors they seek
in their friends—and which they dislike. As can be seen in
Table 10-3, fifth- and sixth-graders most enjoy others who
invite them to participate in activities and who are helpful, both
physically and psychologically. In contrast, displays of physical
or verbal aggression, among other behaviors, are disliked.
King or Queen of the Hill…Status HierarchiesChildren's
friendships show clear hierarchies in terms of status
Status is the evaluation of a role or person by other relevant
members of a group
*
11. High Status ChildrenForm friendships with high status children
More likely to form exclusive and desirable cliques
Tend to play with a greater number of children
Have greater access to resources such as games, toys, books,
and information
*
Low Status ChildrenForm friendships with other lower status
childrenTend to play with a lower number of children than
higher status childrenAre more likely to play with younger or
less popular childrenTend to follow the lead of higher status
children
*
Unpopular Children
Lack of popularity may take two forms
Neglected childrenReceive relatively little attention from their
peers in the form of either positive or negative interaction
Rejected childrenAre actively disliked and their peers may react
to them in an obviously negative manner
12. *
Teaching Social Competence
Several programs teach children set of social skills that underlie
general social competence
Before we review these, take a few minutes to visit with a
classmate about what kind of program would best enhance
social competence.
Report to the class.
*See: Susan H. Spence. (2003) Social Skills Training with
Children and Young People: Theory, Evidence and Practice.
Child and Adolescent Mental Health: 2, 84–96, Making Friends:
Parents Can Teach Children How to Make Friends/Boystown
Tip Sheet. Available at:
http://www.boystownpediatrics.org/ParentTips/makefriends.asp
Schoolyard-and Cyber-Yard-Bullies
At school160,000 U.S. schoolchildren stay home from school
each day because they are afraid of being bullied
Almost 85 percent of girls and 80 percent of boys report
experiencing some form of harassment in school at least once
Others encounter bullying on the Internet, which may be even
more painful because often the bullying is done anonymously or
may involve public postings
*
13. Schoolyard-and Cyber-Yard-Bullies
The bullyAbout 10 to 15 percent of students bully others at one
time or another
About half of all bullies come from abusive homes
Bullies tend to watch more television containing violence, and
they misbehave more at home and at school than dononbullies
When their bullying gets them into trouble, they may try to lie
their way out of the situation, and they show little remorse for
their victimization of others
*
Bully
School-bulliedSome 90 percent of middle-school students report
being bullied at some point in their time at school, beginning as
early as the preschool years
CharacteristicsLoners who are fairly passiveOften cry
easilyLack the social skills that might otherwise defuse a
bullying situation
*
14. Reducing BullyingOne of the most effective ways to reduce the
incidence of bullying is through school programs that enli st and
involve students
For example, schools can train students to intervene when they
see an instance of bullying, rather than watching passively
Empowering students to stand up for victims has been shown to
reduce bullying significantly
Boyfriend, girlfriend…any friend?Avoidance of opposite sex
becomes very pronounced during middle childhood
Children's friendships are almost entirely sex-segregated
When sexes interact it is called “border work,” is often
romantic, and helps emphasize clear boundaries between sexes
*
Cross-Race Friendships: Integration In and Out of the
ClassroomClosest friendships largely with others of same race
Decline with age in number and depth of friendships outside
own racial group
*By the time they are 11 or 12, it appears that African American
children become particularly aware of and sensitive to the
prejudice and discrimination directed toward members of their
race.
At that point, they are more like to make distinctions between
members of ingroups (groups to which people feel they belong)
and members of outgroups.
15. A good deal of research supports the notion that contact
between majority and minority group members can reduce
prejudice and discrimination (Kerner & Aboud, 1998;
Hewstone, 2003).
Reducing Prejudice through
Contact Between Groups
ContactMust occur in equal status settings
Enhanced through cooperative activities that are important to
children
Must promote equality and disconfirm negative stereotypes
*
Middle Childhood in the 21st Century
In addition to other changes, children experience:Increasing
independence
Co-regulation with parents
Sibling relationships and rivalry
*Start with: In addition to: increase in the number of parents
who both work outside of the home, a soaring divorce rate, and
a rise in single-parent families…Middle childhood, then, is a
16. period of coregulation in which children and parents jointly
control behavior. Siblings also have an important influence on
children during middle childhood, for good and for bad.
Although brothers and sisters can provide support,
companionship, and a sense of security, they can also be a
source of strife.
Siblings
SiblingsSibling relationships are likely to endure across
lifespan
Early relationships between siblings shape how children relate
to others and choices made in later life
*Children who negotiate well with their siblings in early
childhood enjoy better relations with their teachers and
classmates in middle childhood.Destructive conflict solving
between siblings is associated with continued aggressiveness in
boys.Older children also can function as role models for their
younger sibling, but not always in a positive way.
What about children who have no siblings? Only children are as
well-adjusted as children with brothers and sisters
In some ways, only children are better-adjusted, often having
higher self-esteem and stronger motivation to achieve
*
17. When Both Parents Work Outside the Home: How Do Children
Fare?
In most cases, children fare quite wellWhen parents Are
lovingAre sensitive to their children's needsProvide appropriate
substitute care
Good adjustment of children relates to psychological adjustment
of parents, especially mothers
*In general, women who are satisfied with their lives tend to be
more nurturing with their children. When work provides a high
level of satisfaction, then, mothers who work outside of the
home may be more psychologically supportive of their
children.Children with mothers and fathers who work full-time
spend essentially the same amount of time with family, in class,
with friends, and alone as children in families where one parent
stays at home.
Good or bad?
Self-care childrenYoungsters who let themselves into their
homes after school and wait alone until their parents return
from work
Consequences of being a latchkey child are not all harmful
Some children report being lonely
Some children develop a sense of independence and competence
Some research shows latchkey children have higher self-esteem
because they are helping family
18. *
The Consequences of DivorceOnly half of children in the U.S.
will pass through childhood living with both parents each of
whom has been married only once
School-age children tend to blame themselves for the breakup
*By the age of 10, children feel pressure to choose sides, taking
the position of either the mother or the father. Because of this,
they experience some degree of divided loyalty.
For many children, there are minimal long-term consequences.
After the Break…
Both children and parents may show several types of
psychological maladjustments for 6 months to 2
yearsAnxietyDepressionSleep disturbancesPhobias
*
Rediscovering the Status QuoAfter 18 months to 2 years, most
children return to their predivorce psychological adjustment
Twice as many children of divorced parents require
psychological counseling as do children from intact families
For some children, living in a home with unhappy marriage and
19. which is high in conflict has stronger negative consequences
than divorce
*How children react to divorce depends on several factors. One
is the economic standing of the family the child is living with.
In many cases, divorce brings a decline in both parents'
standards of living. When this occurs, children may be thrown
into poverty.
Single Parents
Almost one-quarter of all children under 18 in the U.S. live with
only one parent
Numbers are higher for minority children60% of African-
American children live in single parent homes
35% of Hispanic children live in single parent homes
*
Multigenerational Families Opportunity for rich experiences and
conflictsGreater among African Americans than among
CaucasiansIn some families, cultural norms tend to be highly
supportive of grandparents taking an active role
20. *
Yours, mine…oursBlended families include remarried couple
that has at least one stepchild living with them
Experts predict that by 2000, over 50 percent of children born
in the last decade will be stepchildren
Living in blended family involves role ambiguity, in which
roles and expectations are unclear
*
Not all the news is bad!!School-age children often adjust
relatively smoothly to a blended familyFinancial status of
family improves
More people to share household chore
More social interaction and attention
But…not all children adjust well, especially if the new
relationship is threatening
*
Race and Family Life
What do you know about…?African-American families
Hispanic families
21. Asian-American families
*African AmericanFrequently willing to offer welcome and
support to extended family members in their homes.Relatively
high proportion of families headed by older adults, such as
grandparents, and some studies find that children in
grandmother-headed households are particularly well
adjusted.Hispanic familiesChildren are taught to value their ties
to their families, and they come to see themselves as a central
part of an extended family. Ultimately, their sense of who they
are becomes tied to the family. Hispanic families also tend to be
relatively larger, with an average size of 3.71. Asian American
familiesAlthough relatively little research has been conducted
on Asian-American families, emerging findings suggest that
fathers are more apt to be powerful figures, maintaining
discipline. In keeping with the more collectivist orientation of
Asian cultures, children tend to believe that family needs have a
higher priority than personal needs, and males, in particular, are
expected to care for their parents throughout their lifetimes.
African-American families Particularly strong sense of family
Often offer welcome and support to extended family members
Hispanic familiesStress importance of family life, community,
and religious organizationsTend to be relatively large
Asian-American familiesFathers are more apt to be powerful
figures, maintaining disciplineChildren tend to believe family
needs have a higher priority than personal needs
Poverty and Family Life
Poor families Fewer basic everyday resources
More disruptions in children's lives
Higher likelihood of stress
22. *The stress of difficult family environments, along with other
stress in the lives of poor children—such as living in unsafe
neighborhoods with high rates of violence and attending inferior
schools—ultimately takes its toll. Economically disadvantaged
children are at risk for poorer academic performance, higher
rates of aggression, and conduct problems. In addition, declines
in economic well-being have been linked to mental health
problems.
Group Homes…Term “orphanage” replaced by group home or
residential treatment centerGroup homes used for youngsters
whose parents are no longer able to care for
them adequately
*
Anybody home?The number of children in group care has
growth over 50 percent
About three-quarters of children in group homes are victims of
abuse and neglect
Most will eventually return home, however, one-fourth will be
in group care throughout childhood
23. *
Good or Bad?Experts disagree on advantages and disadvantages
of group care
Some see them as solution to unwed mothers who become
dependent on welfare
Many who work in these homes say they cannot provide
adequate love and support as family could
Group homes cost ten times as much as foster care or welfare
*
Closing the Digital Divide: Some Unintended Consequences
Digital divideDistinction between technological haves and have
nots
Unintended consequences
Non-educational use of computers
Much media use unmonitored by parents
Media use drops dramatically with parental monitoring
24. School DazeDuring school year, more of day is spent in a
classroom than anywhere else
Schools have large influence on children's lives
*
How do children explain academic success and failure?
AttributionsChildren attempt to explain their behavior in one of
three waysWhether the cause is internal (dispositional) or
external (situational)Whether the cause is stable or
unstableWhether the cause is controllable or uncontrollable
*Attribution theory: theory of motivation based on people's
ATTRIBUTIONS, their understanding of the reasons behind
their behavior.
Attributional Confounds
Race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status have strong
influences on attributions of success and failureAfrican-
American children are less likely to attribute success to internal
causes, feeling that prejudice and discrimination are to blame
Women tend to attribute failure to low ability and success to
luck
In Asian countries, academic success is perceived as being
caused by hard work
25. *
Developmental Diversity: Explaining Asian Academic
SuccessUS attribute school performance to stable, internal
causes
Japan, China, and other East Asian countries see temporary,
situational factors as cause of their performance
*Asian view, which stems in part from ancient Confucian
writings, tends to accentuate the necessity of hard work and
perseverance.Asian students tend to assume that academic
success results from hard work, they may put greater effort into
their schoolwork than American students, who believe that their
inherent ability determines their performance. These arguments
suggest that the attributional style of students and teachers in
the United States might well be maladaptive. They also argue
that the attributional styles taught to children by their parents
may have a significant effect on their future success.
EPILOGUE
Return to the prologue—about Matt Donner's social struggles—
and answer the following questions:Why do you think Matt
seems to blame himself for being the victim of bullies?
What might be the motivation for other kids to bully Matt?
How might it make them feel about themselves?
63. End of 2nd year: average child weighs around four times as
much as he or she did at birth
Physical Growth:
The Rapid Advances of Infancy
Not all parts of an infant's body grow at the same rateBirth:
head accounts for one-quarter of the newborn's entire body size
During 1st and 2nd year: rest of the body begins to catch up
Physical Growth:
The Rapid Advances of Infancy
Can you give an example of each principle?
*Define:Cephalocaudal principle states that growth follows a
direction and pattern that begins with the head and upper body
parts and then proceeds to the rest of the body. Proximodistal
principle states that development proceeds from the center of
the body outward. See Table 4.1.Principle of hierarchical
integration states that simple skills typically develop separately
and independently. Later these simple skills are integrated into
more complex ones. Principle of the independence of systems,
which suggests that different body systems grow at different
rates. Birth: around 7 pounds; 20 inches5 months: doubled birth
64. weight12 months: tripled birth weight; 30 inches2nd year:
slows; 4x birth weight; 36 inches
Nervous System and Brain:
The Foundations of Development
Neurons are the basic cells of the nervous system
Nervous system comprises the brain and the nerves that extend
throughout the body
*
How great brains grow!
Birth100-200 billion neuronsRelatively few neurons-neuron
connections
During first two yearsBillions of new connections established
and become more complex
*Birth: Neurons multiply at an amazing rate prior to birth. At
some points in prenatal development, cell division creates some
250,000 additional neurons every minute.By year 2: The
intricacy of neural connections continues to increase throughout
65. life. In fact, in adulthood a single neuron is likely to have a
minimum of 5,000 connections to other neurons or other body
parts.
Use it or lose it!
Babies are actually born with many more neurons than they
needAlthough synapses are formed throughout life, based on our
changing experiences, the billions of new synapses infants form
during the first two years are more numerous than necessary
Synaptic pruningUnused neurons are eliminatedAllows
established neurons to build more elaborate communication
networks with other neuronsDevelopment of nervous system
proceeds most effectively through loss of cells
Myelin
*Synaptic pruning: elimination of unused neurons that allows
established neurons to build more elaborate communication
networks with other neurons. Unlike most other aspects of
growth, then, the development of the nervous system proceeds
most effectively through the loss of cells.Neurons that do not
become interconnected with other neurons as the infant's
experience of the world increases become unnecessary. They
eventually die out, increasing the efficiency of the nervous
system. Myelin: Axons of neurons become coated with myelin,
a fatty substance that, like the insulation on an electric wire,
provides protection and speeds the transmission of nerve
impulses.Contributes to increased weight of brainEven though
many neurons are lost, the increasing size and complexity of the
remaining ones contribute to impressive brain growth. A baby's
brain triples its weight during his or her first 2 years of life, and
it reaches more than three-quarters of its adult weight and size
66. by the age of 2.
Form and Function: Brain GrowthNeurons reposition themselves
with growth, becoming arranged by function Cerebral cortex
Subcortical levels
*Some move into the cerebral cortex, the upper layer of the
brain, while others move to subcortical levels, which are below
the cerebral cortex. As time passes, however, the cell s in the
cerebral cortex, which are responsible for higher-order
processes such as thinking and reasoning, become more
developed and interconnected.The subcortical levels, which
regulate such fundamental activities as breathing and heart rate,
are the most fully developed at birth.
Don't shake the baby!
Shaken Baby SyndromeBrain sensitive to form forms of injury
Shaking can lead to brain rotation within skullBlood vessels
-term disabilities, and
sometimes death
*
What do babies do all day?
67. Integrating the bodily systems: Life cycles of infancyRhythms:
repetitive, cyclical patterns of behaviorWakeSleepEatEliminate
*These most basic activities are controlled by a variety of
bodily systems. Although each of these individual behavioral
patterns probably is functioning quite effectively, it takes some
time and effort for infants to integrate the separate behaviors. In
fact, one of the neonate's major missions is to make its
individual behaviors work in harmony, helping it, for example,
to sleep through the night.
Rhythms and States
StateOne of major body rhythmsDegree of awareness infant
displays to both internal and external stimulationChange in state
alters amount of stimulation required to get infant's
attentionElectrical brain waves can be measured by
electrocephalogram (EEG)
*Some of the different states that infants experience produce
changes in electrical activity in the brain. These changes are
reflected in different patterns of electrical brain waves, which
can be measured by a device called an electroencephalogram, or
EEG. Starting at three months before birth, these brain wave
patterns are relatively irregular. By the time an infant reaches
the age of 3 months, a more mature pattern emerges and the
brain waves become more regular.
Primary Behavioral States
68. *
Primary Behavioral States
*
Sleep: Perchance to Dream
Major state16-17 hours daily (average); wide variations
Different than adult sleep2 hour spurts; periods of
wakefulnessCyclic patternBy 16 weeks sleep about 6 continuous
hours; by 1 year sleep through night(See Table 4-2)
*By 1 year need about 15 hours sleepCyclic pattern: During
periods of sleep, infants’ heart rates increase and become
irregular, their blood pressure rises, and they begin to breathe
more rapidly
A Quick Review of Behavioral States
*
69. REM SleepPeriod of active sleep
Closed eyes begin to move in a back-and-forth pattern
Takes up around one-half of infant sleep
May provide means for brain to stimulate itself through
autostimulation
*Sometimes, although not always, their closed eyes begin to
move in a back-and-forth pattern, as if they were viewing an
action-packed scene. This period of active sleep is similar,
although not identical, to the rapid eye movement, or REM,
sleep, that is found in older children and adults and is
associated with dreaming.At first, this active, REM-like sleep
takes up around one-half of an infant's sleep, compared with
just 20 percent of an adult's sleep (see Figure 4-6). However,
the quantity of active sleep quickly declines, and by the age of 6
months, amounts to just one-third of total sleep time.Some
researchers think it provides a means for the brain to stimulate
itself—a process called autostimulation.Stimulation of the
nervous system would be particularly important in infants, who
spend so much time sleeping and relatively little in alert states.
SIDS: The Unanticipated KillerSudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS) is a disorder in which seemingly healthy infants die in
their sleep
SIDS strikes about 2,500 infants in the United States each year
70. Although it seems to occur when the normal patterns of
breathing during sleep are interrupted, scientists have been
unable to discover why that might happen
SIDS
*Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is a disorder in which
seemingly healthy infants die in their sleepSIDS strikes about 1
in 1,000 infants in the United States each year. Although it
seems to occur when the normal patterns of breathing during
sleep are interrupted, scientists have been unable to discover
why that might happen.American Academy of Pediatrics now
suggests that babies sleep on their backs rather than on their
sides or stomachs—called the back-to-sleep guideline. In
addition, they suggest that parents consider giving their babies a
pacifier during naps and bedtime.
SIDS is found in children of every race and socioeconomic
group and in children who have had no apparent health
problems
Back-to-sleep is important!
*
Motor DevelopmentShape and proportions of newborn babies
are simply not conducive to easy mobility
71. Young infants lack the strength to raise large heads
Movement is further impeded because limbs are short in relation
to the rest of the body
Infant bodies are mainly fat, with a limited amount of muscle;
the result is a lack strength
Motor Development
BUTAt birth newborns have an extensive repertoire of
behavioral possibilities brought about by innate reflexes, and
their range of motor skills grows rapidly during the first two
years of life
Reflexes: Inborn Physical Skills
ReflexesLearned, organized involuntary responses that occur
automatically in presence of certain stimuli
*
Some Basic Reflexes in Infants
Some Basic Reflexes in Infants
72. Ethnic and Cultural Differences and Similarities in Reflexes
ReflexesGenetically determinedUniversal
Cultural variations in ways displayedMoro reflex
ServesDiagnostic toolSocial functionSurvival function
*Moro Reflex: Some differences reflect cultural and ethnic
variations. Caucasian infants show a pronounced response to
situations that produce the Moro reflex. Not only do they fling
out their arms, but they also cry and respond in a generally
agitated manner. Navajo babies react to the same situation much
more calmly. Their arms do not flail out as much, and they cry
only rarely.Diagnostic tools for pediatricians. Because reflexes
emerge and disappear on a regular timetable, their absence—or
presence—at a given point of infancy can provide a clue that
something may be amiss in an infant's development.
Dynamic Systems
Dynamic systems theory Describes how motor behaviors are
assembledMotor skills do not develop in vacuumEach skill
advances in context of other motor abilitiesAs motor skills
develop, so do non-motoric skills
Theory places emphasis on child's own motivation (a cognitive
state) in advancing important aspects of motor development
*Motor development in a particular sphere, such as beginning to
crawl, is not just dependent on the brain initiating a “crawling
73. program” that permits the muscles to propel the baby forward.
Instead, crawling requires the coordination of muscles,
perception, cognition, and motivation. Theory emphasizes how
children's exploratory activities, which produce new challenges
as they interact with their environment, lead them to
advancements in motor skills.
Developmental Norms
Comparing Individual to Group Norms:Represent the average
performance of a large sample of children of a given agePermit
comparisons between a particular child's performance on a
particular behavior and the average performance of the children
in the norm sampleMust be interpreted with caution
Brazelton Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale (NBAS)
*Brazelton Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale (NBAS): one
of the most widely used techniques to determine infants’
normative standing; measure designed to determine infants’
neurological and behavioral responses to their environment;
provides a supplement to the traditional Apgar test.
Developmental Diversity
Cultural Dimensions of Motor Development
Using information from your text, answer the
following:
Does earlier emergence of a basic motor behavior in a given
culture has lasting consequences for specific motor skills and
74. for achievements in other domains?
*Guide students to appropriate section in the text.Divide into
small groups. Assign students by Ache, Kipsigis, and Western
babies. Ask students to reply to the question based on their
specific group.Concluding comment: cultural factors help
determine the time at which specific motor skills appear.
Activities that are an intrinsic part of a culture are more apt to
be purposely taught to infants in that culture, leading to the
potential of their earlier emergence.
Nutrition in Infancy
Fueling Motor DevelopmentWithout proper nutrition, infants
cannot reach physical potential and may suffer cognitive and
social consequences
Infants differ in growth rates, body composition, metabolism,
and activity levels
*Rapid physical growth that occurs during infancy is fueled by
the nutrients that infants receive. Without proper nutrition,
infants cannot reach their physical potential, and they may
suffer cognitive and social consequences.
So what is a healthy caloric allotment for infants?About 50
calories per day for each pound of weight
Most infants regulate their caloric intake quite effectively on
their own
75. If are allowed consume as much they seem to want, and not
pressured to eat more, they will be healthy
*
Malnutrition
MalnutritionCondition of having improper amount and balance
of nutrients, produces several results, none good
More common in children living in many developing countries
Slower growth rate
Chronically malnourished during infancy = later lower IQ score
*Malnutrition, the condition of having an improper amount and
balance of nutrients, produces several results, none good. More
common among children living in many developing countries
Slower growth rate apparent by the age 6 monthsBy 2 years,
height and weight are only 95 percent the height and weight of
children in more industrialized countries.Chronically
malnourished during infancy later score lower on IQ tests and
tend to do less well in school. These effects may linger even
after diet has improved substantially.
Undernutrition: Dietary DeficienciesUndernutrition also has
long-term costs, including mild to moderate cognitive delays
76. Up to 25% of 1- to 5-year-old US children have diets that fall
below minimum caloric intake recommended by nutritional
experts
*
When Malnutrition Is Severe
MaramusMalnutrition during first yearInfants stop
growing.Attributable to severe deficiency in proteins and
caloriesCauses the body to waste away and ultimately results in
death
KwashiorkorFound in older childrenChild's stomach, limbs, and
face swellBody struggles to make use of few available nutrients
*Malnutrition during the first year can produce marasmus, a
disease in which infants stop growing. Marasmus, attributable
to a severe deficiency in proteins and calories, causes the body
to waste away and ultimately results in death. Older children are
susceptible to kwashiorkor, a disease in which a child's
stomach, limbs, and face swell with water.
So What Is the Answer?
Breast milkOffers all nutrients infant needs for first 12 months
of lifeIs more easily digested than alternativeProvides some
immunity to variety of childhood diseasesMay enhance
cognitive growthOffers significant emotional advances for
mother and childNot cure-all for infant nutrition and health
77. *
Introducing Solid Foods: When and What?Solids can be started
at 6 months but are not needed until 9 to 12 months
ained
fruits
Time of weaning varies greatly in developed and developing
countries
*
The Development of the Senses
If all the lights in this room went out RIGHT NOW, what would
your senses tell you (sensation)?
What do you think about being in the dark with your class
(perception) or about an instructor who was crazy enough to go
to blackout to teach a concept (fill in this part yourself)?
*
Visual Perception: Seeing the WorldNewborn's distance vision
ranges from 20/200 to 20/600
78. By 6 months, average infant's vision is already 20/20
Other visual abilities grow rapidlyBinocular visionDepth
perception
*Infant can only see with accuracy visual material up to 20 feet
that an adult with normal vision is able to see with similar
accuracy from a distance of between 200 and 600 feet.; distance
vision is 1/10th to 1/3rd that of average adult's.
Facing the World
Genetics is not the sole determinant of infant visual
preferencesA few hours after birth, infants have already learned
to prefer their own mother's face to other faces
Similarly, between the ages of six and nine months, infants
become more adept at distinguishing
between the faces of humans, while they become less able to
distinguish faces of members of other species
They also distinguish between male and female faces
Auditory Perception: The World of Sound
Infants Hear before birth and have good auditory perception
after they are born
Are more sensitive to certain frequencies
Reach adult accuracy in sound localization by age 1
79. Can discriminate groups of different sounds
React to changes in musical key and rhythm
Can discriminate many language related sounds
Are born with preferences for particular sound combinations
which may be shaped by prenatal exposure to mothers’ voices
*
Smell and Taste in a Small World
SmellWell developed at birthHelps in recognition of mother
early in lifeUsed to distinguish mother's scent (only in breast
fed babies); cannot distinguish father on basis of odor
TasteHave innate sweet toothShow facial disgust at bitter
tasteDevelop preferences based on what mother ate during
pregnancy
*
Ouch!
Contemporary Views on Infant PainToday, it is widely
acknowledged that infants are born with the capacity to
experience pain
80. Developmental progression in reaction to pain
Infants born with capacity to experience pain; produces distress
Exposure to pain in infancy may lead to permanent rewiring of
nervous system resulting in greater sensitivity to pain during
adulthood
*
The Power of TouchTouch is one of most highly developed
sensory systems in a newborn
Even youngest infants respond to gentle touches
Several of the basic reflexes present at birth require touch
sensitivity to operate
*Several theorists have suggested that one of the ways children
gain information about the world is through touching.
Multimodal Perception: Combining Individual Sensory Inputs
New area of study in infant researchSome researchers argue that
sensations are initially integrated with one another in the infant
Others maintain that infant's sensory systems are initially
separate and that brain development leads to increasing
integration
It does appear that by an early age infants are able to relate
81. what they have learned about an object through one sensory
channel to what they have learned about it through another
* Multimodal approach to perception considers how information
that is collected by various individual sensory systems is
integrated and coordinated.Infants’ multimodal perception
abilities showcase the sophisticated perceptual abilities of
infants, which continue to grow throughout the period of
infancy. Such perceptual growth is aided by infants’ discovery
of affordances , the options that a given situation or stimulus
provides.
What are affordances?
Perceptible affordances Exist where information on actions that
are afforded are perceptible
These are dependent on language, culture, context, and
experience and vary for different individuals
*Bring a small collection of found object to lecture. Have
student work in groups to brainstorm about the affordances of
the objects. Encourage rapid, spontaneous responses. Ask
students to equate this experience with that of an infant's. What
is different? What is the same?
Becoming an Informed Consumer of DevelopmentExercising
Your Infant's Body and Senses
Attempts to accelerate physical and sensory-perceptual
development yield little success
but
82. infants need sufficient physical and sensory stimulation.
*
How can this be accomplished?Carry a baby in different ways
Let infants explore their environment
Engage in “rough-and-tumble” play
Let babies touch their food and even play with it
Provide toys that stimulate the senses, particularly toys that can
stimulate more than one sense at a time
*Carry a baby in different positions—in a backpack, in a
frontpack, or in a football hold with the infant's head in the
palm of your hand and its feet lying on your arm. This lets the
infant view the world from several perspectives.Let infants
explore their environment. Don't contain them too long in a
barren environment. Let them crawl or wander around—after
first making the environment “childproof” by removing
dangerous objects.Engage in “rough-and-tumble” play.
Wrestling, dancing, and rolling around on the floor—if not
violent—are activities that are fun and that stimulate older
infants’ motor and sensory systems.Let babies touch their food
and even play with it. Infancy is too early to start teaching table
manners.Provide toys that stimulate the senses, particularly toys
that can stimulate more than one sense at a time. For example,
brightly colored, textured toys with movable parts are enjoyable
and help sharpen infants’ senses.
83. EPILOGUE
Turn back for a moment to the prologue of this chapter, about a
baby's first steps, and answer these questions:
Which principles of growth (i.e., cephalocaudal, proximodistal,
heirarchical integration, independence of systems) account(s)
for the progression of physical activities that precedes Josh's
first steps?
What conclusions about Josh's future physical development can
be drawn based on the fact that his first steps occurred
approximately two months early?
Can conclusions be drawn about his future cognitive
development? Why?
*
EPILOGUEIn walking at 10 months of age, Josh outpaced his
little brother Jon by four months. Does this fact have any
implications for the comparative physical or cognitive abilities
of the two brothers? Why?
Do you think anything changed in the environment between the
time Jon and Josh were born that might account for their
different “first step” schedules? If you were researching this
question, what environmental factors would you look for?
*