Journal of Sport Management. 1993, 7, 194-198 © 1993 Human KineUcs Publishers, Inc. Sport Management and the Interdependence With Sport Sociology: Sport as a Social Product James E. Bryant San Jose State University This perspective suggests that sport management is interdependent with .sport sociology as specialization areas, and that in order for researchers in .sport management to understand the social product of sport it is critical that they recognize a positive theoretical relationship between sport management and sport sociology. This paper outlines examples of sport management interde- pendence with sport sociology through brief discussions including deviance and ethics, economics, social stratification, patriarchy, race and ethnicity, and marketing and research. Through these examples it is suggested that sport sociology provides a base for those in sport management to achieve an understanding of the social product of sport. It would seem that sport sociology and sport management have much in common. As specializations they both function in a society that is influenced by the institutions of family, religion, politics, education, media, and economics. Sports organiz^ations and management are generic social phenomena that require a sociological analysis, and that analysis enables organizations and management to understand and address service related to the community and economic devel- opment (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1989). This commonality bridges into many sport sociology topics including deviance and ethics in sport, sociability, and a connec- tion between labor and economic situations. Social stratification of population and dominant control through patriarchy and racial/ethnic groups are also topics that are part of a symbiotic content relationship between sport sociology and sfKjrt management. Hatfield (1992), when describing the goal of management, defines sport as a product, with that product considered to be the feature that leads to consumer satisfaction. When analyzing the preparation of sport managers. Slack (1991) indicates that those who have acquired a degree often leave their university with little or no understanding of sport as a social product that is related to social organization and the larger social process. James E. Brv'ant is with the Department of Human Performance, San Jose State University, San Jose, CA 95192. 194 Sport as Social Product 195 To not understand sport as a social product establishes the potential for limited success on the part of the sport manager and projects failure that contri- butes to long-range negative economic impact on the corporation or agency that a sport manager represents. It basically represents a lack of caring, which ultimately produces a consumer rejection of an otherwise marketable product. It is my purpose in this perspective to suggest that sport sociology and sport management are bedfellows, and that sport management as a profession has, and will continue to have, ...

1. Journal of Sport Management. 1993, 7, 194-198
© 1993 Human KineUcs Publishers, Inc.
Sport Management and the
Interdependence With Sport Sociology:
Sport as a Social Product
James E. Bryant
San Jose State University
This perspective suggests that sport management is
interdependent with .sport
sociology as specialization areas, and that in order for
researchers in .sport
management to understand the social product of sport it is
critical that they
recognize a positive theoretical relationship between sport
management and
sport sociology. This paper outlines examples of sport
management interde-
pendence with sport sociology through brief discussions
including deviance
and ethics, economics, social stratification, patriarchy, race and
ethnicity,
and marketing and research. Through these examples it is
suggested that
sport sociology provides a base for those in sport management
to achieve
an understanding of the social product of sport.
It would seem that sport sociology and sport management have

2. much in
common. As specializations they both function in a society that
is influenced by
the institutions of family, religion, politics, education, media,
and economics.
Sports organiz^ations and management are generic social
phenomena that require
a sociological analysis, and that analysis enables organizations
and management
to understand and address service related to the community and
economic devel-
opment (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1989). This commonality bridges
into many sport
sociology topics including deviance and ethics in sport,
sociability, and a connec-
tion between labor and economic situations. Social stratification
of population
and dominant control through patriarchy and racial/ethnic
groups are also topics
that are part of a symbiotic content relationship between sport
sociology and
sfKjrt management.
Hatfield (1992), when describing the goal of management,
defines sport
as a product, with that product considered to be the feature that
leads to consumer
satisfaction. When analyzing the preparation of sport managers.
Slack (1991)
indicates that those who have acquired a degree often leave
their university with
little or no understanding of sport as a social product that is
related to social
organization and the larger social process.
James E. Brv'ant is with the Department of Human Performance,

3. San Jose State
University, San Jose, CA 95192.
194
Sport as Social Product 195
To not understand sport as a social product establishes the
potential for
limited success on the part of the sport manager and projects
failure that contri-
butes to long-range negative economic impact on the
corporation or agency that a
sport manager represents. It basically represents a lack of
caring, which ultimately
produces a consumer rejection of an otherwise marketable
product.
It is my purpose in this perspective to suggest that sport
sociology and
sport management are bedfellows, and that sport management as
a profession
has, and will continue to have, an interdependence with sport
sociology; sport
managers must understand this interdependence in order to truly
understand the
social product of sport that is the specific focus in the sport
business world. I
am suggesting that for present and future sport managers to
disregard the necessity
for sport sociology as a theoretical base is to ignore the tools of
research, literature,
and the instruments designed to provide solutions and
understanding associated

4. with the marketing of the social product of sport. In short, if
there is no interdepen-
dence of sport management with sport sociology, there is no
sport management.
Topics of Commonality
Deviance and Ethics
Ethical issues and deviant behavior are prominent in the
business world and
the connecting sport industry. A proposed ethics creed already
exists in sport
management from an academic preparation standpoint that
includes reference to
a "high level of professional practice and service" and
professional conduct
' "based on application of sound management theory developed
through a scientific
body of knowledge about developmental physical activity's role
in the lives of
all people" (Zeigler, 1989, p. 4). These aspects of an ethics
creed are of particular
importance when one is considering what sport sociology has to
contribute to
the development and growth of sport management.
Impacting ethical issues in sport-related business that are
clearly associated
with deviance include price fixing, collusion, political
corruption, and fraudulent
business practices (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1989). Even the
analysis of the impact
and assessment of stadium advertising is reflective of ethics and
deviance. Stotlar
and Johnson (1989), although not focusing directly on ethics,
addressed this issue
when they explored the effectiveness of stadium advertising on

5. spectators in
Division 1 football and basketball programs. The ethical
question related to
alcohol and tobacco advertising in order to reinforce a brand
image is significant
when one is dealing with signage in intercollegiate athletics.
NCAA rules ban
most advertising related to tobacco and alcohol, but the issue
for the sport manager
is this: Since these two commodities are counterindicated in
stadium advertising
in intercollegiate sport, should sport managers accept the NCAA
restrictions and
assume social responsibility, or should they yield and seek an
increase in profit
at the expense of the ethical issue? Sport sociologists discuss,
investigate, and
analyze these ethical issues from a cultural perspective. Without
this perspective
from sport sociology, it is easy to rationalize and make excuses
for business
decisions that are good profit decisions but are not ethically
acceptable, thus
theoretically not good business decisions.
SociabiUty
Sociability generally refers to social interaction that is freely
engaged in by
participants with no agendized commitments. Melnick (1993)
conducted a study
196 Bryant
on sociabiUty of sp)ectators and related his findings to potential

6. problems for
sport managers. He pointed out that attendance at sprorting
events is often due
to a desire for casual sociability that enables the sp»ectator to
engage in unhampered
verbal expression and pjermits a venue for social integration
without commitment.
From this premise he discussed the various restrictions that
surface at spirting
events that have the potential to slow or stop sociability, which
in the long haul
will imjjede or significantly reduce attendance at sports
contests. These restrictions
include such items as banning spjectators' banners, escalation of
ticket prices,
and reduction of player-fan interaction.
This study of a phenomenon like spectator sociability is just
another form
of assisting the sport manager in understanding and acting to
meet needs of
clients while generating revenue for profit. It is a way of
provicUng insight from
a spon sociology perspective on how to fill a stadium while also
generating
income for sport-related business.
Economics
Labor and economics are obvious aspects of sport management.
Sp>on sociolo-
gists, in their role, investigate and analyze the impact of
labor/management
conflict and the economics of that conflict connected to sport.
Extensive research,
from an ideological, theoretical, and applied perspective, occurs

7. in sport sociology
regarding salaries of professional athletes and regarding the
relationships between
municipalities and professional sp)ort franchises, and through
countless additional
studies devoted to economics and spwrt.
The process of establishing player salaries is interwoven with
collective
bargaining, reserve clause, arbitration, free agency, and owner
collusion (Had-
ley & Gustafson, 1991). Player personnel costs represent a
significant portion
of professional team sport franchise total expenditures, and
analysis fî om a
sociological p)ersp)ective when coupled with economic reality
provides insight
into the occupational marketplace of a player. These results
from research are
important to the spwrt industry, and an increa.se in spwrt
managers' understanding
of the sociological imphcations of economics and spon enhances
an understanding
of how to cope with and adjust to economic situations
a.ssoci^ed with spwrt.
Municipality and sport relationships are also obviously
impacted by political
considerations. Successful sport managers need to be able to
comprehend the
political environment that their sport organization operates
under in a municipality
(Johnson, 1993). It is imperative that spon managers see
municipality govem-
ments from a sociological perspective that includes the ftinction
of the institution

8. of politics. For a sport enterprise to ignore major factors that
influence municipal
management and the grassroots citizens, who by vote have at
the very least
subliminal control, is a major error.
Sport Stratificati<m
SpK)rt sociologists understand stratification, social class
mobility., and status sym-
bols. The spon business relationship is dependent on an
understanding of who
participates in selected spwrt experiences. To have an in-depth
understanding of
the relationship of economic wealth and class stratification with
^on participation
and spectator interest provides a distinct advantage in managing
a spwrt business.
Country club sports of tennis and golf meet a different client
need than do
Sport as Social Product 197
proletariat (prole) sports like motor cross and stock car racing.
Pseudosports
including professional wrestling and roller derby provide a
unique client base
that is totally different from that of either of the legitimate
sport areas of country
club or prole sports.
When sport stratification and subsequent social mobility are
explored from
a cultural and societal setting an understanding of the

9. stratification within sports
and between sports begins to emerge, and that understanding
directly contributes
to successful business practice. Of particular importance is that
this understanding
of stratification can be enlarged to provide a wider base of
understanding related
to gender, racism, ethnicity, ageism, and people who are
disabled as stratification
objects within sport.
Patriarchy, Race, and Ethnicity
It is critical for a business to understand how patriarchal control
within society
dominates decision making within the sport world and controls
what sport oppor-
tunities exist for males and females, and how the manipulation
of sport experiences
for females impacts the total sport economy.
It is also imperative to understand, from a cultural perspective,
how various
racial and ethnic populations engaged in sport experiences
contribute to a univer-
sally better business strategy. As an example, "Air Jordan"
basketball shoes
are marketed for a specific segment of society. That segment
includes lower
socioeconomic African-American youngsters who identify with
Michael Jordan
as a player, but because Jordan's race is secondary to his
physical skills other
segments of society also identify with him and are vulnerable to
marketing efforts
that emphasize his talents.

10. Marketing and Research
A sport sociology interdependence places sport management
scholars in a position
to identify potential areas for market exploration, improvement,
and development
(Yiannakis, 1989). Marketing research survey techniques are a
necessary part of
a sport business and are associated directly with sport sociology
survey techniques
that include demographic and lifestyle characteristics.
The emphasis on demographics research in sport marketing
suggests a
recognition of the importance of research and the survey
instmment pioneered
in sociology as a tool for better understanding of the
marketplace. The new Sport
Marketing Quarterly in its first issue in 1992 published two
demographic studies
that are examples of sport sociology survey techniques. Hofacre
and Burman
(1992) produced an article on demographic changes into the
21st century and
their impact on sport marketing, and Graham (1992) presented a
study of demo-
graphic and economic characteristics of spectators attending
tennis clay court
championships.
Stanmary
Sport sociology is vital to the understanding of sociocultural
forces that sport
managers must deal with on a regular basis: consequently, it has

11. a major role to
play with the provision of information that will establish a
systematic marketing
information base (Yiannakis, 1989). From my perspective it
seems obvious that
198 Bryant
the relationship between sport sociology and sport management
exists and is
practiced. For sp)ort managers to ignore or deny a sport
sociology interrelationship
or interdependence is unacceptable. Spon management literature
presently ac-
knowledges a sport sociology interdependence, and it is my
guess that this
acknowledgment not only will continue but will increase.
Sport sociology is, in fact, the base from which spon managers
can achieve
an understanding of the marketing of the social product of
spwrt, and thus is an
interdependence need of spon management.
References
Graham, P.J.(1992). A study of the demographic and economic
characteristics of spectators
attending the U.S. men's clay court championships. Sport
Marketing Quarterly,
1(1), 25-28.
Hadley, L., & Gustafson. E. (1991). Major league baseball
salaries: The impacts of

12. arbitration and free agency. Journal of Sport Management, S.
111-127.
Hatfield, B.D. (1992, .April). The role of sport science in sport
management: An integrative
perspective. Paper presented at the Sport Management Theory-
Conference, New
Orleans, L.A.
Hofacrc, S.. & Burman, T.K. (1992). Demographic changes in
the U.S. into the twenty-
first century': Their impact on sport marketing. Sport Marketing
Quarterly, 1(1).
31-36.
Johnson, A.T. (1993). Rethinking the sport-city relationship: In
search of partnership.
Journal of Sport Management. 7, 61-70.
Melnick, M.J. (1993). Searching for sociability in the stands: A
theory of sports spectating.
Journal of .Sport Management, 7. 44-60.
Slack, T. (1991). Sport management: Some thoughts on future
directions. Journal of Sport
Management. 5, 95-99.
Snyder, E.E., & Spreitzer, E.A. (1989). Social aspects of sport.
Englewood Chffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Stotlar, D.K., & Johnson, D.A. (1989). .Assessing the impact
and effectiveness of stadium
advertising on sport spectators at Division I institutions. Journal
of Sport Manage-
ment, 3, 90-102.

13. Yiannakis, A. (1989). Some contributions of spon sociology to
the marketing of spon
and leisure organizations. Journal of Sport Management, 3, 103-
115.
Zeigler. E.F. (1989). Proposed creed and code of professional
ethics for the Nonh American
Society for Sport Management. Journal of Sport Management, 3,
2-4.
This assignment has two parts:
1. Click on the exams section of the course and then click on
the practice test link. Then, access the quiz of sociology of
sport knowledge, titled "What do you know about Sports.” This
is a 26-item, true-false quiz to illustrate the range of topics
discussed during the term. The quiz is designed to evaluate your
knowledge of sports and society, coming into the class. This
quiz will not be graded, so please do not use the Internet, or any
of the readings to assist you with locating the answers. The goal
is to test your knowledge coming into the class, not after
reading the coursework.
2. After you submit your quiz and received your score, please
respond to the following questions in essay format. This means
your assignment should be written like a paper. Please DO NOT
list the question, and then write the answer, that is question and
answer format, not essay format.
Be sure to follow the writing expectations of this course (Word
document, double-space, etc.), and cite your sources using APA
style. Answers should be written in complete sentences with
correct syntax, and paragraphs should transition smoothly from
one to the next. Be thorough and detailed in your responses.

14. Support responses with references, examples, and/or personal
reflection.
A. Provide your quiz score and a brief analysis of your
performance. Do you feel you performed well or poorly? What
did you learn from this taking quiz?
B. Define sociology and describe how it is used to study sports
in society. Also, describe why sociologists study sports in
society.
C. List at least five reasons why it is important to study sports
from a sociological perspective.
D. Explain why sociology of sport knowledge is different than
information generally presented in sports media and in everyday
conversations about sports.
Remember: ALL assignments must include an APA formatted
title page. Be sure to upload your assignment in the assignment
section and do not paste it in the comment box. Assignments
pasted in the assignment box will be counted as late and receive
an automatic 10% deduction.
Score 53.76 out of 99.84
Tests & Quizzes
I felt I had a poor score on the exam being that I love sports and
the sports society.. I learned that I need to study the culture
and business of sports
53.76/ 99.84 Points
Question 1 of 260.0/ 3.84 PointsPeople around the world define
sport in the same way because it has a fundamental essence that
transcends culture.

15. A. True
B. False
Answer Key:False
Question 2 of 263.84/ 3.84 PointsHistorically, the earliest
sports often were connected with festivals and grounded in
religious ritual and ceremony.
A. True
B. False
Answer Key:True
Question 3 of 260.0/ 3.84 PointsResearch consistently shows
that sports build character.
A. True
B. False
Answer Key:False
Question 4 of 260.0/ 3.84 PointsResearch shows that when the
rate of participation in organized sports increases, the rate of
obesity in the society declines dramatically.

16. A. True
B. False
Answer Key:False
Question 5 of 260.0/ 3.84 PointsThe growth of organized youth
sports since the 1950s has been influenced more by television
than by changes in family life.
A. True
B. False
Answer Key:False
Question 6 of 263.84/ 3.84 PointsCompared with informal
games, organized youth sports emphasize rules and strategies
more than action and involvement.
A. True
B. False
Answer Key:True
Question 7 of 260.0/ 3.84 PointsBoys are more likely than girls

17. to think they are better at sports than they actually are when it
comes to sport skills.
A. True
B. False
Answer Key:True
Question 8 of 263.84/ 3.84 PointsMost deviance within sports
occurs because athletes overconform to norms in society.
A. True
B. False
Answer Key:True
Question 9 of 263.84/ 3.84 PointsResearch indicates that the
athletes most likely to use performance-enhancing drugs are
those who are least committed to sports and to their teammates.
A. True
B. False
Answer Key:False

18. Question 10 of 260.0/ 3.84 PointsPrior to the 20th century,
violence among spectators at sport events seldom occurred and
was tame in comparison to crowd violence today.
A. True
B. False
Answer Key:False
Question 11 of 263.84/ 3.84 PointsDespite Title IX, women still
lag behind men in participation and funding in both high school
and college sports.
A. True
B. False
Answer Key:True
Question 12 of 260.0/ 3.84 PointsThe proportion of women
coaches for the most popular intercollegiate sports was
significantly higher in 2004 than in 1977.
A. True
B. False

19. Answer Key:False
Question 13 of 263.84/ 3.84 PointsAfrican Americans have
more opportunities in professional sports than in traditional
professions such as medicine and law.
A. True
B. False
Answer Key:False
Question 14 of 260.0/ 3.84 PointsSports have had a
democratizing influence on American society by giving low-
income people as much opportunity to participate as high-
income people.
A. True
B. False
Answer Key:False
Question 15 of 263.84/ 3.84 PointsThe most powerful people in
sports today are the men who control massive media
corporations such as Comcast, DIRECTV, and Cablevision.