Chapter 6 Topic development SPEAK © 2011 Cengage Learning In this chapter, you will learn how to locate and evaluate a variety of information types and sources, identify and select relevant information, and cite key sources appropriately in your speech. 12/17/2015 10:47 AM © 2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Microsoft, Windows, Windows Vista and other product names are or may be registered trademarks and/or trademarks in the U.S. and/or other countries. The information herein is for informational purposes only and represents the current view of Microsoft Corporation as of the date of this presentation. Because Microsoft must respond to changing market conditions, it should not be interpreted to be a commitment on the part of Microsoft, and Microsoft cannot guarantee the accuracy of any information provided after the date of this presentation. MICROSOFT MAKES NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS, IMPLIED OR STATUTORY, AS TO THE INFORMATION IN THIS PRESENTATION. 1 The mind is © 2011 Cengage Learning Get the facts, or the facts will get you. And when you get 'em, get 'em right, or they will get you wrong. ~Thomas Fuller Learning Outcomes: 1. What are the differences between primary and secondary research? 2. Where can you locate information for your speech? 3. How will you evaluate information and sources? 4. How will you select and record relevant information for your speech? 5. How and why do you cite sources in a speech? 12/17/2015 10:47 AM © 2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Microsoft, Windows, Windows Vista and other product names are or may be registered trademarks and/or trademarks in the U.S. and/or other countries. The information herein is for informational purposes only and represents the current view of Microsoft Corporation as of the date of this presentation. Because Microsoft must respond to changing market conditions, it should not be interpreted to be a commitment on the part of Microsoft, and Microsoft cannot guarantee the accuracy of any information provided after the date of this presentation. MICROSOFT MAKES NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS, IMPLIED OR STATUTORY, AS TO THE INFORMATION IN THIS PRESENTATION. 2 Locate & Evaluate Information Sources Evidence Primary research Secondary research © 2011 Cengage Learning Evidence is essentially any information that clarifies, explains, or otherwise adds depth or breadth to a topic. You can find evidence related to your specific speech goal first by assessing your own knowledge, experience, and personal observations. Then you can move to secondary research. If the information you find from secondary sources is insufficient and doesn’t answer all of the questions you are seeking answers for, you may need to conduct primary research. Action Step 3 Gather and Evaluate Information: Examine what you know already and areas where you need additional information Locate, evaluate, and select a variety of information types and sources Prepare resear ...

1. Chapter 6
Topic development
SPEAK
© 2011 Cengage Learning
In this chapter, you will learn how to locate and evaluate a
variety of information types and sources, identify and select
relevant information, and cite key sources appropriately in your
speech.
12/17/2015 10:47 AM
© 2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Microsoft,
Windows, Windows Vista and other product names are or may
be registered trademarks and/or trademarks in the U.S. and/or
other countries.
The information herein is for informational purposes only and
represents the current view of Microsoft Corporation as of the
date of this presentation. Because Microsoft must respond to
changing market conditions, it should not be interpreted to be a
commitment on the part of Microsoft, and Microsoft cannot
guarantee the accuracy of any information provided after the
date of this presentation.

2. MICROSOFT MAKES NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS,
IMPLIED OR STATUTORY, AS TO THE INFORMATION IN
THIS PRESENTATION.
1
The mind is
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Get the facts, or the facts will get you. And when you get 'em,
get 'em right, or they will get you wrong.
~Thomas Fuller
Learning Outcomes:
1. What are the differences between primary and secondary
research?
2. Where can you locate information for your speech?
3. How will you evaluate information and sources?
4. How will you select and record relevant information for
your speech?
5. How and why do you cite sources in a speech?
12/17/2015 10:47 AM
© 2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Microsoft,
Windows, Windows Vista and other product names are or may
be registered trademarks and/or trademarks in the U.S. and/or
other countries.
The information herein is for informational purposes only and
represents the current view of Microsoft Corporation as of the
date of this presentation. Because Microsoft must respond to
changing market conditions, it should not be interpreted to be a

3. commitment on the part of Microsoft, and Microsoft cannot
guarantee the accuracy of any information provided after the
date of this presentation.
MICROSOFT MAKES NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS,
IMPLIED OR STATUTORY, AS TO THE INFORMATION IN
THIS PRESENTATION.
2
Locate & Evaluate
Information Sources
Evidence
Primary research
Secondary research
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Evidence is essentially any information that clarifies, explains,
or otherwise adds depth or breadth to a topic.
You can find evidence related to your specific speech goal first
by assessing your own knowledge, experience, and personal
observations. Then you can move to secondary research.
If the information you find from secondary sources is
insufficient and doesn’t answer all of the questions you are
seeking answers for, you may need to conduct primary research.
Action Step 3 Gather and Evaluate Information:
Examine what you know already and areas where you need
additional information
Locate, evaluate, and select a variety of information types and
sources
Prepare research cards
Cite sources
Locate & Evaluate Information Sources

4. Evidence – any information that clarifies, explains, or otherwise
adds depth or breadth to a topic
Primary research—the process of collecting data about your
topic directly from the real world (your personal knowledge &
experience)
Secondary research – the process of locating information that
has been discovered by other people
12/17/2015 10:47 AM
© 2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Microsoft,
Windows, Windows Vista and other product names are or may
be registered trademarks and/or trademarks in the U.S. and/or
other countries.
The information herein is for informational purposes only and
represents the current view of Microsoft Corporation as of the
date of this presentation. Because Microsoft must respond to
changing market conditions, it should not be interpreted to be a
commitment on the part of Microsoft, and Microsoft cannot
guarantee the accuracy of any information provided after the
date of this presentation.
MICROSOFT MAKES NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS,
IMPLIED OR STATUTORY, AS TO THE INFORMATION IN
THIS PRESENTATION.
3
Primary Research
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Fieldwork observations
Surveys
Interviews
Original artifacts or document examinations
Experiments

5. When there is little secondary research available on your topic
or on a main idea you want to develop in your speech, or when
you wonder whether what you are reading about is true in a
particular setting, primary research may be necessary.
Fieldwork observations
Surveys
Interviews
Original artifact or document examinations
Experiments are all types of primary research.
Be aware, however, that primary research is much more labor
intensive and time consuming than secondary research.
4
Secondary Research Sources
Encyclopedias
Books
Newspaper & periodical articles
Statistical sources
Biographies
Quotation books & websites
Government documents
© 2011 Cengage Learning
As you conduct your search for secondary sources, you’ll want
to draw from a variety of types. You can find pertinent
information in encyclopedias, books, articles in academic
journals and magazines, newspapers, statistical sources,
biographies, quotation books and websites, and government
documents.

6. The textbook provides many specific examples of
encyclopedias, electronic databases, biographies, books of
quotations, and similar references.
5
Determining & Evaluating
Source Value
Determining Source Value
Skimming
Reading
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Evaluating
Criteria to use to
determine accuracy,
reliability & validity of
sources are:
Authority
Objectivity
Currency
Relevance
Because your search of secondary sources is likely to uncover
far more information than you can use, you will want to skim
sources or read abstracts of source material to determine
whether or not to read them in full. Skimming material or
reading abstracts can help you decide which sources are likely
to be useful.
Determining & Evaluating Source Value
Skimming: rapidly going through a work to determine what is
covered & how
Reading the abstract: a short paragraph summarizing research

7. findings
Not all source material is equally accurate, reliable, and valid.
The first test of a resource is the expertise of its author and/or
the reputation of the publishing or sponsoring organization. You
will also want to be wary of information that is overly biased.
In addition, be aware that newer information is generally more
accurate than older data. And be sure to use only information
that is directly related to your topic and supports your main
points.
6
Guidelines for Conducting Interviews
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Select the best person
Prepare the interview protocol/questions
Conduct the interview
Process the interview
Guidelines for conducting Interviews:
Select the best person
Prepare the interview protocol/questions:
Primary questions: lead-in questions about one of the major
topics of the interview, typically related to the main points for
the speech.
Secondary questions: are follow-up questions designed to probe
the answers given to primary questions.
Open questions: broad-based probes that ask the interviewee to
provide perspective, ideas, information, or opinions as he or she
wishes.
Closed questions: narrowly focused and require very brief (one-

8. or two-word) answers.
Neutral questions: questions phrased in ways that do not direct
a person’s answers.
3. Conduct the interview
Dress professionally, be prompt, and be courteous
Ask permission to record, listen carefully, and keep the
interview moving
Monitor your nonverbal reactions
Get permission to quote
Confirm credentials, end on time, and thank the interviewee
4. Process the interview
7
A Good Interview Involves…
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Rapport building (opener)
Primary questions
Secondary questions
Open questions
Closed questions
Neutral questions
Leading question
SEE Exhibit 6.1 (page 75) for sample interview questions
A Good Interview Involves the Following:
Build rapport
Primary questions lead-in question about one of the major
topics of the interview, typically related to the main points for
the speech
Secondary questions follow-up questions designed to probe the
answers given to primary questions
Open questions broad-based questions that ask the interviewee

9. to provide perspective, ideas, information, or opinions
Closed questions narrowly focused questions that require only
very brief answers (yes/no)
Neutral questions are phrased n ways that do not direct a
person’s answers
Leading questions are questions phrased in a way that suggests
the interviewer has a preferred answer
8
Identify & Select
Relevant Information
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Factual statements
Statistics, examples, definitions
Expert opinions
Elaborations
Anecdotes and narratives
Comparisons and contrasts
Quotations
Factual statements are those that can be verified. Statistics are
numerical facts. Examples are specific instances that illustrate
or explain a general factual statement. A definition is a
statement that clarifies the meaning of a word or phrase.
Expert opinions are interpretations and judgments made by
authorities in a particular subject area. They can help explain
what facts mean or put them in perspective.
Elaborations:
Anecdotes are brief, often amusing stories
Narratives are accounts, personal experiences, tales, or
lengthier stories.
Comparisons illuminate a point by showing similarities

10. Contrasts highlight differences.
9
Guidelines for Using Statistics
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Use only statistics you can verify to be reliable & valid
Use only recent statistics
Use statistics comparatively
Use statistics sparingly
Remember that statistics can be biased
Statistical statements can provide impressive support for a
point, but when they are poorly used in a speech, they may be
boring and, in some instances, downright deceiving. These
guidelines can help you use statistics effectively and ethically.
Guidelines for Using Statistics
Use only statistics you can verify to be reliable and valid.
Use only recent statistics so your audience will not be misled.
Use statistics comparatively.
Use statistics sparingly.
Remember that statistics are biased.
10
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Learn, compare, collect the facts!... Always have
the courage to say to yourself – I am ignorant.
~ Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

11. 11
Chapter 5
Adapting to Audiences
SPEAK
© 2011 Cengage Learning
This chapter describes the issues of audience adaptation,
including demonstrating the relevance of your topic,
acknowledging initial audience disposition toward your topic,
establishing common ground, gaining credibility, ensuring
information comprehension and retention, and managing
language and cultural differences.
5/27/2014 12:21 PM
© 2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Microsoft,
Windows, Windows Vista and other product names are or may
be registered trademarks and/or trademarks in the U.S. and/or
other countries.
The information herein is for informational purposes only and
represents the current view of Microsoft Corporation as of the

12. date of this presentation. Because Microsoft must respond to
changing market conditions, it should not be interpreted to be a
commitment on the part of Microsoft, and Microsoft cannot
guarantee the accuracy of any information provided after the
date of this presentation.
MICROSOFT MAKES NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS,
IMPLIED OR STATUTORY, AS TO THE INFORMATION IN
THIS PRESENTATION.
1
The mind is
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Your purpose is to make your audience see what you saw, hear
what you heard, feel what you felt. Relevant detail, couched in
concrete, colorful language, is the best way to recreate the
incident as it happened and to picture it for the audience.
~Dale Carnegie
Learning Outcomes:
1. Why is it important to articulate the relevance of your
speech to your audience?
2. What should you do if your audience does not share your
attitude about the topic of your speech?
3. What can you do to help your audience see you as
trustworthy and knowledgeable about your topic?
4. Why is it important to address diverse learning styles in
your speech?
5. What can you do to overcome language and cultural
differences between you and your audience?

13. 5/27/2014 12:21 PM
© 2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Microsoft,
Windows, Windows Vista and other product names are or may
be registered trademarks and/or trademarks in the U.S. and/or
other countries.
The information herein is for informational purposes only and
represents the current view of Microsoft Corporation as of the
date of this presentation. Because Microsoft must respond to
changing market conditions, it should not be interpreted to be a
commitment on the part of Microsoft, and Microsoft cannot
guarantee the accuracy of any information provided after the
date of this presentation.
MICROSOFT MAKES NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS,
IMPLIED OR STATUTORY, AS TO THE INFORMATION IN
THIS PRESENTATION.
2
Audience Adaptation Is…
the process of tailoring your speech’s information to the needs,
interests, and expectations of your listeners.
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Your concerns about adapting to your audience will inform your
research efforts, your choice of main points, the supporting
material that you will use to develop those points, and even the
jokes you might want to tell. So recognizing audience
adaptation needs lays the foundation for the work that follows.
Action Step 2 Understand Your Audience and Adapt to It:
Understand audience diversity.

14. Understand audience initial interest and attitude.
Adjust content to be appropriate for your audience.
Determine how you will establish your credibility with the
audience.
5/27/2014 12:21 PM
© 2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Microsoft,
Windows, Windows Vista and other product names are or may
be registered trademarks and/or trademarks in the U.S. and/or
other countries.
The information herein is for informational purposes only and
represents the current view of Microsoft Corporation as of the
date of this presentation. Because Microsoft must respond to
changing market conditions, it should not be interpreted to be a
commitment on the part of Microsoft, and Microsoft cannot
guarantee the accuracy of any information provided after the
date of this presentation.
MICROSOFT MAKES NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS,
IMPLIED OR STATUTORY, AS TO THE INFORMATION IN
THIS PRESENTATION.
3
Relevance & Topic
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Adapt information in your speech so it is
relevant to listeners.
Demonstrate that your information
Is timeless
Has proximity
Has personal impact

15. Information has timeliness when it is useful now or in the near
future. You can increase the relevance of the information you
present by showing how it is timely for a particular audience
Listeners are more likely to be interested in information that has
proximity, a relationship to their personal “space.”
When you present information on a topic that can have a serious
physical, economic, or psychological impact on audience
members, they will be interested in what you have to say
4
Initial Audience Topics
Initial audience disposition is the knowledge of and opinions
about your topic that your listeners have before you speak.
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Speakers need to understand the importance of adapting to
listeners’ attitudes no matter what type of speech they are
giving. Audience adaptation is obviously important for
persuasive speeches, but it is also necessary for informative
speeches.
During speech preparation, choose specific supporting material
with these initial attitudes in mind.
5
Common Ground
© 2011 Cengage Learning
To establish common ground (shared
backgrounds/experiences) with an

16. audience, use these adaptation techniques:
Personal pronouns
Rhetorical questions
Common experiences
6
Credibility
© 2011 Cengage Learning
Three adaptation techniques can affect an audience’s confidence
in the speaker, or credibility:
Demonstrating knowledge and expertise
Establishing trustworthiness
Displaying personableness
The impact of credibility on speaker success has been a
fundamental concept in public speaking since Aristotle
described it as ethos more than 2,000 years ago.
When listeners perceive you to be a knowledgeable expert, they
will perceive you as credible. Their assessment of your
knowledge and expertise depends on how well you convince
them that you are qualified to speak on the topic.
Your trustworthiness is the extent to which the audience can
believe that what you say is accurate, true, and in their best
interests. The more your audience sees you as trustworthy, the
more credible you will be.
Personableness is the extent to which you project an agreeable
or pleasing personality. The more your listeners like you, the
more likely they are to believe what you tell them.

17. 7
Exhibit 5.1
Kolb’s Cycle of Learning
© 2011 Cengage Learning
You need to adapt the information you present so that audience
members can easily follow what you are saying and remember it
when you are through. These guidelines can help you.
For example: a learning style is a person’s preferred way of
receiving information. Because people differ in how they prefer
to learn, you should present your ideas in ways that make it
easy for all audience members to understand and remember what
you are saying.
Similarly, when listeners become confused or forget basic
information, they lose interest in what is being said. If your
speech is more than a couple of minutes long, you can use
transitions to orient your audience. A transition is a sentence or
two that summarizes one main point and introduces the next
one.
Using specific yet vivid language, personalizing the information
you present, and comparing new ideas with ones the audience
already understands can also help listeners remember what you
are saying.
Information Comprehension & Retention
Guidelines for Adapting Information to Help Audiences
Understand and Remember
Appeal to diverse learning styles.
Orient the audience with transitions.
Choose specific and familiar language.
Use vivid language and examples.
Personalize information.
Compare unfamiliar ideas with those the audience recognizes.

18. One prominent model for understanding learning styles, called
Kolb’s cycle of learning, conceptualizes learning preferences
along four dimensions: feeling, thinking, watching, and doing.
Exhibit 5.1 depicts how the watching–doing and feeling–
thinking dimensions of the cycle of learning theory result in
four types of learners.
8
Language & Cultural Differences
© 2011 Cengage Learning
When you address listeners from ethnic and language groups
different from your own, be sure to…
…work to be understood when speaking in your second
language.
…show respect for your audience by choosing culturally
appropriate supporting material.
You can help your audience by speaking more slowly and
articulating as clearly as you can. By slowing your speaking
rate, you give yourself additional time to pronounce difficult
words.
In addition, when you are speaking to audiences who are
different from you, you may need to conduct additional research
to find statistics, examples, and other supporting material that
will be meaningful to the audience. Or you may need to
elaborate on ideas that would be self-explanatory in your own
culture.
Forming a Specific Plan of Audience Adaptation: An audience

19. adaptation plan should answer these questions:
How relevant will the audience find this material?
What is my audience’s initial disposition toward my speech
topic likely to be?
What common ground do audience members share with one
another and with me?
What can I do to enhance my credibility?
How can I make it easier for listeners to comprehend and
remember the information I will share?
What language or cultural differences do audience members
have with one another and with me?
9
© 2011 Cengage Learning
There are three things to aim at in public speaking: first, to get
into your subject, then to get your subject into yourself, and
lastly, to get your subject into the heart of your audience
~ Alexander Gregg
10