programming lang

2.  Language
- defined as a system for communication.
- written language use symbols (characters) to build words.
 Vocabulary
- refers to entire set of words.
 Syntax & Grammar
- define the way in w/c the words can be meaningful when
combined.
 Semantics
- actual meaning of words & combinations of words.

3. - the lowest level of programming language.
- only language understood by computers, consists of
pure numbers; takes the form of “1 & 0”.
- each machine instruction has 2 parts:
* op code (operation code)
* operand

4. - also called as assembly language
- easier to understand than machine language.
- contains the same instructions as a machine
language, but the instructions & variables have names
instead of being just numbers.

5. - programmers: highly skilled in 2 areas:
* must know a great deal about the internal workings
of the microprocessor, & a broad technical
knowledge of the computer is needed.
* must be very detail oriented; every step of the
computer must be coded, & the actual numerical
address of the instructions & data must be
specified.

6. - enables a programmer to write programs that are
more/less independent of a particular type of
computer.
- closer to human language than the machine language.
- easier to understand & allows the programmer to focus
on solving the problem rather than knowing how to
program the computer.
- ex. Ada, Algol, BASIC, COBOL, C, C++,
FORTRAN, LISP, Pascal Prolog

8. - Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
- developed by John Kemeny & Thomas Kurtz in early 1960’s.
- intended as an easy to learn interactive language for the students.
- advantages:
* simplicity & flexibility
* allows basic manipulation of text
* provides built-in functions such as logarithms, square root,
trigonometric functions, & random number generator.

10. - Formula Translator
- the oldest high-level programming language.
- developed in mid 1950’s by John Backus.
- primarily intended as high-level language used for
programming scientific, mathematical, & engineering
applications.

11. - advantages:
* procedure-oriented language with excellent
mathematical capabilities.
* pattern is similar to BASIC language; a
programmer who is familiar with FORTRAN can
easily write programs in BASIC.
- disadvantages:
* closely resembles mathematical notations, it is
very difficult for a non-programmer to understand /
find the errors in a program.
* not suited as a business application language for it
does not have the capability to develop programs
that involve file maintenance, editing of data, or
document production.

13. - Common Business-Oriented Language
- the most frequently used business programming language.
- used extensively in business, education, & government.
- started in early 1960’s when a committee led by US Dept. of
Defense & other computer users & manufacturers known as
CODASYL (Conference of Data Systems Languages) wanted to
develop a common business programming language.
- Dr. Gray Murray Hopper was a major contributor to the structure
& development of the language.

14. - advantages:
* easy to understand even for a non-programmers.
* self-explanatory & well-documenting.
* good literary capability w/c means that it is good in
manipulating words, sentences, or paragraphs of text
material.
* strong file-handling capabilities.
* machine independent
- disadvantages:
* programs tend to be wordy & quite long
* limited computational capabilities w/c makes it inappropriate
for applications that require computations.

16. - named after the 17th century French mathematician
Blaise Pascal who constructed one of the first adding
machines.
- a high-level language developed by Niklaus Wirth of
Zurich, Switzerland in the late 1960’s.
- one of the first languages developed using a
structured programming approach.

17. - characteristics:
* Pascal programs consist of modules, & each module
performs a specific function.
* the statements in the module can be organized into levels, &
the level of the statement is shown by its degree of indention
from the margin to follow the program logic easily.
* statements in a Pascal program are composed of reserved
words, symbols, & identifiers.
* reserved words are words that have a special meaning to
the Pascal compiler.
* symbols used in Pascal include mathematical symbols &
punctuation marks.
* identifiers are names that represent various constants,
variables, procedures, or functions.

18. - advantages:
* relatively easy to learn.
* powerful & efficient language
* strong graphics capabilities.
- disadvantages:
* not as standard as COBOL or BASIC.
* poor input & output capabilities.
* limited file-handling capabilities.
* does not possess the ability to manipulate large
collection of numbers/words.

20. - a high-level programming language developed by
Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Laboratories in 1972.
- named C, because it was influenced by another
language called B, developed by Ken Thompson.
- originally designed as a systems programming
language used to write operating system programs.

21. - advantages:
* allows direct manipulation of bits, bytes & words that are
similar to assembly language.
* useful for numerical, text processing, & database programs.
* very good graphics programming capabilities.
- disadvantages:
* not intended as a language for non-programmers, unlike
BASIC & COBOL; if you are not familiar with the language,
you will not understand the structure.

23. - developed by Bjarne Stroustrup while working at the
Bell Laboratories.
- considered a superset of C, & has the same
capabilities as C with added object-oriented features

25. - popular programming language for creating applications on
the Web.
- “Oak” was developed in December 1990 by Sun
Microsystems.
- Reasons to use Java:
* simple & familiar
* object-oriented
* architecture-neutral
* portable
* distributed
* secure