American Portraits Lady Liberty In.docx

*
American Portraits: Lady Liberty
“In erecting a Statue of Liberty embodied as a woman in a
land where no woman has political liberty men have shown a
delightful inconsistency which excites the wonder and
admiration of the opposite sex.”
Lillie Devereux Blake, 1886
Edward Moran, Unveiling of the Statue of Liberty, 1886.
Oil on canvas. Museum of the City of New York.
*
The New Colossus
Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame,

With conquering limbs astride from land to land;
Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand
A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame
Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name
Mother of Exiles. From her beacon-hand
Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command
The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame.
“Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!” cries she
With silent lips. “Give me your tired, your poor,
Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,
The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.
Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me,
I lift my lamp beside the golden door!”
Emma Lazarus, 1883
*

HIST 180 Survey of American History
Benjamin Cawthra, Ph.D.
California State University, Fullerton
*
The Gilded Age and the 1880s
Timeline: The 1880s
Economic Changes in the Gilded Age
Implications for American Freedom
Equality and Inequality
Thomas Eakins: Realism and the Professions
*
1. Timeline: The 1880s
1879 Henry George’s Progress and Poverty published.
Thomas Edison perfects the electric light bulb.
1880 Southern Alliance formed to advocate for farmers.
Republican James A. Garfield elected president.
1881 Garfield assassinated; Chester Arthur becomes president.
1882 John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil of Ohio consolidates

American oil industry under the Standard Oil Trust.
1883 Chicago builds first elevated railway.
Brooklyn Bridge completed.
1884 Recession and unemployment jar economy.
Democrat Grover Cleveland elected president.
1886 American Federation of Labor founded.
George Westinghouse founds company and perfects use of
alternating current.
1887 Interstate Commerce Act passed to control railroads.
1888 Edward Bellamy’s Looking Backward published.
Benjamin Harrison narrowly defeats Cleveland in
presidential election.
1889 Jane Addams founds Hull House in Chicago; beginning of
settlement house movement.
*
2. Economic Changes in the Gilded Age
John Neagle, Pat Lyon at the Forge, 1826-27. Oil on
canvas. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
*
3. Implications for American Freedom
Thomas Aunschutz, The Ironworkers’ Noontime, 1880-81. Oil
on canvas. Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco.

*
Winslow Homer, The Old Mill (Morning Bell), 1871
Oil on canvas. Yale University Art Gallery.
*
Winslow Homer, The Old Mill (Morning Bell), 1873
Engraving.
*
Three Problems for American Democracy
1. A wealthy and powerful industrial class dominating the
economy and influencing government
2. A working class living on the edge of poverty with no real
hope to rise
3. The closing of the frontier—the ability to go West and start
anew is ending.

*
Udo J. Keppler, Next!, 1904.
Lithograph, Library of Congress
*
James and John Bard, C. Vanderbilt, 1847.
Oil on canvas. The Athenaeum.
Photographer unknown, Cornelius Vanderbilt, c. 1870s.
*
“This population is too hopelessly split up into races and
factions to govern it under universal suffrage, except by the
bribery of patronage and corruption.”
William “Boss” Tweed

3. Equality and Inequality
Robert Koehler, The Strike, 1886. Oil on canvas.
Deutsches Historiches Museum, Berlin.
*
Currier and Ives, Central Park: The
Drive, n.d. Lithograph.
*
“Liberty, equality, survival of the fittest; not liberty, equality,
survival of the unfittest.”
William Graham Sumner
William Graham Sumner, 1895.
*

Johannes Gelert, The Police Monument, 1889. Chicago
Historical Society.
Albert Weinert, Haymarket Monument, 1893.
*
Johannes Gelert, The Police Monument, 1889.
Chicago Historical Society.
Albert Weinert, Haymarket Monument, 1893.
*
5. Thomas Eakins: Realism and the Professions
Thomas Eakins, The Gross Clinic, 1875. Oil. on canvas.
Philadelphia Museum of Art.
*
Thomas Eakins, The Agnew Clinic, 1889. Oil on
canvas. University of Pennsylvania.

*
Thomas Eakins, The Dean’s Roll Call (Portrait of
James W. Holland), 1889. Oil on canvas. Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston.
*
Running head: SOFTWARE USED IN MANAGERIAL
DECISION-MAKING 1
SOFTWARE USED IN MANAGERIAL DECISION-MAKING 2
Software Used In Managerial Decision-Making
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
Software Used In Managerial Decision-Making
Decision-making tools and software are numerous, and as an
organization, purchasing the effective management tool would

result in improved business. Some of the two most efficient
tools include customer relationship management (SRM)
software and asset management (SAM) software.
Software Asset Management (SAM)
Software Asset Management software is used in practices
which involve maximizing and managing the purchase,
utilization, maintenance, and the removal of software
application in an organization. More redefined definitions
suggest that SAM are all the processes and infrastructure
obligatory for the successful administration, protection, and
control of the software resources all through their life cycle
(Sabin et al., 2017). This software is mainly intended to be a
component of a business IT business strategy, with a major goal
as decreasing the IT-related costs and limiting legal and
business risks while optimizing end-user productivity and IT
sensitivity. It is useful in larger organizations based on the
management of legal risks, and redistribution of licenses related
to software expiration and ownership (Sabin et al., 2017). The
SAM software enables a company to track its license expiration,
hence allowing a company to work ethically without fear of
software compliance regulations. These elements are usually
essential for types of risk management and the long term
business goals.
Nonetheless, SAM is essential for various organization
purposes. SAM reduces the support and software costs by
settling volume contracts agreements through reallocation and
agreements on software licenses. Also, it enforces the
conformity with business security policies to enhance worker
performance by using the appropriate technology reliably and
quickly (Sabin et al., 2017). Also, it limits the overhead related
to supporting and managing software by automating and
streamlining IT processes like inventory tracking. Importantly,
SMA establishes the current procedures and policies
surrounding the documentation, acquisition, and usage of the
software as a way to identify the long-term business goals.
Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software

CRM software brings various business abilities together. It
enables a company to store all is consumers and prospects, send
emails, make calls, create reports, add notes, schedule
appointments, and manage pipeline without switching to other
systems (Venturini & Benito, 2015). CRM approach is used to
manage the business's interact with the potential and current
consumers. The software utilizes data analysis based on a
customer’s past with the firm, as a way to improve business
relationships by particularly focusing on buyer retention and
eventually improving sales growth. Besides, an important aspect
of the CRM software is that the system compiles data from
various communication channels, like the company’s telephone,
website, marketing tools, as well as the social media. By using
CRM and implementing, a company learns more of their target
customers and the best way to meet their demands.
Nonetheless, CRM software is always based on the fact that
consumers are the backbone of any business and without them, a
business fails. Additionally, the success of an organization
depends on the cultivated with consumers. This entails the
loyalty, trust, and relationships, a reason why CRM software is
essential for any business (Venturini & Benito, 2015). CRM
enables a company to establish long-term relationships with
customers. By having good relationships, a company will not
only experience increased profitability, but also a huge
improvement in the retention of consumers. Since CRM is based
on consumer needs and demands, it is the best software tool that
is important for our organization.
The Need for CRM Software in Our Organization
One of the obvious reasons for the need for CRM software to be
purchased by this company would be its use in various
organizations departments. CRM always play key roles in
marketing, sales, and customer service. The marketing teams
can utilize CRM to evaluate the Return on Investment (ROI),
through their campaigns and activities. Besides, it provides
them with insights on the target market based on the Ideal
Customer Profiles (ICPs), and the right industry and region

(Venturini & Benito, 2015). Besides, CRM can be used by the
sales team to gain a deeper understanding of the customers
through the management of the sales pipeline. It is useful in
sales since it automates the daily activities, improves and tracks
sales and productivity, enhances sales techniques, and identifies
the industry trends. Additionally, CRM can be used by the
customer support group to enhance customer retention and
relations. It provides them with insight on consumer issues as
well as the history of interactions that then establishes the right
measures to manage customer activities and engagements.
Similarly, CRM software will have various benefits to this
organization. CRM software is flexible and can be applied to
any business size. Therefore, when implemented, it will have
various benefits which include enhancing consumer
relationships. The journey of the prospect to lead to a customer
will be captured by the CRM. Such insights place the
organization in a better position to identify people, their
demands, and how this business can be essential to them
(Venturini & Benito, 2015). Also, CRM enables less data entry
that is always time-consuming. The software will allow the
automation of common tasks such as creating leads based on
sign up forms or even sending emails. Also, the software
enhances communication since it is the major source of the
messaging channel. There are no information gaps since the
customer will get a consistent voice from the company.
Similarly, CRM leads to healthier pipelines as it enables the
firm to visualize the pipeline, hence making it easy to prioritize
deals and make use of them effectively. As a result, the pipeline
will stay free from concerns and remain committed to company
goals. Moreover, CRM results in higher revenue since there is
an adequate view of the consumers at all times, and there is
easy up-selling and cross-selling at the appropriate moment,
with a higher success rate (Venturini & Benito, 2015). It
reduces the chances of company attrition. Generally, CRM
creates a stronger business since information gathered by the
software is used in all levels of management and decision-

making processes.
Identifying the Right CRM for the Company
Having established that CRM software is beneficial, it is critical
to choose wisely based on various elements. This is because
success in the business will be determined by the type of CRM
software implemented. However, it is important to consider
these three factors since they are always constant. First, CRM’s
software simplicity is important. This entails an insightful user
experience as well as a clean interface with less time to get
started (Venturini & Benito, 2015). Also, the price is essential
since there is a need to look for hidden costs like
implementation and maintenance. Importantly, the relevance of
the CRM software to this business is mandatory, and the
business cases and issues it needs to solve should be clearly
defined and ready. From here, the appropriate type of CRM can
be chosen.
Types of CRM
The first type is strategic. This software is based on the
development of consumer-centric business customs. Another
CRM is operational; whose primary objective is the automation
and integration of marketing, sales, and customer support. The
system has dashboards that provide an overview of these
functions from a single consumer view. Additionally, there s
analytical CRM majorly used to analyze consumer data gathered
from various sources that are then presented to the management
to influence decision making (Venturini & Benito, 2015). The
analytical CRM software utilizes measures such as correlation,
data mining, and pattern recognition for customer data analysis.
Lastly, there is collaborative CRM which integrated the external
stakeholders like vendors, supplier, and distributors to share
information across the department in the organization.
The Use of CRM by KFC
The American established fast food restaurant, KFC, uses CRM
and has led to most of its success. In the various locations, it is
based; it has signed deals with network providers to roll out
free Wi-Fi to its consumers in all stores, as a way to entice

more consumers. They have then created a signup page that
stores the information from consumers and to contact users
concerning their special promotions and deals (Lucy, 2017).
This is a simple data collection criterion, and they have also
introduced a loyalty app that makes additional use of their CRM
software system. The customer downloads the application and
register. They are then offered stamps which are redeemable as
free rewards for buying food in KFC. The application tracks
consumer location and assists them to find the nearest store,
alongside the location deals and offers. The application tracks
consumer purchasing habits, and KFC is able to offer them
targeted marketing and deals.
References
Lucy, C. (2017). Big Brand CRM Case Studies. Expert Market.
Retrived from https://www.expertmarket.co.uk/crm-
systems/customer-relationship-management-case-studies
Sabin, D., Macleod, G., & Wojdan, M. (2017). Using smart grid
sensors and advanced software applications as an asset
management tool at Hydro Ottawa. CIRED-Open Access
Proceedings Journal, 2017(1), 490-494.
Venturini, W. T., & Benito, Ó. G. (2015). CRM software
success: a proposed performance measurement scale. Journal of
Knowledge Management, 19(4), 856-875.
Running head: IMPROVING THE IT DEPARTMENT 1
IMPROVING THE IT DEPARTMENT 4
Improving the IT Department

Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
Improving IT Department
Recommended Action
Expected Results
Grade
Training IT personnel
Motivation
90
Workshops and Seminars
Improved Expertise
80
Setting department goals
Yearly objectives accomplished
95
Strategies to attain goals
Achieving department mission
89
After investigating the IT department, there are two major
challenges I observed and I have recommended the best action
plans. The first challenge is lack of expertise in the IT
department. IT is becoming complex and brings new concepts
and concepts like Artificial Intelligence, Cloud Security, among
other that needs to be understood by the current IT department
members (Lohrke et al., 2016). The improvement plan is to train
the team (Aasi et al., 2016). The in-house personnel need
support and frequent training that can involve hiring outside
experts. This will enhance experience and motivation towards
facing IT issues.
Also, there are many priorities which compel the IT department
to leave projects halfway and jump to other more precedence
organizational projects (Arkhipova et al., 2016). They are
pulled to diverse directions to meet organizational needs.
Therefore, the major step should be ensuring that at the
beginning of each year, the IT department should be engaged in

setting of department goals and outline strategies to achieve
them.
Email to Employees
From: CEO
To: IT Department Team
RE: Implementing the Action Plan
Based on the recent departmental assessments, there are many
challenges that were identified to be affecting the department.
Achieving the company goals is significant for departmental
practice, a reason why the management has decided to
implement the following action plans.
a). Three-month training for IT personnel
b). Workshops and seminars
c). Establishing the department’s yearly mission
These steps are aimed towards ensuring efficiency within the
department and improving performance. Also, the assessment
recognizes the contribution of the department to the latest
organizational success. Importantly, outside experts will be
involved in the implementation processes and the management
hopes for success.
References
Lohrke, F. T., Frownfelter-Lohrke, C., & Ketchen Jr, D. J.
(2016). The role of information technology systems in the
performance of mergers and acquisitions. Business
Horizons, 59(1), 7-12.
Aasi, P., Rusu, L., & Han, S. (2016). The influence of
organizational culture on IT governance performance: Case of
the IT department in a large Swedish company. In 2016 49th
Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences
(HICSS)(pp. 5157-5166). IEEE.
Arkhipova, D., Vaia, G., DeLone, W., & Braghin, C. (2016). IT
governance in the digital era. Department of Management,
Università Ca'Foscari Venezia Working Paper, (2016/12).

PAGE
Running head: WEEK 5
1
Week 5: Concerns in the Main Departments
Student Name Here
University
Week 5: Concerns in the Main Departments
There are many things that one can look at when looking at the
company’s vision, mission and growth plans in the organization.
What the company produces and if they adhere to the vision and
the mission of the entire organization. Therefore, we can agree
that the failure and the success of the team are determined by
the ability of the leadership to stay focused on the goals,
mission, the vision and the growth plans that are expected to
happen.
The leaders in every department in the organization are the ones
who are responsible for the communication of the goals, vision,
mission and even the plans for growth in the organization.
Through proper communication, they help to ignite the passion
in the other people which will then turn to inspire the people
under the leaders to work harder to achieve the vision and the
mission of the organization.
The leaders also have a role to play when it comes to the
advances in the use of technology in the organization they are
working with (Gaba & Joseph, 2013). The use of technology
will facilitate the team to be able to produce quality work. The
increased need to improve on the productivity in every
department will help to push the leaders in all the department to
incorporate highly skilled and knowledgeable workforce.
Then the leaders are the ones who are responsible for the
allocation of the resources that which are used to run different

activities in the organization. These enable the different
department to be able to navigate through the different
challenges that they face. The leaders in the department have to
be able to develop some essential skills that will enable them to
be able to motivate the employee to work hard and with
efficiency.
The decision that is made by any of the department should be in
line with the vision of the organization. The senior leaders in
the departments are the ones who are responsible for the
identification of the core qualifications. The competence in the
team should be attributed to the success of the executive from
the team or the departments that are involved.
The organizational structure
There is a hierarchy that is in any organization and that forms
the structure if the organization. The topmost position or the
department is made up of the executive officers. The person
who is in charge of the whole organization or the corporation is
the chief executive. The role and the responsibility of the chief
executive officers are to make sure the guideline is issued, and
they explain how the organization and the department run.
Just below the chief executive officer, there is the other officer
in the hierarchy called the senior vice chief executive. This
position includes posts like the chief financial officer, this is
responsible for the matters that happen within the organization.
The chief human resource, this officer is the one who carries
out the task of the recruitments and the welfare of all the
worker in the organization.
There are other departments all which works towards the
achievement of the organization's goals and objective.
(Ashkenas, Ulrich, Jick & Kerr, 2015). The office that is
responsible with the technology, they work to ensure the

organization offers the cloud service and the cloud
infrastructure is well organized. Some are there for planning
and others do the marketing of the products and the services
that are offered in the organization.
As described above the company will have many departments
which work towards the growth and establishment of the
organization's goals. There are the legal departments that deals
with the laws and they make sure the organization does not go
outside the boundaries that which is supposed to work within.
The legal office has the obligation of ensuring it tasks the role
of defending the organization in the court when the company
falls into crisis.
The vision and the mission of the organization are dependent on
different departments and all should work to make sure the
vision and the goals are achieved. If one of the departments is
not operational the three will be a huge delay from
communication to the ways in which the tasks and strategies are
set.
The IT department has some very key roles in the organization,
with the advancement that are happening in technology and IT
then we can agree that IT is so crucial. This is the department
that deals with the digital equipment that is used to run the
whole organization. On the other hand, it also facilitates the
strategic online marketing of the goods that are sold by the
company.
There are departments that are involved with the planning and
conducting the research that the company has to conduct with
the aims of making it better and more competitive in different
market platforms. This department will work towards the
collection of the opinions that helps the team to be able to meet
all the needs of the people that are served. All that will channel
down achieving the organization’s goals.

References
Ashkenas, R., Ulrich, D., Jick, T., & Kerr, S. (2015). The
boundaryless organization: Breaking the chains of
organizational structure. John Wiley & Sons.u
Gaba, V., & Joseph, J. (2013). Corporate structure and
performance feedback: Aspirations and adaptation in M-form
firms. Organization Science, 24(4), 1102-1119.
PAGE
Running head: TYPE ABBREVIATED TITLE HERE
1
Title of the Paper in Full Goes Here
Student Name Here
University
Abstract
Abstracts are not required for all course papers. Please ask
your instructor if you have questions regarding whether an
abstract is required for a particular assignment.
Week 4 Assignment
Introduction
The Coca-Cola Company is an overall US effort and is a
promoter of manufacturers, retailers and non-alcoholic beverage
concentrates and syrups. Headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, the
company has been united in Wilmington, Delaware, and has
been working to improve transportation structures since 1889:
the company only delivers syrup concentrates and then supplies

them to first-class regions around the world. Kind of bottler.
The company has Coca-Cola refreshments in North America.
The company's shares are listed on the New York Stock
Exchange and are the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the S&P
500 Index, the Russell 1000 Index and the Russell 1000 Growth
Stock Index (Miller, D. 1998).
Decision making process
The basic initiative of the Coca-Cola Company has been
consolidated. The basic decision-making process of the Coca-
Cola Company has six phases, and they believe that decisions
need to be made in decision making, decision making,
evaluation of choices, selection of choices, completion of
selection, and continuous increase in information (Liebowitz, J.
2016).
Planning is the way to portray goals, create key, draw errands,
and choose how to best accomplish goals later. Because of the
orchestration system, everyone in the league recognizes what
should be done, who should do it, and what should be done.
This is a positive adjustment to the future system. Plan a
framework that shows the basic advantages of achieving a
destination, timelines and various exercises. It describes the
destinations and then selects the activities and resources needed
to implement them. Planning can be a matter of sorting, and the
alliance can portray a series of notable plans, namely financial
and non-cash related plans, formal and easy-going plans, clear
and regular plans, critical and practical plans, remote and short-
range plans, and final legal and operational plan. Planning
restrictions are the basic requirements of the chairman. The
boss needs to be structured so that the practice of the
professional is consistent with the destination of the alliance,
and the right kind and proportion of benefits can also be
obtained. Planning restrictions require information, judgment,
and basic initiative (Meissner, P., & Wulf, T. 2015).

Leadership of the company
Leadership skills are the path that affects the interest of others
in rehearsing work, which leads to the achievement of a
destination. It may be expressed; this is the third function of the
board of directors. This function has an amazing trademark
when it stands out from various restrictions, and the use of a
humanistic point of view requires a less effective inspection
method as a function. The pioneer must lead his subordinates to
achieve more abilities. Due to commercial conditions, the
Blazers rely reliably on change. Today, bosses are more likely
to make quick and dynamic decisions when understanding
structural or collaborative conditions. Activity is a whimsical
approach in which one person influences the completion of
tasks, commitments, goals, and directions to the ultimate goal,
making it progressively firm and critical. Activities can also be
described as the ability to influence social affairs to achieve
goals.
Common characteristics control our practice and describe how
we do it on Earth:
Leadership: shaping the strength of a universal future
Collaboration: Using the total artist
Integrity: getting certified
Accountability: If it is, it depends on me
Passion: Committed to the mind and brain
Diversity: as complete as our brand
Quality: What we do, we move forward happily

Analysis of Coca Cola
Advertising include mass communications in news newspapers;
magazines, media or direct communications are communications
between business-to-business customers and customers. Both
advertising is paid to different customers. Direct advancement
involves traditional mail, email has begun to improve, the goal
is communication, and PC is also possible (Shimp, 2003). Coca-
Cola is using advancement as a source of guidance for buyer
care. It usually uses TV to promote Coca-Cola, and it uses the
redirection phase anyway, for example, the FIFA World Cup
(Martin, H.,2017).
Personal sales illuminate individuals and a single
correspondence through personal arrangements, educating and
finding customers to buy companies of things or organizations
(Shimp, 2003). Coca-Cola has a large number of parties to solve
the connection with retailers. This technology maintains the
unwavering quality of organization and material, which also
shows effective business.
Personal selling is a collection of all promotional activities
designed to promote the rapid movement of buyers or the
dynamics of things and organizations. There is no progress in
the trade, purchaser or both (Shimp, 2003). Arranging progress
is critical for Coca-Cola in retail exhibitions and can help Coca-
Cola to create.
The sales promotion is carried out after the, and the
presentation, non-singular correspondence is incorporated into
the public. In any case, the company does not pay media time or
space under conditions such as advancing. Consider news things
or article comments that generally tolerate things and
organizations about the company (Shimp, 2003). The
introduction is the basis of Coca-Cola. For example, in 2003,

Vanilla Coke was released in the media as a new program that
covered a huge advantage.
Coca-Cola is the most rewarding company on the planet, and it
is the largest soft drink company, and it is useful to put assets
in it. The level of Coca-Cola's push has reached the point where
people like the sequela of Coca-Cola, and it undoubtedly has an
incredibly long and prosperous history. Coca-Cola's efficiency
and affirmation begins with the way it displays its brand. Coca-
Cola is the most famous brand on the planet, and its promotion
is also a noteworthy event.
Ethical violations of the company
In other global issues that Coca-Cola sees, they continue to fall
into the burden associated with workers' organizations. The real
purpose behind these problems occurred in Colombia, where
there were terrible passes for Coca-Cola workers, as well as
forty-eight people seeking full isolation, and another sixty-five
people in danger of falling into the trap. The labor community
has proved that Coca-Cola has merged with illegal transactions,
including these passes, threatening and disappearing. Coca-Cola
prevented anyone from guaranteeing a fee and confirmed that
only one pass was in the bundled factory where Coca-Cola
worked, and the various passes were arranged at a place that
Coca-Cola did not promise. Rather than act quickly Coca-Cola
makes itself look terrible by not helping any worker or his
family. Further denials that did not give any guidance or action
nearby made the labor companies hostile in the case and made
another dull engraving of the good reputation of Coca-Cola's
direct decline. There is no doubt that there may be various
conditions behind Colombia’s problems, and Coca-Cola has not
taken any measures to support other individuals or themselves
in this situation. Any company interested in using the internal
realities of trade for rapid testing needs to evaluate the all-
inclusive community.

If the worker feels that this is a traitor to a very special and
generally successful company, who is responsible and reveals
the improvement. The company should establish a structure to
ensure its beneficial knowledge, because in most cases, anyone
in the city can obtain syrup conditions from Coca-Cola and
provide them to their opponents. This is another ethical
condition, and the correct organization and structure settings
can be resolved before the problem begins. Due to poor
organization, Coca-Cola's reputation has now been morally
polluted for a long time, and three company staff members have
been accused of being genuine infringements.
In fact, even with these problems, European customers have
said that in any case they feel that coke will continue to play its
full role during these crises. To be sure, even after most of the
time, they are still ranked third in PwC's most respected
company on the planet. Coca-Cola then donated $50 million to a
foundation to help projects for minority projects and used an
ombudsman to report honestly to the CEO to address the issue
of ethnic division protection. Coca-Cola is taking risks and
solving their problems, and the global system is seeing this. It
raises the idea that as they are gradually avoiding potential
dangers, it is possible to foresee later problems in European
countries, although the United States will trust Coca-Cola more
in future decisions.
Conclusion
European customers say that they feel that Coca-Cola will
continue to accept all of their careers during these crises
anyway. There is no doubt that even in general, they are still
located in PwC's most respected relationships. The Coca-Cola
Company subsequently donated $50 million to a foundation to
help ethnic minorities explore and use the Ombudsman to report
to the CEO to resolve the affirmation of ethnic divisions. Coca-
Cola is working hard to deal with their problems, and the

overall structure is seeing this. It argues that because they are
only a little bit at the same time as maintaining a critical
separation from potential dangers, it is possible to predict late-
stage problems in European countries, regardless of how much
the United States trusts Coca-Cola in future decisions (Covino,
2017).
References
Miller, D. (1998). Coca-Cola: a black sweet drink from
Trinidad. Material cultures: Why some things matter, 169-87.
Meissner, P., & Wulf, T. (2015). The development of strategy
scenarios based on prospective hindsight: an approach to
strategic decision making. Journal of Strategy and
Management, 8(2), 176-190.
Liebowitz, J. (2016). Beyond knowledge management: What
every leader should know. Auerbach Publications.
Gehani, R. R. (2016). Corporate brand value shifting from
identity to innovation capability: From Coca-Cola to
Apple. Journal of technology management & innovation, 11(3),
11-20.
Martin, H., Durr, D., Smith, M., Finke, R., & Cherry, A. (2017).
Analysis of GMO food products companies: financial risks and
opportunities in the global agriculture industry. College of
Agriculture and Life Sciences, Department of Agricultural
Economics, Students.
Russell, C. A., Russell, D. W., & Honea, H. (2016). Corporate
social responsibility failures: how do consumers respond to
corporate violations of implied social contracts?. Journal of
business ethics, 136(4), 759-773.
Covino, D., & Manzo, R. M. (2017). The violation of human

rights and the exploitation of youth in developing
countries. RIVISTA DI STUDI SULLA SOSTENIBILITA'.
Running head: DECISION MAKING 1
DECISION MAKING 2
Decision Making in IBM
Student Name
Institution
Professor
Course
Date
Decision Making in IBM
Introduction
Description of the company and its history
IBM (International Business Machines Corporation) is a
multinational information technology company that has its
headquarters in Armonk, New York and it has business
operations in over 170 countries across the globe. The company
began in 1911 and it was founded in New York’s Endicott and
at that time, it was registered as a Computing-Tabulating-
Recording Company (CTR). However, it was renamed IBM
(International Business Machines) in 1924 (Mills, 2016). This
was an amalgamation of 4 different companies that previously
operated on their own: the dial recorder of Alexander Dey, the
Electric Tabulating Machine of Herman Hollerith, the

computing scale of Julius Pitrap and Willard Bundy’s time
clock that was meant to record the arrival and departure of
workers on a paper tape. They were amalgamated by Charles
Ranlett Flint. At the time of their amalgamation, they had five
branches in Detroit, Michigan, Ohio, Dayton, Washington D.C
and Toronto and it had 1,300 employees (Mills, 2016). The
company manufactured Machines for lease and for salve and
they ranged from commercial scales and industrial time
recorders, tabulators, meat and cheese slicers, and punched
cards. In 1937, IBM’s tabulating equipment was advanced by
the organization and used to process unprecedented amounts of
data of its clients and the US government was included. This
was an effort to maintain the records of employment of 26
million people that pursued the Social Security Act.
In 1949, IBM World Trade Corporation was created by Thomas
Watson Sr. a subsidiary that was meant to focus on the
international operations of IBM. In 1952, he stepped down after
leading the company for almost 40 years and his son Thomas
Watson Jr. was named the IBM president (Mills, 2016). The
first artificial intelligence was first demonstrated in IBM in
1956 by Arthur L. Samuel in New York when he programmed an
IBM 704. This was not merely to play the checkers but also to
learn from its own operational experiences. The FORTRAN
scientific programming language was developed in 1957 (Mills,
2016). The SABRE reservation system for American airlines
was developed by the IBM in 1961 and this led to the
introduction of the highly successful selectric typewriter. IBM
also contributed to the outer space research when its employees
and computers helped NASA to track the flights of astronauts in
1963.
IBM produces and sells computer software, middleware and
hardware as well as providing consulting and hosting services in
a wide range of technology ranging from mainframe computers
to nanotechnology. IBM is also a big organization of research
and it thus holds the record of most patents in the United States
that are generated by a business and this has been done for 26

consecutive years (as of 2018) (Ahamed, Inohara & Kamoshida,
2018). IBM has invented several devices and they include: the
floppy disk, the automated teller machine, the magnetic stripe
card, the hard disk drive, the SQL programming language, the
relational database, the dynamic random-access memory
(DRAM) and the UPC barcode. The IBM Company has been
continually shifting business operations by focusing on higher
value and markets that are more profitable. This includes the
salve of personal computers (ThinkPad) and a computer serve to
Lenovo in 2014 and the spinning off printer manufacture
Lexmark in 1990. The organization has also been acquiring
companies like SPSS in 2009, PwC Consulting in 2002, the Red
Hat in 2019 and the Weather Company in 2016 (Ahamed,
Inohara & Kamoshida, 2018). With the nickname BigBlue, IBM
is among the 30 companies that are included in the Dow Jones
Industrial Average and it is also among the world’s largest
employers with a total of 380,000 direct employees known as
IBMers as of 2017.
The growth plans of IBM
The IBM Company is shifting towards an emerging and high
margin business. The annual investor meeting that was held in
New York in 2017 had executives outline an aggressive plan
that targeted $40b in annual revenue and this is expected to be
retrieved from assets like big data, cloud computing, analytics,
security software, mobile and social and the company calls it a
strategic imperatives (Canals, 2019). The revenue of IBM has
been falling for the past 11 quarters and its earnings have been
sporadic. This is the period where the company is reinventing
itself, where it is selling off its unprofitable units in its
businesses like the semiconductors, low-end servers and cash
registers. This is also the period of the company transformation
that has seen heavy investments in areas that include artificial
intelligence and cloud computing. In as much as it has knocked
down its profits, this strategy is putting the company in a better
competitive position. The company has thus avoided the targets
that are tied down to a specific year in the future and embraced

a longer-term model. This is a smart move because the company
badly fell short when it tried to get too specific on its targets.
This eventually targets that about 80% of total free cash flow
will be expected to return to the shareholders each year,
eventually causing an annual dividend to increase and continued
tap on share buybacks (Canals, 2019).
IBM decision making process
The decisions of IBM are not just made by one person or one
body of the organization. However, the decisions are made by a
number of bodies and units within the organizations. For
instance, the annual investor executives do make decisions
about the company aggressive plans and targets on annual
revenues from various units of the organization. There are some
decisions that are made by the president of the company. For
instance, Thomas J. Watson Sr. made a decision of putting
stamp of NCR onto the CTR’s companies (Saaty, 2018). As the
president, he also implemented sales conventions that were
meant to focus on customer services. The board of directors of
the company also make decisions regarding the organization’s
operations and performance strategies. The company also
applies the IBM Operational Decision Manager. This is a
comprehensive-automated solution that provides extensive
capabilities of decision making and thus it helps the business to
capture, discover, analyze, automate and govern rules that are
based on business to make decisions. From the look of things,
the decision-making approach used in this organization is the
behavioral approach. According to Saaty (2018), this decision-
making approach assumes that decision makes operate within a
rationality that is bounded. In this regard, the decision makers
cannot deal with information about all aspects of the
organization but rather tackle some meaningful subset of the
problem. In this case, the President makes decisions about some
sections of the organization like the innovation and
development while the investor executives make decisions about
revenue recognition and distribution to the individual
shareholders.

An analysis of IBM’s plan for growth
The growth strategy of IBM revolves around the cloud business
and it is mostly centered on the type of cloud service called “as-
a-service” business. Therefore, the company expects this type of
services to grow at a rate of 15% to 20% annually with an added
scale boosting gross margin from the same services by 3
percentage points per year. This is a good strategy of the
organization because even as per 2017, the cloud computing
services reached a $10.3 billion (Canals, 2019). The business
decision are so diverse when it comes to strategic growth in
such that they do not only rely on one section of the
organization but rather on several units of the company. This is
because the company has checked its technology and cloud
services platforms and segmented them and this has brought a
50 basis point of margin expansion annually. The employees are
also not forgotten in this reformation because there is a
workforce rebalancing as part of the IBM equation because it
continues to bring in employees with the necessary skills. In
this case, about 50% of its current employees were added to the
organization in the past five years, some through acquisitions
done by the company.
Conclusion
The IBM organization is one of the most diverse organizations
that has operations across the globe. Its decision-making
process is so comprehensive such that there is no collision or
confusion in making decisions. The decisions are not made by a
single body or a person and thus this makes it more possible for
the company to cover all aspects of the organization in a more
comprehensive way and making things get done as per the
expectations.
References
Ahamed, Z., Inohara, T., & Kamoshida, A. (2018). The
servitization of manufacturing: An empirical case study of IBM

corporation. International Journal of Business
Administration, 4(2), 18-26.
Canals, J. (2019). How to Think about Corporate Growth? This
paper is based on the author's book, Managing Corporate
Growth, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000. European
management journal, 19(6), 587-598.
Mills, D. Q. (2016). The rise, decline and rise of IBM. Sloan
Management Review, 37(4), 78-83.
Saaty, T. L. (2018). Decision making with the analytic
hierarchy process. International journal of services sciences,
1(1), 83-98.
International Journal of
Business Communication
2018, Vol. 55(1) 69 –93
© The Author(s) 2015
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/2329488415589102
journals.sagepub.com/home/job
Article
Questions as Interactional
Resource in Team Decision
Making
Kristin Halvorsen1
Abstract

This study explores how professionals in an operational
planning meeting in the
petroleum industry employ questions as an interactional
resource in team decision
making. The empirical site is characterized by considerable
uncertainty and frequent
change as it is tightly bound to the sharp end of high-risk
industrial production. A
weekly meeting for optimizing well service plans was observed
and recorded on
nine occasions. The data were analyzed within the framework of
Activity Analysis,
emphasizing the relevance of the activity type for the analysis
and interpretation of
interactional features, in this case questions. Structural and
interactional mapping
of the meeting data provide an interpretive frame in which the
role of questions
in decision-making trajectories can be understood in light of the
activity-specific
context. The article presents one extended decision-making
episode from opening to
closure to show how questions play a role in decision making in
this setting. Analysis
shows that the questions are characterized by being brief and
unelaborated, topically
implicit, and fact-oriented, which is seen to be an efficient
format in a setting that
requires frequent adjustments of the commitments made in
response to changes in
the operational situation. While questions can function
collaboratively by opening up
the conversational space and seeking the expertise of others,
they are also seen to
function strategically, driving the decision-making trajectory in
specific directions by

setting the agenda and constraining subsequent interaction. The
study contributes
to the investigation of team decision making and professional
reasoning in a setting
rarely studied from a discourse analytic viewpoint.
Keywords
discourse analysis, activity analysis, decision making,
workplace discourse, business
meetings, questions
1NTNU Social Research and Department of Language and
Literature, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
Corresponding Author:
Kristin Halvorsen, NTNU Social Research, Dragvoll Allé 38B,
7491 Trondheim, Norway.
Email: [email protected]
589102 JOBXXX10.1177/2329488415589102International
Journal of Business CommunicationHalvorsen
research-article2015
http://sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
http://doi.org/10.1177/2329488415589102
http://journals.sagepub.com/home/job
70 International Journal of Business Communication 55(1)
Introduction
Decision making has been at the heart of organizational analysis
for half a century, and
it is no less so today as the contemporary organization has
moved toward increasing

emphasis on team work and cross-professional interaction.
Discourse studies have
made significant contributions to our understanding of team
decision making, perhaps
most importantly through the analysis of local workplace
interaction (see, e.g.,
Atkinson, 1995; Boden, 1994; Cicourel, 1968; Sarangi &
Roberts, 1999; Silverman,
1987). Studies of interaction show that it is often difficult to
identify when a decision
has been made and even whether a decision has been made.
Decision-making pro-
cesses are incremental activities consisting of many minor
steps, and a decision can
rarely be connected to one singular statement: “Decisions are
virtually never stand-
alone affairs but rather are part of a sequence of ‘tinkering’
with some organizational
problem or policy” (Boden, 1994, p. 182). The interest of the
present article is pre-
cisely such continuous organizational decision making wherein
decisions are cumula-
tive, transitory, and constantly tweaked to accommodate
situational changes and new
information.
The research site is a planning meeting in the oil and gas
industry, where decisions
regarding the sequence and priority of service jobs on offshore
oil and gas wells are
made. Professionals from up to six different departments meet
weekly to coordinate
and make decisions based on the current situation offshore. The
operational planning
onshore must continuously respond to the changes in production
offshore, as the pri-

oritization of tasks might change, the sequencing of tasks will
need rethinking, and
planned tasks might have to be rescheduled or put on hold. This
continuous adjustment
work is a form of decision making that crosses department
boundaries and areas of
expertise, and the decisions made are all potentially short-lived
and fraught with
uncertainties. This kind of contingent decision making, taking
place at the level of
production in a high-risk industry, has rarely been described in
the discourse analytic
literature on team decision making.
The meeting data are approached from the framework of
Activity Analysis (Sarangi,
2010a), which foregrounds the activity type (Levinson, 1979)
and its structure as an
integral part of analyzing interactional sequences. Systematic
mapping of structural
and interactional characteristics of the activity type, combined
with ethnographic data
and fieldwork, provides a comprehensive interpretive
framework for the analysis of
specific discourse features. Halvorsen and Sarangi (2015) have
considered the man-
agement of participant roles in the same meeting data and
revealed characteristic fea-
tures of the participant framework. The analytic focus of the
current study is the
functions of questions as interactional resources for decision
making in this specific
activity type.
The article will first provide a review of discourse analytic
studies of team decision

making, including the notion of professional reasoning and a
brief review of the func-
tions of questions in institutional discourse. Before describing
the data and methods,
an account of the analytical framework of Activity Analysis will
be provided. The
analytic section will follow one decision-making episode from
opening to closure to
Halvorsen 71
trace the role of questions in the decision-making trajectory.
Following this, the dis-
cussion will focus on the role and function of questions at
crucial moments in the
decision-making trajectory and how questions can be seen to
function strategically in
this particular activity type.
Literature Review
In contrast to traditional rationalistic perspectives, mainly from
the fields of econom-
ics and scientific management, social science approaches have
described organiza-
tional decision making comprehensively and critically
(Hodgkinson & Starbuck,
2008): from Simon’s (1957) early concept of bounded
rationality to issues of power
and politics (Cyert & March, 1963), ambiguity and
contradiction (March & Olsen,
1976), and sequential processes (Mintzberg, Raisinghani, &
Théorêt, 1976). Discourse
studies have contributed to this theorizing by showing

empirically how decision mak-
ing is not only rationally but also socially and interactionally
bounded. Boden (1994)
argued persuasively that the persistent focus on cognitive
elements of choice processes
in the study of decision making ignores the temporal, spatial,
sequential, and interac-
tional aspects that dominate organizational life. Decision
making in organizational
settings cannot be reduced exclusively to technical rules or
context-free inference.
Huisman (2001) calls for confronting decision-making theories
with empirical data
from actual talk. Analysis of the discourse strategies that
participants employ provides
evidence to the situated nature of decision making and the many
discursive balancing
acts performed by organizational members. However, there is
still a need for further
empirical studies of team discourse and team decision making
across a variety of
workplace contexts. Although a range of different sites have
been studied, such as
education, business, health, and social care, there are still
relatively few studies within
each empirical domain (for a systematic literature review, cf.
Halvorsen, 2010).
The empirical site for this study, operational planning, is tightly
bound to the sharp
end of high-risk industrial production, a kind of setting that is
rarely studied from a
discourse analytic viewpoint. Discourse studies of team
decision making have ana-
lyzed, among others, management team meetings (Clifton, 2009;
Huisman, 2001;

Kwon, Clarke, & Wodak, 2009; Sanders, 2007), which will
always be somewhat
removed from the everyday details of the “shop floor,” and
department meetings (Menz,
1999) working on allocating time and resources to project work.
Closer to the opera-
tional setting are perhaps studies from the medical domain and
cross-professional
rounds in hospitals (Cicourel, 1990; Graham, 2009), where the
impact of social struc-
tures and organizational hierarchies on professional interaction
and decision making
have been focused on. In addition, several studies analyze
meeting data from teams
with specific and bounded functions, such as committees and
conferences of different
kind. In the educational setting, school committee meetings
(Hjörne, 2005; Mehan,
1983) and university curriculum meetings (Barnes, 2007) have
been studied. Similarly,
in health and social care settings, admissions conferences for
surgery and rehabilitation
(Hughes & Griffiths, 1997), nursing home placement meetings
(Nikander, 2003), and
child protection conferences (Hall, Slembrouck, & Sarangi,
2006) have been studied.
From a business setting, an “extra recognition and awards team”
in an American corpo-
ration has been studied (Wasson, 2000). These meeting contexts
have some similarities
to the plan optimization meeting as they are meetings going

beyond each participant’s
primary work activities. However, operational planning takes
place during ongoing
operations and attends to the continuous planning of operational
tasks, which makes it
more exposed to the frequent changes in production.
Huisman (2001) presents an interactional definition of
decisions, that an utterance
can be considered to “do a decision” if the commitment of
relevant participants to a
future state of affairs is achieved. The operational plan itself is
a representation, in the
form of a Gantt diagram, of a series of commitments to future
action, organized in time
and related to the allocation of resources. In their efforts to
optimize the plan, the par-
ticipants in the plan optimization meeting are concerned with
optimizing these com-
mitments and continuously adjust them in accordance with the
changes offshore.
Operational work has been described as consisting of “a
continuous flow of circum-
stances to which adjustments and adaptations are continually
made” (Almklov &
Antonsen, 2014, p. 480). Building on this, the current study
looks at decision making
as processes in which commitments to future state of affairs or
future actions are
sought. The focus is not on the decision outcome as such but
rather on the decision
process, located in the interactional sequences, “the laminations
of actions and reac-
tions” (Boden, 1994, p. 22) of workplace talk. Taking an
interactional approach allows
for systematically exploring the processes through which such

commitments are made,
challenged, negotiated, or changed. In an operational setting,
decisions are relatively
“small,” related to the day-to-day operations, and less
concerned with larger strategic
commitments. What counts as a decision will depend on the
communicative norms of
the group (Huisman, 2001), and it is therefore useful to study
the trajectories in work-
place interaction that allow professionals to align and commit to
future action, whether
this is in short-term, contingent ways or in long-term, more
fixed ways.
For the purposes of the current study, the themes of professional
reasoning and
studies on the production and assessment of evidence in team
decision making are
particularly relevant. Although these studies have mainly been
conducted in the con-
text of health and social care, they provide a valuable backdrop
for the analysis of
questions in the plan optimization meeting. Interaction has been
shown to play a
crucial part in establishing a piece of information as evidence
and thus as a valid basis
for decisions on diagnoses and subsequent action or treatment.
Cicourel (1990) shows
how physicians assess the adequacy of medical information on
the basis of the per-
ceived credibility of the source, which in turn is constrained and
guided by the profes-
sionals’ general and local knowledge of social structure. Also
within medicine,
Måseide (2006) displays the emerging quality of medical
evidence, both generated

and made applicable discursively by the participants. Questions
play a crucial role in
the gathering and assessment of evidence. Similarly, Sarangi
(1998) examines infor-
mation as evidence related to case construction in social work,
arguing that the evi-
dential status of information is related to its reportability.
Information and evidence
are interactional products, generated discursively and requiring
discourse for its
applicability. This view challenges traditional approaches to
evidence and is useful
Halvorsen 73
for understanding the phases of decision making that precede
decision announcement
and adoption.
The functions of questions remain largely unexplored in the
context of decision
making among groups of professionals. A few studies on the
function of questions in
meeting talk in general can be found, but without a specific
focus on decision making.
Holmes and Chiles (2010) study questions as control devices for
those in positions of
power, enabling managers to maintain control of the agenda and
the direction of the
discussion, constructing authority and a leadership role. Ford
(2010) takes a different
approach, seeing questions as actions that gain the questioner
entry into participation
and that open up participation space for others.

The communicative form of questioning is performed through
many kinds of syn-
tactic forms that “do questioning,” just as there are
interrogative forms that do not do
questioning, such as rhetorical questions. When defining a
question, one should take
into consideration both functional and sequential aspects. Freed
and Ehrlich (2010)
define questions as utterances that (a) solicit (and/or are treated
by the recipient as
soliciting) information, confirmation, or action and (b) are
delivered in such a way as
to create a slot for the recipient to produce a responsive turn (p.
6). It is useful to con-
sider questioning sequences as three-part structures involving
also a third slot for the
questioner to acknowledge or elaborate on the response given (a
sequences described
by Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975, in terms of Initiation, Response,
and Feedback for
classroom interaction). The three-part sequence provides space
for the questioner to
speak again and opens up for shifts in participation. The current
study will focus pri-
marily on the first pair part of the adjacency pairs, the
questions, but attention will be
paid to sequential aspects and positioning in two-/three-part
question–answer
sequences.
Recurring themes in the study of questions have been the
differential speaking
rights afforded by questions and the interactional asymmetry
created. Recent works on
the role of questions in institutional settings, however, focus on

the multifaceted func-
tions of questions and the need to nuance the association to
interactional control and
issues of power (Freed & Ehrlich, 2010). Taking the notion of
activity type as a point
of departure, Levinson (1979) shows that the discourse
properties involved in the defi-
nition of a question are subject to the nature of the activities in
which questions are
used: The role and thus the nature of a question are in part
dependent on the matrix of
the language game (p. 378). This has more recently been
illustrated in genetic counsel-
ing sessions in which Sarangi (2010b) interprets back-
channeling cues as pseudo ques-
tions that encourage reflection-based decision making on the
part of the client. The
role and function of questions are, in other words, dependent on
the activity in which
they take place, and this insight is fundamental to the analytical
framework employed
in this study.
Data and Method
The data for the article are part of a larger study on team
decision making in the work-
place. The author conducted fieldwork with an international oil
and gas operator,
attending and recording key meetings in operational planning.
The plan optimization

meeting was observed on nine occasions, of which five meetings
were video recorded.
A single camera was used, mounted on the top of the
presentation screen in the front
of the room. Four more meetings have later been audio recorded
without the researcher
being present. The data from the plan optimization meeting total
5 hours of recorded
talk, which was subsequently transcribed and anonymized
following usual guidelines
for research ethics (see Appendix A for list of transcription
symbols used).
Specific to the data in this study is the proximity to operations,
often called the
“sharp end” of oil and gas production, and thereby also the
nearness to the immediate
consequences of potential problems or mistakes in production
offshore. The stakes are
high in terms of both safety and production, as operations
happen in an explosive
environment far from the shore and with production of great
financial value. Within
the onshore operations unit, the plan optimization meeting is a
weekly meeting for
prioritizing and sequencing well service tasks, with the goal of
maximizing production
while ensuring the technical integrity (safety) of the oil and gas
wells. Operational
planning is a process of continuous tweaking of the work plans
as changes happen
offshore. In the case of well service (also called well
intervention or well workover),
the plans concern several roving crews that cover a field of
installations, travelling
from one platform to another performing tasks according to the

plan made onshore.
Each platform has a number of wells that at different times
require service or interven-
tion work, so there is a constant prioritization and sequencing
of tasks based on techni-
cal integrity and the well’s production potential.
Ten participants from up to six different departments attend the
meeting. The meet-
ing is conducted in English, but only two to three participants
are native speakers of
English; for the rest, English is a second or foreign language.
The participants are both
managers and engineers with different areas of responsibility
and different decisional
authority. The meeting chair represents the Production
Optimization group and serves
a facilitator role in this meeting as she does not have decisional
authority or a manager
role in any of the present departments. The participants are
seated in two rows around
a circular table, facing a wall with two screens displaying
operational plans (Gantt
charts showing well service tasks against time). Figure 1 depicts
the room setup for the
meeting.
Of specific importance for offshore oil and gas production are
the highly complex
interdependencies between tasks offshore. All activities on an
offshore platform share
a confined, limited space, for work, storage, and crew
accommodation. In prioritizing
and sequencing well service tasks, considerations concerning
access to material,
equipment, and crew need to be made, as well as coordination

with other interrelated
operational tasks. Drilling might be working on the deck, which
prevents well service
from accessing certain wells, or there might be crane work
lifting heavy equipment
over the well area, which restricts work access for safety
reasons. Adding to this
complex picture of interdependencies are the frequent changes
in operations offshore.
These can be due to unforeseen events such as a halt in the
drilling process, delay with
vendors, mistakes or unexpected holdups, or simply adverse
weather conditions pre-
venting some work from being done and consequently causing
reallocation of
Halvorsen 75
resources. This in turn forces adjustments and rescheduling of
the well service plan.
Decisions in this setting are, in other words, potentially short-
lived and will always be
contingent on the many interdependencies of operations. The
outcome of decision-
making episodes in this meeting is typically a commitment to a
specific task prioritiza-
tion or sequence, or a commitment to postponing or delegating
the decision in the
cases where the meeting lacks sufficient information or the
necessary decisional
authority.
Analytical Framework

Seeing the function of questions as also depending on the
“activity type” (Levinson,
1979) in which it takes place is an important point of departure
for this study. The
analytical framework is Activity Analysis, as proposed by
Sarangi (2000, 2010a),
building on Levinson’s (1979) notion. Activity types are
culturally recognized, goal-
oriented events with specific constraints on participants in
terms of contributions,
style, and structure. According to Levinson, such constraints are
sources for activity-
specific inferences and thus have implications for the meaning
and functions of dis-
course strategies. In other words, the structure of the activity in
which interaction takes
place has implications for the sequential organization of talk-in-
interaction and the
role and function of discourse features. This suggests that
ethnographic insights into
organizational contexts and institutional roles of participants
are significant for con-
textualizing discourse data but are complemented by systematic
analysis of the activ-
ity type to provide solid grounding for the interpretation of
interactional data.
While the analysis of questions to follow builds on key insights
from Conversation
Analysis, with concepts such as adjacency pairs and
sequentiality, the Activity Analysis
will consider how sequences of talk are embedded in the overall
activity of the plan
Figure 1. Room setup for the plan optimization meeting.

optimization meeting. While a Conversation Analysis study is
primarily concerned
with the local-sequential context of interaction, this study
places a greater emphasis on
the larger context of professional culture and incorporates
systematic mapping at the
level of the activity. The structural and interactional features of
the discourse data are
mapped to provide systematic descriptions of the recurring and
characteristic features
of the meeting as an activity type (cf. Appendix B for
examples). The mapping exer-
cise is a useful approach for the researcher to familiarizing
herself with the data, for
identifying patterns and variability in the structures of the
encounter, and for identify-
ing recurrent discourse features that might be of interest to
pursue in more detailed
analysis. The systematic mapping of the plan optimization
meeting, combined with the
fieldwork and observations, provides an interpretive frame in
which the analysis of the
function of questions can find a solid foundation for rich
interpretation. Structural and
interactional maps can be carried out at the level of the entire
activity type, over one
meeting, or at the level of distinct phases. For the present
article, the interactional
mapping covers the one meeting in which the decision-making
case takes place. After
presenting results from this descriptive analytic phase, the
detailed analysis will fol-

low one decision-making episode from opening to closure to
show the functions of
questions in decision making in this setting.
The analysis of the use of questions builds on a previous study
on the same meeting
data (Halvorsen & Sarangi, 2015) that explores how the
management of participant
roles in the plan optimization meeting is accomplished
situationally and in activity-
specific ways. This reveals how participants shift dynamically
across activity roles
and discourse roles in the meeting, as any participant can
potentially adopt more or
less any role at a given point in the interaction. The activity
type thus affords a flexible
utilization of the participants’ broad range of competencies and
experiences, offering
the meeting participants the opportunity to cumulatively add to
the joint production of
decisions. Furthermore, the chair was found to do limited
amounts of “chairing work”
(for a discussion of the discourse type of chairing, cf. Angouri
& Marra, 2010) but
contributed significantly on the discussion of the technical and
plan-related issues of
the meeting. These findings serve as a backdrop in the
following analytic section in
which the functions of questions are explored in one specific
decision-making
episode.
Data Analysis
The structural and interactional mapping that was undertaken
shows that the activity

type follow an overarching phase structure that moves from one
platform’s operational
plan to the next in a recurring sequence (cf. Appendix B, Figure
B1). However, the
chronology of these phases, and the length and complexity of
each phase, will vary
significantly according to the plan changes and rescheduling
needed in response to the
offshore situation. In some cases, the decisions to be made are
tightly coupled to
resources and tasks across platforms; thus, several platforms
will be discussed in the
same assessment phase. In the decision-making episode below,
this is the case as the
question of fitting in an additional task on Platform B has
implications for the planning
Halvorsen 77
of tasks on Platform A as well. However, after closing such a
cross-referring episode,
the meeting generally returns to the plan and the platform
chronology.
Within each platform sequence, the platform to be discussed is
introduced and sta-
tus information on the situation offshore is given (cf. Appendix
B, Figure B2).
Generally, the introduction is given by the chair, but sometimes
it is initiated by other
participants (as in the episode below in which the Well Service
Manager (WSM) initi-
ates the move to the next platform). The status on the platform
is then given by a par-

ticipant who holds the latest update on the issues related to the
specific platform. This
phase leads into a problem formulation or a decision proposal
that needs to be handled
by the meeting. The formulation of the problem or the proposal
can be initiated by
several participants, including the chair, but frequently this is
done by one of the man-
agers. This phase is followed by an assessment phase, which
includes the presentation
and elicitation of information, generation of options or
alternatives, and assessments
of information and options by the participants. The assessment
phase is sometimes
very long and can involve a range of issues related to the
problem or proposal (e.g.,
crew access, boat availability, implications for other tasks on
the plan, etc.). The deci-
sion-making phase is when a commitment to future action or
state of affairs is formu-
lated, sometimes explicitly, but frequently also implicitly. The
outcome can be a
decision regarding the sequence of tasks on the platform, or it
can be a decision to
postpone or delegate the decision to someone with appropriate
decision authority. The
decision-making episode is closed by explicit or implicit
decision adoption.1
Figure B3 (Appendix B) shows the distribution of turns between
participants in the
chosen meeting, and we can see that all the participants and
departments present in the
meeting contribute by taking speaking turn in a relatively
evenly distributed manner.
Three participants dominate quantitatively, and these are the

Chair, the WSM, and the
Production Optimization Manager (POM). These participants
are key participants in
terms of their have responsibilities for the optimization of the
operational plan through
their departmental roles as being accountable as managers.
However, taken together,
the two production optimization engineers (POEs) are shown to
contribute with equal
number of turns as these managers. Based on the activity
mapping, the diverse group
of participants present seem to have access to the floor in the
plan optimization meet-
ing, and they follow a relatively loose phase structure that is
driven by what the current
situation offshore calls for in terms of decision making.
Among the interactional resources available to the participants,
for example, asser-
tions or hypothetical formulations, the decisional talk in this
activity type is character-
ized by frequent use of questions. Turning now to the chosen
decision-making episode,
the role of questions will be demonstrated in terms of their
function in the interactional
negotiations toward a commitment to future action. The episode
is a long one for this
meeting, lasting for a little over 13 minutes, so the analysis will
focus on three selected
excerpts that are significant in the episode. The topic for the
episode is the decision
whether to fit a new task into the plan. The option of doing a
stimulation job on Well
B8 has come up, which involves injecting chemicals into the
well to improve the flow
of fluids, which in turn will increase production from the well.

This task is not cur-
rently in the plan, but a proposal has been made to fit it into the
plan in between other
tasks. Should they prioritize it, this well has significant
production potential, but since
crew resources are limited, prioritizing the job will be at the
expense of something
else, particularly activity on Platform A, which is also highly
prioritized.
Excerpt 1 is the opening sequence of the episode. The meeting
has just finished
discussing issues related to one specific platform and the
Drilling Engineer (DRE)
responsible for that area is leaving the meeting. As he leaves,
the WSM is quick to
launch the next issue for discussion, namely, Platform B, and
his manner of identifying
the specific problem is through a series of questions
(highlighted in bold):
Excerpt 1 (B8, 4/27, 21:55)
Participants:
DRE = Drilling Engineer
POM = Production Optimization Manager
WSM = Well Service Manager

Chair= Chair/Coordinator Production Optimization
PSM = Production Manager Subsurface
POE = Production Optimization Engineer
253. DRE2 thank you very much ((leaves the room))
254. POM thank you
255. WSM = but I think maybe go to platform B
256. Chair [platform B)
257. WSM [Platform B] is e:h [some]
258. Chair [yeah] ((pulls up the correct plan on the
shared screen))
259. WSM complicated things uh ((turns backwards towards
DRE and
PSM on back row)) but uh-
260. DRE °@@ [@°]
261. POM [oh?]
262. WSM ((turns back to the table)) could be (.)
263. DRE yes
264. WSM =platform B
265. POM =platform B
266. WSM =Platform B is- ((turns to back row)) uh concerning
this u:h
uh stimulation job ((turns back to table)) who is doing it, are
we doing it, are- are we taking a crew to platform B?
267. POM what well are we talking about?
Halvorsen 79
((clarification by several participants, inaudible))
268. Chair we’re talking about [B20 B22 B8]
269. WSM [we have uh- yeah]and 8 yeah
270. POE2 actually 18

271. Chair 8 and18 (. .)
WSM is a key participant in the meeting as he has the overall
responsibility for the
well service plan and the well service crews offshore. In Turn
255, he is quick to
launch the new topic as the other participant is leaving. He
takes on a chairing role and
proposes that the meeting turns to Platform B, previewing that
there are some difficul-
ties with this issue (Turn 259). Low laughter from the DRE
(Turn 260) suggests that
the issue is known and possibly burdened with some tension (cf.
Adelswärd, 1989, on
unilateral laughter). WSM then formulates the problem of who
should do this added
stimulation job by first previewing the topic (Turn 266) and
then posing three ques-
tions (“Who is doing it?” “Are we doing it?” and “Are we
taking a crew to Platform
B?”). His questions imply that there are several options as to
who can do this job. The
pronoun “we” refers to his own unit, the Well Service
department, and the added
emphasis suggests that there are others who can do the job, the
“others” being the
Drilling department, as will become clear. The questions are not
directed at any one
participant or posed for someone to answer directly, and the
series of questions gives
a sense of urgency or insistence. From the implicitness of the
first question (“this u:h
uh stimulation job”), we can assume that this particular job has
been discussed prior to
the meeting, and the questions function together as a form of
gist formulation (Heritage

& Watson, 1979) of this preceding talk, presenting the essence
of the problem that they
have to solve. Following this problem identification, POM
poses a question calling for
clarification of what job WSM is talking about, and five turns
follow in which this is
clarified by several participants and summarized by the chair
(Turns 268-271).
Through his questioning, WSM has established the nature of the
decision that they
have to make, and he has implied that there are more than one
option available.
This introductory sequence is followed by a 3-minute long
account by the DRE (not
included here) concerning the technical situation offshore,
specifically some problems
they are having with another well, B22. He closes his account
with a suggestion that
Well Service handles the B8 job as the Drilling team is very
busy solving this particu-
lar problem. WSM responds to this by explaining the
consequences this would have
for Well Services, primarily that they will have to relocate the
crew on Platform A,
which would include postponing highly prioritized work. He
concludes that Drilling
should do the B8 job. So the table is set with two opposing
positions when we enter
the next excerpt in which one of the POEs (POE1) proposes that
the B8 job gets done
before drilling starts their procedure on the problem well
(involving rigging up a blow-
out preventer and riser). This proposal would require everyone
to turn around quickly
and get the job done within the next day or two. The proposal

triggers questions from
the Production Subsurface Manager (PSM) and the other POE
(POE2):
Excerpt 2 (B8, 4/27, 26:22)
Participants:
Chair= Chair/Coordinator Production Optimization
PSM = Production Subsurface Manager
DRE = Drilling Engineer
POM = P’roduction Optimization Manager
278. POE1 and B8- but we should try and do B8 before you
need to rig
up the BOP and riser again but then
279. DRE yeah w- [uh]
280. POE1 [we] can’t do it for the next month
281. DRE that’s:- that’s right. If we- if we have to go pull the
tubing on
22 then that’s a two- two three weeks job basically. (.) So-
but if you want to go do B8 we should have been done
or- sh- like now huh, . then we need to do it in a c- within
two-
282. POE1 couple of days
283. Chair yes
284. DRE couple of days. (. .) because you- you don’t get
access to
it after- if we have to rig up the riser on 22 you can’t rig
up the xxx on uh-
285. PSM was there any issues about putting that on uh (.)
[injection?]

((looking towards POE1))
286. POE1 [it is on]
injection. It is on injection.
287. PSM so there is no limit on uh-
288. POE1 [reduced injection]
289. Chair [reduced injection]
290. POE1 it’s only injecting twelve thousand [xx]
291. PSM [so] after we stimulate
we can put it on full?
292. POE1 mm (.)
293. POE2 that’s going to be about forty? ((looks at POE1))
294. POE1 yeah thirty thousand plus at least
295. POM that will give us a good boost in production
296. POE1 so we- we- we should try and get it done now before
we
lose the access (.) if you need to rig up the BOP and riser.
(.)
297. DRE1 then we should get a crew over
298. Chair mm °and a boat°
Halvorsen 81
The proposal launched by POE1 to do the B8 job before Drilling
starts repairing the
problem well (Turn 278) has not been mentioned before. She
orients her utterance to
the DRE (“you”) who supports and elaborates her proposal by
stressing the impor-
tance of timing (Turns 281 and 284). Through Turns 278 to 284
they coconstruct a
proposal resting on the urgency to act quickly and take
advantage of this opportunity.
This triggers the questions from the PSM, who is responsible
for the decision made on

this issue but necessarily relies on the information and
assessments from the range of
departments present. In Turn 285, he asks a simple,
information-seeking question
regarding well B8 (“was there any issues about putting that on
uh (.) [injection?]”)
Injection refers here to the process of injecting liquids into the
reservoir in order to
maintain pressure. The question is implicit in its reference to
B8, and he does not
explicitly target a particular participant but looks in the
direction of2 POE1, who
responds before he has completed his utterance (Turn 286). She
confirms the relevance
of the question with a short, unelaborated response, and PSM
acknowledges receipt by
probing further into the topic. His second question initiates an
upshot formulation (“so
there is no limit on uh-,” Turn 287), fixing the sense of the
previous sequence and
drawing conclusions of the “talk-thus-far” (Heritage & Watson,
1979), previewed with
the conjunction “so.” He is interrupted by POE1 and the Chair
who simultaneously
provide additional detail to his first question about injection,
with a brief elaboration
from POE1 (Turn 290). PSM goes on to present the upshot more
precisely, still in the
questioning format (“so after we stimulate we can put it on
full?” Turn 291). He for-
mulates the implication that if they choose to do the B8 job, the
well can be “put on
full,” that is, it can be produced to its full potential. The
formulation makes a confirma-
tion or disconfirmation relevant as a next action, speaking to
the adequacy of the for-

mulation, and the questioning format creates a strong demand
for a response. The
response here is given very briefly and without elaboration from
POE1 (“mm,” Turn
292). Through this line of questioning, PSM has established the
current status of the
well and has contributed to the assessment of the proposal by
eliciting information that
strengthens the proposal to in fact prioritize the B8 job.
As the possibility of full production of B8 now has been
established, the other POE
present (POE2) adds to this assessment with another question
(“that’s going to be
around forty?” Turn 293). He is here talking about the
production potential of this well
and the number of barrels of oil equivalents that this well can
produce when it is “on
full.” He is suggesting that it is in the range of 40,000 barrels
but frames it as a ques-
tion with rising intonation. This question can also be read as a
formulation of implica-
tion, an upshot of what the preceding talk means for the
objective of production
optimization. He is calling for a confirmation of his estimate
through the questioning
format, but through his question, he also provides a formulation
that explicitly renders
visible what is at stake, namely, significant production numbers.
POE1 confirms, but
he nuances his estimate (Turn 294), and the POM adds an
assessment of this informa-
tion, making further explicit to the team the implications for the
overall goal of pro-
duction optimization (Turn 295). Together, these last turns from
Production

Optimization participants contribute to strengthening POE1’s
initial proposal to do B8
before drilling rigs up. And at this point, POE1 returns to her
proposal again, repeating
the urgency of the decision (Turn 296), and yet again DRE
supports this position by
formulating the implication in terms of crew allocation (“then
we should get a crew
over,” Turn 297).
The decision-making episode on well B8 could have ended here
as it seems there is
a feasible option available that several participants support and
that will yield increased
production. The arguments have been made for the benefits of
prioritizing B8, but as
it turns out, this proposal is not endorsed by key participants.
Neither PSM, who estab-
lished the production potential inherent in prioritizing B8
through his questioning, nor
WSM, who is in charge of the Well Service crew offshore, seem
to be willing to jump
on this proposal and relocate the crew from Platform A. Instead,
a range of other issues
related to the decision are brought up by several of the
participants, for 4 more min-
utes. For the purposes of the present argument, we will skip
directly to the last section
of the episode in which a decision is called for, announced, and
finally adopted. In the
next excerpt, as the other participants seem to lean toward

prioritizing the B8 job and
relocate the well service crew from Platform A to B, WSM
expresses doubt and calls
for further evaluation of the consequences of such a decision.
The discussion seems to
have come to a halt, when the Chair turns directly to the PSM
and calls for a decision.
Instead of eliciting a response or a preference, this triggers
more questions from PSM,
as well as from three other participants.
Excerpt 3 (B8, 4/27, 30:23)
Participants:
Chair = Chair & Coordinator Production Optimization
PSM = Production Subsurface Manager
WSM = Well Service Manager
POM = Production Optimization Manager
345. WSM but you have to also evaluate then ((points to the
screen))
do we have better jobs on platform A than on
B?=uh be- because we are delaying the whole thing on uh-
on uh- A by doing this ((turned forward, looks towards POM,
WIM, Chair)) so maybe we should go in and put up a
case or whatever [I’m not sure whatever- xxx-]
((Inaudible, several participants overlap))
346. POM the core thing is that we don’t have a drilling rig on
A (.) so
(.) we have better access there

347. Chair =yeah
348. POE2 =yeah that’s true
350. Chair but it is- it is your call I mean do you want [to-] ((to
PSM))
Halvorsen 83
351. PSM [but] could
drilling take B8? (.) the restim? [Or the stimulation?]
((looks in the direction of the WSM, Chair and
POE1, not DRE who sits next to him))
352. WSM [I mean that] I mean
that. ((“that is my opinion,” direct translation from
Norwegian, ‘jeg mener det’))
353. PSM so we [can do- can-]
354. WSM [xx both]
355. PSM can we do B8 and keep on on platform A?
356. WSM =yeah (. .)
357. POM or do we have someone extra we can send out for a
couple
of days?
358. WSM no because we have extra out now for one that is on
sick
leave you see so it has been a little bit hard to-to
get more- be- I could check it. [°I’ll check it.°]
359. POE2 [when is] the
platform C operation finished?
((Overlapping talk from several participants about the C
operation end
date))
360. PSM but that’s the (name) crew
361. WSM no but the- but the C crew we need- we cannot just
take

that there is lots of other jobs we have to
discuss °concerning that°
362. PSM yeah (.) so but if you have some people you can send
out
that would be the best. °If you:-° ((to WSM))
363. WSM I can- I can check=I am not positive o:r I’m not sure
that we
can man- uh make it but I can see °I can see°
364. POE1 so how many days are we talking about? two days?
two
three days?
365. WSM =well it depends how many how many- if we are
only doing
8 for example
366. POM 8 is the most important one as I see it
367. Chair [but but xxx-]
368. WSM [I need to check and see otherwise-]
369. Chair we need crew for platform E as well [and xx-]
370. WSM [yes] and on platform
T we need crew and we we have lots of-
yeah.
((Turns omitted, humor about need for more crew))
371. POM okay I think we need some checking [and some
thinking]
In Turn 345, WSM distances himself from the discussion so far,
with the disagree-
ment marker (“but”) and his pronominal choice, “you.” His
question functions rhetori-
cally, not prompting an answer, and he moves directly to an
explanation for why this
question needs to be asked (“we are delaying the whole thing”).

He also provides a
suggestion for action, hesitantly suggesting that they “put up a
case,” which means
that they analyze more systematically why one of the options is
better than the other.
This could be read as a weak proposal to delay the decision, but
there is no immediate
support given to this idea form the other participants. But with
several participants
overlapping and POM making a general comment about better
access to the wells on
Platform A (Turn 346), the discussion seems to have come to a
halt.
At this point, the chair addresses PSM directly with a prefaced
question (“but it is
your call I mean do you want [to-],” Turn 350). She is placing
the decisional responsi-
bility with PSM and she calls him to decide by initiating a
question asking for his pref-
erence. Her question is interrupted by PSM, but instead of
responding, he poses a
question himself (“but could drilling take the B8?” Turn 351).
His turn is marked as a
reservation through the conjunction (“but”), and through his
question, he relaunches the
idea previously presented by WMS, that Drilling can do the B8
job. He frames it, how-
ever, as a question in the hypothetical mood, which cushions the
proposal quite clearly
dispreferred by drilling (with their current problem well). WSM
is the one who chooses
to respond, briefly, but directly and unambiguously, almost
insisting by repeating twice
(“[I mean that] I mean that,” Turn 352). DRE does not attempt
to respond. PSM contin-

ues, first initiating a formulation of implication (“so we [can
do- can-]” Turn 353);
however, he self-repairs and redesigns his utterance to a
straightforward, yes-no ques-
tion (“can we do B8 and keep on on platform A?” Turn 355).
While seeking confirma-
tion, the question also functions as an upshot formulation of the
previous adjacency
pair, which clarified that Drilling could do B8. The choice of
the present tense of the
verb here, rather than the hypothetical, strengthens the force of
the formulation.
These two questions from PSM mirror the design of his
questions in Excerpt 2,
when he first asked whether the well was on injection and then
formulated the implica-
tion of the response given. Now he has established that drilling
hypothetically could
do B8, and he then formulates the implications of this response,
also in the form of a
question. Through his second question, he formulates explicitly
the implication that
they in fact can stimulate B8 without having to interrupt the
ongoing work on Platform
A, but through the questioning design, he has also opened up
the floor for a response.
This sequence of questions, with information solicit and upshot
formulation, repre-
sents an interesting and powerful resource in professional
reasoning, as it frames the
information given in response to the first question as relevant
and reportable, giving it
evidential status for the specific decision. The interrogative
form requires a confirma-
tion of this evidential status from the interlocutors, and in this

case, the last question is
unequivocally answered by WSM with a plain confirmation
(“=yeah”; cf. Hak & de
Boer, 1996, for taxonomy of responses to formulations).
DRE is still not making any attempts to contribute despite his
department being the
topic of discussion. After a short lapse, the POM, instead of
addressing this relaunched
proposal by PSM, poses a question embedding an alternative
option, namely, sending
Halvorsen 85
out extra Well Service crew (“or do we have someone extra we
can send out for a
couple of days?” Turn 357). He is prefacing his question with
the discourse marker
“or,” indicating a potential disagreement or a preferable
alternative option. He uses the
collaborative “we” of the meeting and downplays the strain on
the Well Service depart-
ment in terms of resources (“a couple of days”). He does not
explicitly present a dis-
agreement but rather proposes an alternative option in an
affiliative manner. This
question triggers a more elaborate response from WSM, who
offers explanations for
why sending out extra Well Service personnel might not be
possible (Turn 358).
POE2 latches on to this discussion and presents a seemingly
simple, information-
seeking question (“when is the platform C operation finished?”

Turn 359). This ques-
tion embeds an implicit third proposal, namely, using the
Platform C crew for the B8
job, and he is contributing to POM’s initiative to finding extra
crew. This prompts
overlapping responses from several participants regarding the
end date for the C oper-
ation, but WSM treats the question explicitly as an option and
rejects it by implying
that taking the C crew would require a greater discussion of
priorities (Turn 361). PSM
supports this assessment, but he also proceeds to support the
proposal to send out more
personnel (Turn 362). Despite his previous orientation to the
possibility of Drilling
doing B8, he now presents a hypothetical scenario in which
Well Service provides
extra resources. He explicitly states this as the preferred
scenario, and he does not
provide any explanation or justification for this preference.
WSM responds by repeat-
ing his uncertainty about the crew situation but also his
intention of looking into it
(Turn 363).
It seems the managers POM, PSM, and WSM are again moving
away from drilling
doing B8, and this last comment from WSM could have
functioned as a preclosing
marker leading to a decision to look for additional crew.
However, POE1 poses yet
another question concerning the length of the B8 job (“so how
many days are we talk-
ing about?” Turn 364), yet another quite simple information
solicit, but she proceeds
to offer suggested answers to her own question (“two days? two

three days?”). POE1
is the one in Excerpt 2 who argued for prioritizing B8 and
fitting it in before Drilling
started rigging up. She is not requesting new information, as
POM already indicated
only six turns prior that this as a matter of “a couple of days”
(Turn 357). Drawing
attention again to the relative ease of the B8 job, her question
can be seen to also serve
a persuasive function leading toward her own decision proposal.
The tension over the use of crew resources resurfaces in Turns
367 and 368, when
other platforms (E and T) are brought in as well. Following a
humorous sequence
about the lack of personnel, POM offers a preclosing statement
(“okay I think we need
some checking and some thinking,” Turn 369). His turn can be
seen as a “candidate
preclosing” (Barnes, 2007), as he takes on a chairing role and
attempts to bring the
topic to a close. Embedded in his formulation is a proposal to
postpone the decision in
order to explore the issues further, outside of the meeting. At
this point, the meeting
splits into several parallel floors, in which some are in English
and some in Norwegian.
WSM speaks directly to the Chair in Norwegian. After an
attempt to summarize with-
out managing to bring the meeting to shared attention, the chair
finally closes the topic
with a decision summary:

377. Chair [but then-] but then we have decided it’s a- we do
not
want to go from platform A- we don’t want to take uh the
A crew we want to find another option.
378. WSM that’s the decision.
379. Chair yes mm
380. POM °that’s a good decision°
381. Chair °good decision° (.) okay. ((meeting moves on))
The decision is explicitly announced from the authorized role of
the Chair and as
the focus again is on the joint meeting. With a short-gist
formulation, extracting and
highlighting aspects of the previous discussion, the decision is
presented in the nega-
tive form, what the decision is not (“we do not want to go from
platform A”), then very
generally what the decision is (“we want to find another
option”). This other option
stays open and unexplained to the group. The final turns from
WSM and POM explic-
itly adopt the decision (“that’s the decision,” WSM, Turn 378;
“that’s a good deci-
sion,” POM, Turn 380). A long, complex episode of talk has
come to an end; many
issues and interdependencies have been considered; and only
one element of the deci-
sion has been landed, namely, that Platform A is still prioritized
and the Well Service
crew will not be relocated. However, whether Drilling will in
fact do the stimulation
job or whether Well Service will find extra resources remain
unspecified.
Discussion

The initial mapping of the meeting data provides a systematic
approach to the struc-
tural and interactional features of the activity type across
meetings and episodes. The
activity type was found to be loosely structured across the
phases, with relatively
broad participation across hierarchies and departments. The
accessibility of questions
as interactional resource for all the participants might also be
seen in relation to what
Halvorsen and Sarangi (2015) found to be highly fluid and
dynamic participation
frameworks in this particular activity type. The plan
optimization meeting as an activ-
ity type allows for dynamic shifts in participation roles, with
the chair also frequently
shifting between the activity roles of chair and participant. The
floor is in other words
a relatively open and accessible one, for both engineers and
managers.
The analysis has shown some characteristic features of
questions in this setting.
The questioning format is generally brief, efficient, and often
topically implicit. There
is minimal prefacing or framing of the questions and few
elaborations, explanations,
or justifications for why the question is relevant or important.
Similarly, the responses
given are equally short and fact-oriented, and there is no, or
minimal, third slot verbal
acknowledgement from the questioner. The contingent nature of
decision making in
this setting makes the brief and dense format functional. The
continuous tweaking of

the operational plan makes efficiency relevant, as unnecessary
time spent on deliberat-
ing issues might prove a waste of time if or when the situation
offshore changes. The
short and focused questions are communicatively efficient as
they represent forceful
Halvorsen 87
communicative acts that require a response. The result is a style
of questioning that
covers a range of issues but that remains largely implicit in
terms of professional rea-
soning. The reasons for asking when the Platform C operation
would be completed
(Excerpt 3, Turn 359), as a possible solution for finding a crew
for Platform B, was, as
we saw, not explained, only implied. The response from the
team showed that this
inference was made, and the question was treated as a proposal.
In institutional settings, questions have often been seen as
indications of interac-
tional dominance on the part of professionals or managers. In
this setting, however,
which is a group of professionals with diverse authorities and
responsibilities, the
questions can also be seen as less forceful than, for example,
declarative statements or
imperatives. In questioning rather than asserting, participants
can be heard to defer to
the knowledge and expertise of the other participants, opening
up the floor to the range
of expertise present. The information solicited from PMS in

American Portraits Lady Liberty In.docx

American Portraits Lady Liberty In.docx

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to American Portraits Lady Liberty In.docx

Similar to American Portraits Lady Liberty In.docx (20)

More from daniahendric

More from daniahendric (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

American Portraits Lady Liberty In.docx