A Functional State With A Brain State

A Functional State With A Brain State
Putnam argued that "the psychological properties are functional, not physical" (Putnam, 1967, p81), this is, according to Putnam, those functional
properties must be "abstract properties" (Putnam, 1967, p.299) , nonetheless, Putnam claimed that depends upon physical and chemical properties of
the brain, therefore, by applying the completeness of physics, those functional properties must be physical, and this physical view of functional
states is defended by Lewis: "these causal roles which belong by analytic necessity to experiences belong in fact to certain physical states. Since
those physical states possess the definitive characteristic of experience, they must be the experiences." (Lewis, 1970, p. 17), however, this lead to the
question, how identify a functional state with a brain state, avoiding the constraints of the identity theory? A plausible answer is tried to identify a
functional state with a brain state via multiple realizability, but contrary to Putnam, keeping functional states as physical states; for instance Lewis
give us a point of departure: Mental state M = the occupant of causal role R (by definition of M). Neural state N = the occupant of causal role R (by
the psychological theory). в€
ґ Mental state M = neural state N (by transitivity of =) (Lewis, 1972/2002, p.88) On this view, as was pointed out, Lewis
introduces another ingredient in the identity theory, this is the causal role, but how this causal role lets to think about a mental state like a
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The Caste System In Hinduism
When thinking of Hinduism, one is immediately reminded of karma, reincarnation, and India. It is the third largest religion in the world. In reality,
there is no single definition of what Hinduism actually is. Being a religion that is built on an undefined background, the only solidarity that holds the
'idea' of Hinduism together is the basic ideals that the many sects are based on, which creates an animistic basic religion, or a collection of overlapping
religions that we call Hinduism today.
Basic religion often refers to religious ideas that are not well preserved or written down, which can be generally associated with the religions of
pre–historic peoples. Hinduism, being one of the oldest religions in the world, carries this label even though it is widely practiced in the modern
world. It is practiced by a wide range of people that range from indigenous tribes of simple economic backgrounds to ... Show more content on
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Within Hinduism, the caste system is another aspect that lays foundational ground for taboos. The caste system is a segregation system that separates
the people of Hinduism into five types of social groups. At the top of the pyramid–like social latter are Brahmins, or the priests. Next, there are
Khsatriyas, the warriors. This class is followed by the Vaishyas (landowners, merchants) then the Shudras (servants). Lastly, there are the Untouchables.
These people are below all other caste levels. As the name states, one would literally attempt to avoid dealing directly with the Untouchables whenever
at all possible. They include people with jobs such as latrine cleaners and midwives.
A strong example of magic within Hinduism is the Atharvaveda. In the early Vedas, the Atharvaveda is a collection of mantras to be used as magic
spells. Mantras are sacred words, verses, or sounds that can be used not only for magic but for meditation and praise as well. All words spoken within
the mantras are believed to carry

Rene Descartes Argument For Substance Dualism
If you put a specific tool in a toolbox the robot will become lost. If the robot picks the objects up it should also be able to clearly see and identify
objects and understand commands. It should recognize the "it" in question is the tool that is to be put down, "go back in time to remember the moment
when you put down the tool, and distinguish the tool you put down from other ones of similar shapes and sizes." Researchers from MIT's Computer
Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory present an Alexa–like System that allows robots to understand their items in their environment better.
For example, if you tell a robot that one box on a table has crackers, and one box has sugar, and then ask the robot to "pick up the snack," the hope is ...
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The robot/human's mind is private and can only be accessed by introspection. The problem of the ghost in the machine is that how do you know the
robot has a mind if you can only observe its behaviors? How do you know it has a mind of its own? In the monism view of things the robot has a
mind because we are just looking at its wiring just like the human brain has wiring that controls how it functions. The cons of ghost in the machine is
we don't know if the robot has a mind because we can only observe its

Monotheism : Monism And Hinduism
Monotheism can be defined as the idea of one single God (Richter 28). Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are all monotheistic religions which follow one
transcendent Creator of all things. Monism, on the other hand, refers to belief in an ultimate reality that is single and unique, like God, but not
personified (Richter 31). Monism is evident in aspects of Hinduism such as the idea of Brahman in the last of the early Hindu writings. While both
terms have more differences than similarities, they share the belief in one God or divine being. Also, they are both considered forms of theism.
Conversely, while monism does not note a difference between the idea of God and creation but rather involves just one ultimate reality,monotheism
clearly does. For example, Buddhists seek to be free of the suffering caused by desires and pleasures extending from the individual self, whereas
Christians believe to be created beings who are completely dependent on God (Olson). Furthermore, monism does not consider the empirical self to be
a real thing but just an illusion from which we must fight to break free such as in Buddhism where followers seek to reach enlightenment by denying
the body of earthly pleasures. In contrast, monotheistic religions such as Christianity and Judaism emphasize that the most important thing humans
should have is a personal relationship with God since He is the one who has ultimate control of man's life and destiny.
In addition, monism does not make a distinction

Hinduism Is The Major Religion Of India And Is Monism Essay
Hinduism is the major religion of India and is monism. It is defined as "uniting the worship of many Gods with a belief in a single divine reality."
(Molloy, 2015, p.75). "Hinduism is not a single, undefined religion; it is more like a family or beliefs" (Molloy, 2015, p.75). Hinduism is a
religion where it is not as structured or has a lot of rules as catholic or baptist. I like it because it is most based off of a way of living your life to
reach the ultimate destination. Which is the "path of desire" pleasure and success to achieve them you must maintain the fundamental rules of life
they are the 5 principles; 1. God Exists: One Absolute OM. One Trinity: Brahma, Vishnu, Maheshwara (Shiva) Several divine forms, 2. All human
beings are divine, 3. Unity of existence through love, 4. Religious harmony, and 5. Knowledge of 3 Gs: Ganga (sacred river), Gita (sacred script),
Gayatri (sacred mantra). And the 10 disciplines 1. Satya (Truth), 2. Ahimsa (Non–violence), 3. Brahmacharya (Celibacy, non–adultery), 4. Asteya (No
desire to possess or steal), 5. Aparighara (Non–corrupt), 6. Shaucha (Cleanliness), 7. Santosh (Contentment), 8. Swadhyaya (Reading of scriptures), 9.
Tapas (Austerity, perseverance, penance) 10. Ishwarpranidhan (Regular prayers). (#######) "Hinduism has no identifiable founder, no strong
organizational structure to defend it and spread its influence." (Molloy, 2015, p.75). It originates from 1,0000 B.C. and the scripture that is mostly used
is the Vedas, it

Mind Body Dualism
In The Concept of Mind, Gilbert Ryle labels the theory for mind–body dualism as "The Dogma of the Ghost in the Machine" (Ryle, 5). The argument
for mind–body dualism states that two substances exist: physical substances and mental substances. 'Physical substances are composed of matter' (Ryle,
3). Moreover, physical substances are beings like bodies; they have a spatial location, but they cannot think. In comparison, 'mental substances consist
of consciousness' (Ryle, 3). Mental substances are beings like minds; they can think, but they do not have a spatial location. Furthermore, the theory for
mind–body dualism states that every living person has both a mind, which is a mental substance, and a body, which is a physical substance, and that
the mind interacts with the body. Thus, when Ryle speaks of the ghost in a machine, he is referring to the idea that there exists a mental substance, a
mind, which exists inside of the body, a physical substance. The mind is the ghost, which is inside the body,... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Moreover, analytic behaviorism is the idea that it is a specific behavior, the statements or claims an individual makes, that an individual's mental
state(s) can be explained. Analytic behaviorists hold that claims about mental states "analytically entail" (Handout 3) a disposition to act in a specific
manner. This means that claims about mental states are the consequence of a specific mental state. For example, if Donald Trump says "I have a
desire for soda", then one can reasonably deduce that Donald Trump is likely to drink a soda – that Trump has a behavioral disposition to drink soda.
An analytic behaviorist holds the view that Donald Trump's assertion for a desire of soda is a consequence of the mental state of wanting soda. There
is no ambiguity in what Donald Trump is asserting. The assertion is a consequence of the

Debating the Topics Monism and Vedanta Essay
Monism and Vedanta Philosophical way on humanity, for centuries philosophers have debated on a topic called Monism. Monists hold the principle
that being is purely based upon one critic "category of being" this means that either the person is made up of only the body or only the mind (Morris).
Because Animists, Hindus, and Buddhists believe that reality is one and that everything that exists is a functioning part of that whole which is spirit
are for the most part monists. Western people for the most part may be called a monist also as they believe that God is dead and matter is the only
substance to reality. As a consequence,monism is the claim that mind and matter essentially the same. The concept of transcendental reality ... Show
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Behaviorist, B.F.Skinner, claims that someone is thirsty because they drink, not because they drink because they are thirsty (Skinner). There are also
many examples of people who had their basic behavior change, as a result of chemical use, brain injuries. And with all this mounting evidence there
are many people who believe that there are no NON–PHYSICAL MINDS, and that we only have BRAINS, and these people are called Monist. The
Upanishads is called the ultimate reality– Brahman. It means the ultimate reality that is behind the universe and all the gods. The Upanishads describe
Brahman as the eternal, the conscious, and infinite. Some pantheist thinkers consider that devotion is nothing but an easier path towards reaching the
same remote union with the impersonal Ultimate Reality, towards attaining the death of personhood, the main source of illusion which is called
Maya. Maya being the biggest illusion of reality, it makes a person Avidya or in simple language ignorant. It is explained in the Upanishads that
Moksha is the most important factor, because it is called the freedom, it brings a person to a point in life where they don't need to reincarnate because
they have reached the high aspire of life, and got Moksha (simple words– free from the world). Samasara (world) is the cycle of death and life and
rebirth. To get Moksha from the Samasara you have to completely understand the Brahman and accept

Dualism Vs Monism
Are the mind and the brain one unit? Well, depending on who you ask, you will get a different answer. Monists believe the brain and mind are one
entity and dualists believe they are separate. I think the mind and the brain are two very different parts of what make us who we are, making me a
dualist. The brain, specifically the brain stem, is what keeps us alive. The mind, you could argue, is not as important to keeping us alive, but it is what
gives us each a personality and identity. Our minds are ever changing, learning from our mistakes and forming our ethics and morals. The mind and the
brain function together harmoniously, but are not one in the same.
The tangible brain and the invisible mind are not a single unit. Our minds are part of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The documentary juxtaposes actor's minds with a criminal's mind. The criminal has been diagnosed with multiple personality disorder, or
dissociative identity disorder (DID). The doctors are hypothesizing that if the criminal truly has DID, each of his alter's brain scans will be
differing, just as my brain scans would differ from my friend's. In the brain scans of an actor, you can see no difference in their scan, even when
they are trying to emulate one of the criminal's alters; this is as expected. Just because you are trying to act in a different way, does not mean you
can alter your brain's chemistry and makeup. In the criminal diagnosed with DID, however, each alter's brain scan is very different, lighting up the
brain in various areas depending on the alter's personality (FRONTLINE). To me, this only validates a dualists beliefs. These scans show how each
person's mind is very different in they way it operates, even when trying to emulate someone else. Each alter's brain scan shows how different they
are. According to Minsky, if we were all to be one body and one mind, then every person's brain scan would be almost exactly the same. Once again, he
claimed that we are all born with an inherent consciousness, which would mean that the evolution of human emotion would have been very little over
the past thousand years. Therefore, if Minsky's claims are

What are the strengths and weaknesses of dualism and monism?
Dualism and monism is a famous philosophy topic from ancient to now. The word "Dualism" means that our physical and our mental are
independent. And our body and our mind cannot be the same. It is because of mind and body is two separate substances. In the contract, the
"monism" means that both of the physical and mental are combined being one. And our mind and body are indivisible and are each influenced by the
other. The monism and dualism individually has its strengths and weaknesses. The mind and body problem can be divided into many different
questions. We can consider or ask by ourselves that what is the mind? What is the body? And do both of them are co–existing, or does the mind only
exist in the body? Or does the body only exist... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I think that the body not only is functional to the mind but also is beautiful, special and productive. There are several arguments to argue that the
mind and body are not separate substances. And also, this is especially true in the face of its many different views, one of which does not attack
substance dualism directly, but does so indirectly by attacking the very idea of dualism itself. The argument begins by looking at the question of how
dualism became so popular. It claims that, firstly, it had to do with the fact that the great majority of Western philosophers around the time when the
dualism was at its peak were religious, and most of them are specifically of the Christian faith. Thus, one feature of their religious beliefs was to
believe in immortality, and in order to settle their belief with their philosophy, they had to support dualism; the reason being that it was very difficult
to believe in immorality without believing in dualism. There has been an unbelievable decline of those who support dualism. Thus, the positive
relationship between the declines of support for dualism, and the lack of religious beliefs in philosophers, and the idea of support dualism was based
on subjective religious ideals. Therefore it is first weakness of the dualism. And it is the good point to influence people to more support the monism
theory. The second argument to against dualism is in their use of introspection. Introspection involves looking into

Christian Classical Theism
Every person in the world, from generations past to future civilizations, sees the world through a lens that can be defined as a worldview. Every lens
is different because every person is unique. Many of these worldviews share similar overarching themes leading into a category we have titled
religion; however, worldview is not simply composed of a religious affiliation. Worldview encompasses the entirety of how an individual views the
world and all that is that within it. This view often becomes dictated by their religious beliefs and personal interaction with society and culture.
CHRISTIAN CLASSICAL THEISM
I can define my worldview as looking through the lens of Christian Classical Theism with a heavy influence from an Evangelical Protestantism ... Show
The influence of Evangelical Protestantism in my worldview refines the belief in only the scripture. As a child, I attended a church every Sunday that
had "Sola Scriptura" inscribed on the pulpit. Every sermon that the pastor preached was based entirely on scripture and I stand by this view of the
Christian religion. From this standard, my belief includes the necessity to personally ask Jesus into your life and ask for His saving grace and mercy,
the understanding that the only source of salvation is through Jesus's sacrifice, requirement of sharing the Gospel, and a rapture of all Christians before
the Great Tribulation.
EASTERN PANTHEISTIC MONISM
Under an Eastern Pantheistic Monism worldview, all is God and all is One. There is an overarching understanding that the soul of every human being
belongs to the Soul of the Cosmos and after this understanding is achieved each soul is joined to the One (Soul of the Cosmos). Pantheism and Monism
have evolved rapidly over the past three decades which led to a stark division of beliefs according to different branches of Pantheism. Eastern
Pantheistic Monism has also adapted into a form of New Age Gnosticism.
Monism. The belief that everything is one is classified as Monism. Diversity in the world is a faulty and invalid perspective under this worldview.
There is no dichotomy between body and mind and there is no separation of God and the

The Three Concepts Of Donald Davidson's Anomalous Monism
Donald Davidson's Mental Events, challenges how we discuss mind–body interactions. The thesis presented by Davidson, is that of Anomalous
Monism, which attempts to answer the causality of mental and physical events. Differing from forms of the more common Dualism, Davidson accepts
monism as the best way to describe the mind–body relationship. Meaning he accepts token identity and rejects type–identity. Davidson's argument
consists of three key principles. The first being the Principle of Causal Interaction which states that at least some mental events interact causally with
physical events. The second is the Principle of the Nomological Character of Causality, where there is causality there must be law (Deterministic law).
The third is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Essentially, he is saying that the mental–physical relationship is dependent on an identity that is not connected by psycho–physical laws but on the
properties of the two terms. Thus, The Principle of Causal Interaction states that at least some mental events interact causally with physical events.
Therefore, the principle is saying that some mental events do not causally interact with physical ones, which differentiates Anomalous monism from
other theories on psycho–physical causation.
The Principle of the Nomological Character of Causality, is Davidson's second principle for Anomalous monism. As we review the next two principles
we will run into many seemingly contradicting points that can be argued in favor anEd against Davidson's Anomalous monism. The second principle
states that, where there is causality, there must be law: events related as cause and effect fall under strict deterministic laws. Right away we can
recognize the contradiction with the first principle of causal interaction. According to the first principle of casual interaction there are no
psycho–physical laws in which we can define mental and physical term, but in the second principle it relies on strict deterministic laws. The principles
appear to begin to contradict each other but Davidson depend on his specific explanations to make sense of his seemingly opposing

Presocratic Milesian Research Paper
The three presocratic Milesian thinkers certainly stood out from other early philosophers at the time. Their practice of material monism was a unique
way to look at the world, and some say that it was the first time that individuals tried to unify the world. While the earlier Milesians – namely Thales
and Anaximander – had developed their own theories as to explaining what "stuff" makes up everything, Anaximenes had done more to supplement and
establish his theory. While the term 'scientist' was first coined by William Whewell in 1833, over two thousand years after Anaximenes and the other
Milesians lived, science had existed long before that (plato.stanford.edu). Even though Anaximenes' lack of true experimentation and the belief that his
subjects were divine made him a thinker rather than a scientist, he was ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
His viewpoint opposed those of Thales and Anaximander, but was more developed; Thales believed that water was the answer, while Anaximander
simply decided that the answer was indefinite. Anaximenes integrated the processes of rarefaction and condensation into his theory – air could turn
into fire through rarefaction, while it could be turned into water and then into earth by condensation. While he had thought all of this out extensively,
he failed to prove this; Anaximenes never experimented. Experimentation is a crucial part of the scientific method and, while the method wasn't
established in presocratic society, a true scientific theory or law cannot be created without it. Additionally, Anaximenes believed that air was a deity.
Abstract concepts – in this case, divine principles – almost immediately invalidated his beliefs. Divinity has never been scientifically proven, and
including a divine component in a hypothesis makes it irrelevant and impossible to correctly

Monotheism And Pantheism Similarities
The concept of ultimate reality is one that has been invented and reinvented since the beginning of human kind. As the times have changed, so have the
concepts, creating differentiating gaps between the ideas. One of the first concepts recorded is known as polytheism, which is similar to animism.
When science was not popular and individuals barely had shelter from natural "evils", such as storms, they were inclined to believe everything had god
–like characteristics. For instance, they believed gods were in charge of things like the harvest, fertility, and weather. Since most lived the lives of
farmers, they worshipped nature, even making sacrifices to pay their respects in order to prevent tragedies. Moving forward, a similar concept would
be the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Furthermore, a related reality known as pantheism shares a similar perception with monism regarding the topic of one God. Pantheists unify the idea of
God with everything else, they believe God is not a separate entity. Completely opposing polytheism, monotheism is the belief of a single, all–powerful
God. This reality differs from monism and pantheism because it states that everything is independent of God. All of these realities, though very
different, have commonalities: they all believe in something bigger than just us.
While there is no way of knowing which reality is the truth, there are two that are more widespread throughout the world. Polytheism and monotheism
are the prevalent philosophies in the modern world. Religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and tribal religions are representative of polytheism.
Meanwhile, the most popular religions in the west like Christianity, Judaism, and Islam make up the monotheistic religions. As a Catholic, my beliefs
are pulled towards the direction of monotheistic beliefs. It is easier for me to imagine that there is one independent God looking after us and once our
time on this Earth is done we will be judged for our

Criticism Of The Cartesian Dualism
A further criticism against the Cartesian dualism is that it seems to be committing the "Masked Man Fallacy", which can be outlined as follows:
someone knows who John is, but he/she is at a party and sees a masked man who he/she doesn't know. Under Leibniz's Law, for John and the masked
man to be identical they ought to have the same properties, which isn't the case, as he/she knows who John is and doesn't know who the masked man
is. So, he/she thinks that the two are different people for this mere reason – but this conclusion is based on what he/she knows, not on the real
properties of John and the masked man.
Similarly, Descartes describes what it seems to him (i.e. what he thinks) but doesn't offer objective truths (in the analogy, the masked man and John
could have well been the same person).
After having taken in consideration all the criticisms against substance dualism, I will evaluate the materialist approach to the issue in question.
As aforementioned, this theory holds that there is nothing transcendental from the physical and it is a form of ontological monism.
Hobbes was the first philosopher to introduce the view of mind–body materialism, which can be summarised, as "that which has no body is not part of
the universe". ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Its stronger version, known as the type identity theory, states that mental states are exactly the same as brain states and that science will one day decode
all of the bio–chemical activity in the brain to discover all mental activity. Above all, there are scientific investigations that confirm the intimacy
between mind and brain to offer evidence for this theory; the Australian philosopher J.J.C Smart claims that in the future science will demonstrate that
conscious experiences are in fact brain

Life After Death
Many of us have some view or idea of the afterlife – whether it is some kind of utopia or even if there is one at all. Research conducted by Douglas
Davies found that around 29% of us believe that nothing happens after death, 8% think that our bodies awaits resurrection and 12% believe that we
will come back as someone else. Of course there are some more religious people, 22%, who just think that we should trust in God, the remaining 34%
of us believe that our souls passes on to another world. These views can all be classed into the traditional divide used when discussing the soul and life
after death. There is the Monist view – the idea that the body and the soul exists as a single unity, the souls existence is dependent on the body,... Show
Dawkins taught that we survive death both memetically and genetically. We pass our genes onto the next generation; the body is merely a survival
machine for our genes. Through the minds of others we are able to survive death through their memories of us. Ennius wrote 'for I shall live, as I pass
to and fro through the mouths of men'.
Hick developed the 'Alternative Materialistic' view. This provides an alternative interpretation of resurrection. Hick put forward the idea of
'psycho–somatic unity', the body and soul are one but we are made of matter and it cannot be separated. Resurrection occurs 'in another space of an
exact psycho–physical replica of the deceased person'. This is the idea that a physical you as an individual being can continue to exist after death.
Hick uses the example of a person travelling from London to New York, for the person to be recognisable, their physical appearance and character
must be recognisable for the person greeting them in New York.
There are many different views regarding the soul and its existence. Many of these views are conflicting and have many

Mind And Body
Patrick Katz
PHI 1103
Michael Bruno
Word Count–1218
5 May 2016
Me, Myself, and My Body
The mind is about mental processes and thought, while the body is the physical aspects of the brain. For years, philosophers have been perplexed by
the mind–body problem. The mind is about mental processes and thought, while the body is the physical aspects of the brain. The mind–body problem
discusses the mind and body, along with the relationship between them. Dualists and monists are the two types of people that take a stand on the issue.
While Dualism may spilt mind and body, monism is the belief that the mind and body are together one. Each of these beliefs can be broken down into
types, justifying monism or dualism. Though each have been ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
On the other side of dualism is interaction. Interaction is the way the mind and body interact among each other, so the three variations of this are
interactionism, epiphenomenalism, and parallelism. Interactionism is where one believes that the mind and body influence one another. Next,
epiphenomenalism dictates that mental occurrences are caused by physical ones, but have no influence on the physical. Now parallelism is different
because it shares the view that both mental and physical states are not casually interacting, yet running in harmony with it. These are all the different
types of dualism that have been theorized to this day.
Many philosophers justify why dualism is the right theory behind the mind–body problem. However, there are others that believe monism is the ideal
theory towards the question. Monism is the view that the mind and body are essentially one. Within monism there are several different types; idealistic
monism, materialistic monism, neutral monism, reflexive monism, substantial monism, attributive monism, and absolute monism. To begin, the
idealistic monism view is one that shows the mind being all that exists and that everything else is simply a part of one's mental depiction. Materialistic
monism on the other hand is the complete opposite in that it holds that only the physical is real and the mind is reduced to the physical. More specific

The Mind-Body Problem of Physicalism
Physicalism is the thesis that everything is physical, or at any rate everything is necessitated by or supervenes on the physical. In contemporary
philosophy , physicalism is most frequently associated with the mind–body problem in philosophy of mind , regarding which physicalism holds that all
that has been ascribed to "mind" is more correctly ascribed to "brain" or the activity of the brain. The mind–body problem is the problem of explaining
how our mental states, events and processes–like beliefs, actions and thinking–are related to the physical states, events and processes in our bodies. A
long tradition in philosophy has held, with RenГ© Descartes, that the mind must be a non–bodily entity: a soul or mental substance. This thesis is
called 'substance dualism' (or 'Cartesian dualism') because it says that there are two kinds of substance in the world, mental and physical or material.
The philosophical rival of dualists have been the philosophical doctrine of monism. Monism denies that minds and their bodies are distinct substances.
Monists assert that substances are all of one kind. They could say that all substances are mental (idealism); or they could say that all substances are
material (materialism). In contemporary philosophy however there are not many philosophers who assert all things are mental hence the dualism,
monism controversy has become more a controversy between dualism and materialism or what is more properly physicalism. The terms physicalism and

Dualism Vs Monism
Philosophy of mind is a particular field of philosophy that focuses on what substances make up the universe. Some philosophers believe in only one
substance making up all life, the universe, and everything. These people are called Monists and their beliefs further separated by whether they believe
everything is made up of mind or everything is made up of matter. However, Dualists believe in not one substance, but that two, particularly both mind
and matter, make up the universe. While these are the main two groups, there also exists Pluralists who believe in more than one substance, and
Nihilists, who believe that there are no kinds of substances. In contrast to the whole field of Philosophy of mind, there exists behaviorism.
Monism means that there is only one substance making up the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Despite the fact that tricking human senses can be relatively easy, humans are far more likely to believe what they are observing rather than what
they are being told. This second form of Monism deals with matter as the singular substance that makes up everything and is simply known as
Materialistic Monism. This belief is that everything, including mind, is made up of matter. This belief is one of the most common beliefs before
the rise of philosophy, this is mainly due to how easy it is for any person to believe in it, as the "evidence" is all around them. While this is
certainly a valid viewpoint, it is far more primitive than what philosophers have been able to come up with since then. Some notable philosophers
who are materialistic monists include Thomas Hobbes. He believed that even God was a material being (Stanford Hobbes). Materialistic and
Idealistic monism both suffer from the idea that either mind or matter are derived from the other. This is a considerable drawback as if both of these
distinct ideas can be clearly thought of prior to choosing a side, it would seem to make more sense to choose dualism. This is because of how either

The Mind Body Problem Of Monism
Imagine you're writing a final exam. You're feeling anxious because you didn't study. Now you're franticly trying to recall any piece of information.
While experiencing these different mental states one might think it's just the physical brain processing that feeling of nervousness and brings
information to our consciousness. But is there something other than the brain controlling our mental states? Most people would call this the mind. Some
philosophies describe the mind as "simply a physical thing" while others believe the mind "is a non–physical entity ... sometimes called 'the ghost in
the machine.'" (Friedenber & Silverman, 2006. p.30) This essay will briefly describe three major philosophies that try to explain the mind body problem.
One philosophy that explains the mind–body problem is monism. Monism states that all our thoughts can be reduced down to a single substance.
(Friedenber & Silverman, 2006. p.31) In other words, the mental and physical realities no different. Two main ideas arise from monism; either all our
physical experiences are mental projections or our mental experiences result from physical substances. If you think atoms make up everything, you
believe in physical monism. Physical monism states that "nothing exists apart from physical world" (McLeod, 2007). Instead of a physical only
reality, one might believe that what we perceive to be physical is just a creation of our mind. Two varieties of monism, Idealism and Solipsism,
believe in a mental

Strengths And Weaknesses Of Dualism
It seems very funny, ironic and challenging to try and understand the mind. Perhaps that is why we continue to have so many questions about it. After
all, we are trying to understand the entity, or matter that does the understanding in the first place? One fundamental question that has guided this
endeavor is, "what is the mind?" and more specifically, "what is the mind in relation to the brain?"(Friedenburg & Silverman, 2012: 26) Three theories
have emerged as the prevailing thoughts in today's age that try and make sense of the mind: monism, dualism and functionalism. Each have their own
strengths and weaknesses, but all–in–all, I believe that dualism is the strongest theory. It supports my Christian belief system and best explains what ...
(Descartes, Friedenburg & Silverman, 2012: 31) Furthermore, these two realms cannot be reduced into each other (Friedenburg & Silverman, 2012:
464). This explains the mind as something different or other than physical. The mental aspects are explained in various ways that can make up
sub–theories of dualism. The mental can be your soul or spirit, or it can be a different substance than the brain in substance dualism (Descartes,
Friedenburg & Silverman, 2012: 32), or even can be made up of the same material as the brain, but have different properties in property dualism.
(Friedenburg & Silverman, 2012: 33). Functionalism takes an interesting turn from its counterparts of monism and dualism to ask, "are minds limited
to brains?" (Friedenburg & Silverman, 2012: 35), and "is it more important to our understanding of reality what something does than what something
is?" (Turner, Lecture_4ppx) To make sense of this question Friedenburg & Silverman discusses two ways of classification: Physical kinds– groupings
based on physical or material makeup (Friedenburg & Silverman, 2012: 474) and functional kinds – groupings based on similar actions and tendencies
(Friedenburg & Silverman, 2012: 467). Functionalism looks at the mind with functionality as paramount since the mental states can be performed in
different ways in different entities, but produce the same result, or function (Friedenburg & Silverman, 2012: 35) Considering these various views,
dualism seems to be the

Naturalism And Monism
Naturalism plagues the world of business in a culture where postmodernism is steadily on the rise. Worldviews underlie presuppositions that infect
daily life. In the world of business, the desire to increase profit margins takes precedence over many moral and ethical principles. This goal to
maximize profit propels job creation, business deals, investment, advertising, etc. Money is deeply valued and desired in business, making profit an
essential need for personal and corporate survival. The roots of Naturalism flood the profit–driven mindset, causing those in the financial world to
operate out of autonomy, with disregard for any god or moral code. A worldview is a person's philosophy of life, which in turn influences their
decisions and outlook on life itself. The naturalistic worldview fuels the businessman's presupposition of the business goal; he values profit over people.
Valuing selfish gain over caring for people stems from deeper roots of belief. At the root of Naturalism's metaphysical components, is rejection of any
existence of god. Science and math are highly valued by naturalists. Concrete evidence is their basis for reality. "In traditional philosophical terms,
Naturalism is a form of Monism. It holds, in some order of interdependence, that reality, knowledge and method each are of only one basic kind. That
is, there are not two radically different kinds of reality or knowledge or method. It is fundamentally opposed to Pluralism, and most importantly to

Spinoza On Substance Monism
The stance that Spinoza has on substance is that there is only one substance, out of which all else is somehow constituated. Substance for the Stoics, is
also seen as a monist philosophy. Because Stoics think of "the world as a unitary system that contains all beings" they should be considered substance
monism. This is often cited as the clearest example of how Spinoza was most influenced by Stoic philosophy. However, Spinoza states that there is
only one substance, but further from that, he unambiguously signals that understanding it is a prerequisite to understanding the epistemological,
psychological, and moral issues where as for the Stoics this is not completely obvious; nor it is obvious that they place substance at the basis of all
philosophical investigation. From the Stoic view, they do make philosophical investigation being with nature: we must first learn about it before we
can advance to logic and ethics. So upon initial thought, one might think although they may not call it substance, the Stoics do have nature and its
conceptual and argumentative status seems similar to that of Spinozistic substance. Therefore, because the Stoics have a concept that is equivalent in
key respects to Spinoza's substance, the differences that I stated above may appear not so great after all.
What lies at the heart of Stoic monism is the intuition that the world constitutes a genuine and well integrated whole, but by contrast, Spinozistic
monism is held to be based on either

Cosmic Dualism In Parmenides On Nature
According to the Stamford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, existence monism is defined as "Existence monism targets concrete objects and counts by
individual token. It holds that exactly one concrete object token exists (the One)." This idea of oneness is represented in Parmenides' text On Nature.
Parmenides argues that we are part of a monistic universe, therefore Parmenides' text On Nature is a Monistic work "what is, is uncreated and
indestructible, alone, complete, immovable and without end. Nor was it ever, nor will it be; for now it is, all at once, a continuous one."
When we compare and contrast "cosmic dualism" of the Zend Avesta of Zoroaster against Parmenides' text On Nature we realize that we are
exanimating two contradictory ideas. In ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is even more challenging to imagine a society that does not believe in fighting for what they think is good, or to deny the change that our minds
and bodies experiment. One possible benefit of a society that denies what their eyes see is that they might be more peaceful, do their belief that
they cannot lose anything because they already have it all, and there is no point in fighting for something because you cannot fight against
yourself. Like I said trying to fit monism into our logic world does not work perfectly, in a world with perceivably limited resources. For these
reasons I believe that our only option left is Zoroastrian cosmic dualism. The effects of cosmic dualism are that we have options and the power to
choose between good and evil. Some people argue that this division of good and evil also cause division among humans and nations, due to the
fact that good and evil are subjective and to the idea that one can fight for either and that it is right to fight for either due to the fact that one is evil
and another side is good. Dualism creates division and war therefore is a troubling idea. Moreover dualism also creates light and love just as creates
hate and darkness, so it is a more romantic idea in my opinion. Nations, families and individuals have thrived under the forces of change and will
continue to do so; future thinkers will find a better

Spinoza's Argument for Substance Monism
Topic: Spinoza's argument for substance monism Baruch Spinoza's The Ethics addresses the nature of God and his role in the universe, yet his
dedication to supported rationality leads him to the unconventional conclusion that God and the very substance of the universe are one and the same.
Spinoza bases his argument in deductive reasoning, which requires the establishment of premises; in The Ethics, these premises come in the form of
definitions and axioms. God in this context is simply "an absolutely infinite being;" it is important to note that Spinoza does not unfoundedly argue that
God has sentience or other properties associated with humans (158). However, God indisputably has substance, which Spinoza initially defines as
something that has independent, necessary conception. A substance has essence, which forms the fundamentals of its existence; essences are
interpreted by the intellect in the form of attributes. Modes are the ways through which an object presents itself through being; they are the "affections
of a substance" (158). These definitions allow Spinoza to say that his conclusions necessarily follow from ideas which are true, making his argument
supported entirely by logic. Spinoza begins his argument with a section devoted to a core group of axioms; it is necessary that the reader accept these
as universally true principles in order for that truth to extend into the rest of his argument. Axioms 1 and 2 state that something in existence can
potentially be in

The Mind Body Issue Is The Subject Of Extraordinary Debate
Rationalists and researchers have talked about the mind–body issue for a long time. The essence of the mind–body issue is that people have a
subjective affair of an internal life or awareness that appears to be expelled from the physical world. In spite of a subjective affair of a partition
amongst psyche and body, brain and body need to interface somehow. Precisely how the psyche and body associate is the subject of extraordinary
debate. Toward the start of this course, I realized that my perspectives on themind–body issue inclined more toward monism, however I didn 't have a
reasonable method of reasoning for my position. Given the many–sided quality of the mind–body issue, I expected that both dualism and monism would
have ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the previous couple of decades, the field of brain research has propelled more neurochemical etiologies of mental issue, and Descartes ' dualism
couldn 't clarify how a neurochemical variation from the norm harms the non–physical personality (Churchland, 1988). At long last, dualism is not a
testable speculation (Cofer, 2002), and in this manner I can 't acknowledge it as logical.
The monist position, particularly monist realism, evades a large number of the previously mentioned imperfections of dualism. Monist realism keeps
up that every single subjective state, for example, cognizance, can be lessened to neuronal movement. Individuals with religious feelings may observe
monist realism to be shocking, on the grounds that diminishing awareness to a neural mark ruins the idea of through and through freedom. In any
case, late research demonstrates that cerebrum action and muscle development go before cognizant basic leadership, which plainly bolsters monist
realism (Libet, Gleason, Wright, and Pearl, 1983). Since I am not a religious individual, I do disagree with monist realism 's position on choice. As far
as awareness, I didn 't surmise that any of the relegated savants made an extraordinary showing with regards to clarifying why cognizance could by no
means be the result of neurons and neurotransmitters. I believed that John Searle verbalized the monist realist position soundly, in that awareness is
spatially confined to the cerebrum. Indeed, David

Davidson's Mind: Different From The Rest Of Reality
Davidson in this paper tries to explain why minds are very different from the rest of reality. He wants explain the idea that the vocabulary of the mental
(or mental concepts) is fundamentally different from the vocabulary of the physical. Davidson expresses the sharper distinction between the mental and
the physical using the thesis "that there cannot be strict psychophysical laws"(Chalmers, 117). He argues that there are no law like connection between
mental and the physical. Anomalous monism is the token identity theory together with the Anomalism of the mental or the physical. Anomalous
monism is the view that all mental events are physical but there are no strict laws or any connection between the mental and the physical and the
physical and mental phenomena cannot be given purely physical explanations. He initially talks about the three principles of the mental that are
individually convincing but together are inconsistent. He then describes a view about the mental and the physical that reconciles the three principles
(i.e. the three principles can be consistently reconciled). The first principle is "the Principle of Causal Interaction" (Chalmers, 117). This is the idea that
mental events cause physical events, physical events cause mental events and the mental events cause the mental events. Mind ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
There could be types of things and there could be particular token of those types. Token events are dated, particular unrepeatable events. The distinction
between type of events and token of events is important to explain how these three principles of the mental could be precise. Token identity theory
shows how the mental and the physical are related to ensure that these three principles could be true together. Moreover, it states that every token
mental event is a physical event but there is no assertion that the types of mental events are identical to the types of physical

In The Philosophy Of Mind, One Of The Most Prominent...
In the philosophy of mind, one of the most prominent philosophical theories is Monism. Monism, by itself, is the theory that reality consists of only
one kind of substance. Likewise, Anomalous Monism theorized and developed by Donald Davidson in his work, Mental Events, proposes that reality
consists of one kind of substance, namely, physical substance. That is, according to Davidson, all mental events are a part of the physical realm.
Furthermore, Anomalous Monism, also known as the token–identity theory, is Davidson's attempt to rectify the problem of the mind–body relationship –
which questions how the human mind and the body can causally interact. However, it appears that Davidson's Anomalous Monism states a
contradiction. As such, in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, the acceptance of the principle of anomalism of the mental would have us deny that there is such a causal law. On the other hand, if one
accepts the truth of the principle of the nomological character of causality and the principle of anomalism of the mental, it would imply that mental and
physical events do not causally interact. But how can this be the case if we were to accept the truth of the principle of causal interaction? Lastly, the
third contradiction arises from accepting the truth in the principle of causal interaction and the principle of anomalism of the mental. By accepting
these two principles/statements, it would imply that there are no causal laws that dictate such causal relationships.
Acknowledging these contradictions, Davidson proposes a solution to reconcile these contradictory principles/statements. The solution is to have
mental events be described as physical events. In other words, Davidson argues that mental events which causes physical events are subject to a
causal law only when the mental event is described under a physical description. If, however, the mental event is described as a mental event then the
principle of anomalism of the mental would dictate that there is no causal law. But, as David argues, the solution is to not describe it as a mental
event but to describe it as a

John Spinoza 's Theory On Monism
Benedict De Spinoza is famous for his theory on monism. Monism is the notion that everything consists of only one thing. For Spinoza, this one thing
is a substance he calls God. His monism is the argument that God is the substance which makes up everything. This has been interpreted to work in a
variety of ways. In this essay, I am going to argue that Spinoza's monism does work through one interpretation of the numerical distinction of
substances and attributes. First, I will lay out Spinoza's actual argument for monism with its premises and conclusion. Next, I will introduce two
immediate criticisms for his argument by using two examples. The solution I will purpose is the Gu(e)roult–Loeb Interpretation, which will be applied
to these two examples. Due to the size of this essay, I will not be discussing the metaphysics of his argument. Thus, the argument I provide can be
considered is an indirect solution to his monism. It is still a solution in support of Spinoza's monism worth exploring.
Spinoza's monism argument starts with substance. According to Spinoza, everything is made up of either a substance, like God or nature, or a mode,
like colour or temperature. Substance is independent while modes are dependent on substance. Spinoza defines substance as "a being which is
absolutely infinite"; infinite meaning in space and attributes (what it is like to be something). God is the only substance which has infinite space and
attributes. This is because God needs to have

What Advantages Does SpinozaвЂ™s Substance Monism Have over...
Spinoza's philosophy as espoused in the Ethics was a response to Descartes' dualism. Through works such as the Ethics, Spinoza seeks to address the
main flaws in Descartes' philosophy.
These flaws included but were by no means limited to, proof for the existence of God and the interaction between mind and body.
This essay will highlight the advantages of Spinoza's monism over Descartes' dualism by looking at Spinoza's response to these issues.
First, in order to consider the advantages of Spinoza's substance monism over Descartes' dualism it is necessary to show how each philosopher
demonstrates their substance dualism or substance monism.
Tim Crane defines monism and dualism as follows: "Monism denies that minds and their ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
While the above steps demonstrate Spinoza's substance monism, they also show that the overarching factor in his philosophy is the argument for the
existence of God and God's attributes which necessarily follow.
The advantage of Spinoza's substance monism over Descartes' substance dualism in terms of his metaphysics of God/Nature, is that Spinoza's God is
one that supports his entire system. Where Descartes' Meditations is built on doubt, Spinoza's Ethics is built on certainty and on a series of definitions.
His notion that God is the only substance, the core of his monism, hinges on his definition of God/Nature:
By God I understand a being absolutely infinite, i.e., a substance consisting of an infinity of attributes, of which one expresses an eternal and infinite
essence (1def6)
While Descartes sought, through the Meditations, to be certain of the truth of his own existence as a 'thinking thing' and then prove God's existence,
Spinoza turns Descartes' argument on its axis. For Spinoza the argument that God exists as the only substance, because as a supremely perfect being he
must necessarily exist is the basis of the Ethics.
Spinoza's statement of God's existence as the only substance gives his argument a strong foundation from which to build the rest of his philosophy.
The axiomatic format of the Ethics enables Spinoza to set out his philosophy in a more direct manner than Descartes. While Descartes

Is The Mind Body Problem?
Philosophy is a complex field that tries to better understand the world we live in. There have been a multitude of amazing philosophers that have
helped shaped the world around us, all of which have had their own single beliefs. One of their main issues faced in philosophy is the mind–body
problem, and philosophers are still trying to solve this predicament to this day. Themind–brain problem is trying better to understand whether a
person's mental processes are the same as their physical processes. As of today, philosophy has broken the problem into two fundamental parts that
has been split down into separate subparts. Personally, I find it easier to believe in substance dualism, because of how I perceive the idea. This
however, is my own ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The secondary form of the mind–brain conflict is the concept of dualism. Dualism is the idea that instead of one substance, there are two different
substances. This concept tells individuals that there is spiritual dimension to a person's mind. This causes the consciousness in the mind, and a possible
enduring attribute. Dualism also believes that a person has a physical body and mind that work as one substance. While the non–physical aspects count
as the second substance (Philosophy 1). So to put it in simplest terms dualist deny that the brain and mind are the exact same thing (Caleff 1). The
first subpart is a form of dualism and is known as Elemental Property Dualism. Elemental Dualist believe that the mental substance can interact with a
person's brain. However they deny the idea that mental processes are the identical to the physical processes of the brain. In cases there have been two
problems that evolve with believing Elemental Property Dualism. The first being that if a mental property is fundamental, why are all the other
fundamental properties opposed. The second issue is that Elemental Dualism offers no sign of justification, for figuring the presence of a fundamental
property to clarify cognitive function (C.B.). This next property is also a form of dualism and is known as Interactionist. Interactionist is the concept
that unique properties in the mind can collaborate with the brain. They also believe that the consciousness of a person's mind is a

Similarities Between Descartes And John Locke Dualism
Descartes is a dualist and John Locke is a monist and they are both historical figures of psychology. Dualism is when a person believes an actuality
can be physical and non–physical. In addition, humans are made up of a mind, god, spirt, or soul which can be defined as an immaterial substance
that exists along with the brain and body. I am a dualist like Descartes because I believe that I have a physical body and I will be able to preform and
participate in physical activities, but once I pass away I believe that my spirit will live on and go to heaven. I believe once people die they will be
able to see their past family members and friends that have pasted away in this separate world that us humans know nothing about. People who believe
in

Compare And Contrast Monotheism And Monism
Monism vs. Monotheism The oneness of God, in the context of belief, can primarily be defined as monotheism. Under monotheism, God is speculated
to be the one real and true God that is in existence. His character, attributes, and essence are presumed to be uniquely fundamental and incompatible
from all other beings, i.e., gods associated other religions.
On the other hand, the belief in theological and metaphysical views that all is one, and that there are no fundamental divisions in any given spheres is
ultimately referred to as monism (Richter, 2017). Here, the universe is believed to have its origination in one essential principle, e.g., matter, and that it
is structured unitarily following this principle. Reality is defined in a whole other aspect. In this particular context, all of nature is underlined by a
unified set of laws. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
God has fashioned the natural universe in an ethical format, which constitutes to humanity exist there. Everything is related to being in God's hands.
The value system, system of belief, and the system of action are all determined significantly in propagation of God's uniqueness and personal status.
The conviction behind monotheism gives no room for other religion, and to some extent, other religions are termed as idolatrous, i.e., discarding to
what is less reduced than divine since only the stated religion is religion that is considered to be the only true one. This has often played a primary role
in justification of the fanatical action. (Richter,

Theory of Morality: Monism, Pluralism, Particularism
When considering the theory of morality. There are many different views about the guidelines humans should follow in order to be a good human and
live in a functional environment. Monism, pluralism, and particularism are three different ideas about how one should make decisions. Pluralism
seems to be the most plausible in our society. Monism states that there is one principle of rightness. An example of this is utilitarianism. The utilitarian
view considers the optional, obligatory and forbidden acts. Action X is forbidden if, and only if, x produces less than maximal utility. Action X is
obligatory, if and only if, X maximizes utility. Action X is optional if X is one of several actions that maximizes utility. Utility measures amounts
...
Examples are giving pleasure such as taking a nephew to a baseball game. The nephew could enjoy baseball or not enjoy it at all. It can go both
ways. When analyzing consequentialism, one would come to the conclusion that it is a monistic view. Particularism challenges consequentialism
when it states to always choose the action with the maximal amount of goodness to come of it. What if a human was in a situation where one had
to make a decision where both outcomes are equally good/bad. The example of whether a perfectly healthy man should be sacrificed for 5 ill
humans in need of organs. The goodness of saving 5 lives as opposed to one is considered to produce more goodness than keeping one life.
Obviously, this is not how our world works. The rule of consequentialism does not hold it's own with this example. Consequentialism bases their way
of making decisions by using a form of measurement. It seems that not all choices in life are that easy to make, especially by solely measuring
happiness. Particularism focuses more on particular circumstances. What could create more goodness in one situation could do the opposite in another
situation. Who is to say what creates the most happiness? One human may believe action a will create more happiness than action b, but another
human may believe action b will create more happiness. Consequentialism seems to be a good view for the overall wellness

Davidson Anomalous Monism
In "Psychology as Philosophy" Donald Davidson argues that there are no strict psychophysical laws that govern psychological events. Perhaps the
strongest argument that Davidson provides for this claim relies on the theory of 'anomalous monism'– which holds that psychological events are
physical events, yet are explained separately through intention not the laws that guide action these events do not adhere to strict laws when discussed in
the psychological sense. In this paper, I will argue that this argument holds true because it is virtually impossible to prove the nature of intent in the
physical sense, although intent is ever present in action. There is no action without intent yet the lack of identification of intent does not make intent...
There are no laws for thought by which intent and belief are guided so they cannot be limited by physical and quantifiable restraints and
limitations. This is where we find the limits of social science in comparison to other scientific disciplines. The limit thus placed on the social
sciences is set not by nature but by us when we decide to view men as rational agents with goals and purposes and subject to moral evaluation
(Davidson8). Thoughts are limitless were laws set boundaries how can u place an idea in a box where no box exist. "As long as it is behavior and
not something else we want to explain and describe, we must wrap the evidence to fit the frame. Physical concepts have different constitutive elements.
Standing ready as we must, to adjust psychological terms to one set of standards and physical terms to another, we know that we cannot insist on a
sharp and law– like connection between them. (Davidson

Logic
Spinoza's Argument for Substance Monism and Common Objections Spinoza's Ethics is widely thought of as Spinoza's greatest work. One noteworthy
claim that he makes in his Ethics is his argument for substance monism, or the existence of only one substance. In Proposition 14, Part I of his Ethics,
Spinoza states that "There can be, or be conceived, no other substance but God." This statement amounts to saying that everything else in this world,
whether it is extended or not, is a mere image of God. Spinoza's proof for this comes in three steps. One, assume that no two substances can share an
attribute. Two, assume that there exists a substance that contains infinite attributes. Three, by these two assumptions, another substance cannot exist...
Therefore, even if we could distinguish between two different affections, it would not necessarily say anything about the substances in themselves.
Thus, we cannot distinguish between substances just by their affections. Thus, substances can only be distinguished by attributes, in which case no
two substances can share an attribute. The second assumption Spinoza makes in proving substance monism is that God exists. Spinoza gives many
proofs for this, I will only give one. It is given that for every thing there must be a cause or reason for its existence or non–existence. It is also given
that this reason must be inside, or outside the thing being considered. Suppose God does not exist. The reason for this must be inside or outside God.
First, if the reason is inside God, it goes against our definition of God as a substance because substances necessarily exist (Proposition 7.) Thus the
reason is not inside God. Second, if the reason exists outside God, then we would be implying that a thing outside of God exists that is causing God's
non–existence. This thing that explains God then necessarily has the same nature as God because if not, it could not be the cause of God (Proposition
3.) But if it does have the same nature, we would consequently be claiming that God exists because this thing outside of god will identical to God.
Thus, no matter where the reason for God's non–existence lies, we cannot prove that God does not exist, and therefore God must exist.

Essay about Monism vs Dualism
     For centuries philosophers have debated on monism and dualism, two different philosophical views of the
human person. Philosophers have been trying to decipher whether the person is made up of the mind, the body, or both. Monists hold the belief that
existence is purely based upon one ultimate "category of being" this means that either the person is made up of only the body or only the mind
(Morris p155). Dualists hold the belief that existence is based upon the body as well as the mind and its mental properties (Morris p155).
     There are two basic types of monism. The first view is materialism, which states, "All that exists is matter,
configured into material objects" (Morris... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In other words, physical things are actually mental and everything is based on the mind. For example, when a person sees a tall tree, the tree does not
really exist it is just a picture in their mind. Idealism is not common among modern philosophers because idealists don't have any solid facts for their
argument that we exist with only our mind and what our mind produces (Morris p159). Another argument is that if the tree is a picture in a person's
mind then how come another person can see the exact same picture?      One type of monism is neutral monism.
Neutral monism concludes that neither mental nor physical properties are attributed to reality but rather a substance called neutral stuff (Encyclopedia
of Philosophy–Monism). Traditional materialism in monism proposes all things are part of the physical and the mental, the body and the mind
(Encyclopedia of Philosophy–Monism). This means that a person's mind works with their body through a simultaneous connection.
     Dualists disagree with the monist view of existence. Dualists hold the belief that there is not one basic form of
existence but that there are two forms of existence, the body and the mind. Dualists do believe that we exist with both body and mind but that body
and mind are different and separate (Xrefer–Dualism). The main problem with the dualist theory is the question of how two different and separate
entities,

The History Monism : Theory That Attempts And Explain The...
Anomalous monism is a theory that attempts to explain the mind – body dualist view. Donald Davidson coined the term and is the most notable
contributor behind its inception. The theory has two major points that it addresses. Firstly that mental events and interactions produce physical events.
Secondly, that mental events do not abide by physical laws or guidelines. We will look at Davidson's theory in detail as well as explore his defensive
arguments throughout the course of this paper. Anomalous monism claims three specific things which it uses to describe the mind – body problem, as
well as separate itself from other theories. They are as follows: mental events cause physical ones, causal interactions can be explained by natural
laws, no laws link mental phenomena with physical ones. The first claim refers to the causal interaction between mental events and the actual
physical actions that they produce. For example if I wanted to pick up a fork the mental event of me wanting to pick up the fork will correlate to
me actually physically doing it. The second claim explains that every causal interaction is governed by a law of nature. Before an even takes place,
a change must have occurred before the actual event and within a distance which would have caused it. For example if one were to scrape a piece a
metal across a stone. The sparks coming off the mental are a direct result of the metals close proximity to the stone and the friction created between the
two. Finally the

The Dualism Of The Mind And The Body?
Nowadays, it is believed that the body is the most important aspect of human beings. This is shown in todayВґs culture with things from clothes to
enterprises. Oppositely, in the scene from "Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back", Yoda tries to explain Luke that he must not judge him by
his size, that this is meaningless, and that in spite of the fact that he is small and seems weak he is capable of doing anything thanks to the "Force"
which he controls with his mind, which may also be compared to the soul as will is attributed to it. This leads to the dualism of the mind and the body
analyzed by RenГ© Descartes or even to the soul and body dualism found in PlatoВґs writings. However, it must be considered the question of whether
they are really separated entities or not. Consequently, it is possible to pose the question that this essay intends to answer: to what extend is the mind
separated from the body? ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Provided that the human being is composed by both, mind and body, and supported with works from philosophers as Baruch Spinoza and Ernst Mach,
it is going to be sustained that the mind and the body are the same, as they compose the human body. Therefore, it can be argued that they have the
same essence but they express different attributes. Despite they are different, one cannot exist without the other, or at least oneВґs existence cannot be
proven without the other, meaning that the only way to prove the existence of the mind is through the body (language) and that the only way to prove
the existence of a well–functioning body is through their feelings and

Questions On American Political Development
1.*American Political Development (APD) / *Fifth Republic
American Political Development– a growing subfield of American politics with important links to other fields of political science. Fifth Republic– the
fifth and current republican constitution of France. An example of (APD) is them wanting more for themselves and less for everyone else. An
example of fifth republic is just a presidential parliamentary form of government that had to prove themselves of not being weak due to a weak
president in the fourth republic. They have been through many republics since the French revolution but they have proved they are stable government
in the fifth republic and still doing so. I would have to say that the APD is more political than the fifth republic that's why they don't have much in
common.
2.The American Experiment of Government / *Shays ' Rebellion
The American experiment of government– it was created by founding fathers and was created for democracy and freedom to develop and flourish.
Shays Rebellion– was a protest to foreclose farms for debt which succeeded in the court system. An example of the American experiment of
government is like taxpayers not getting a break because of construction projects by the local government. An example of shays rebellion is though
brought by economic disasters. These two terms go hand and hand because Shays rebellion was a big eye opener regarding the relationship between the
citizens and their government it was up to the founding

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