7 CommunicationiStockThinkstockLearning OutcomesA.docx

7 Communication
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Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Define the communication process and describe basic
techniques and ways to communicate effectively.
2. Describe digital tools and ways to effectively communicate
digitally.
3. Explain four communication styles related to personality.
4. Identify four types of communication patterns in
organizations, and describe strategies for effective
communication within organizations.
5. Identify leadership skills in persuasion.
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redistribution.
148
There are many views on the relationship between leadership
and communication. “Com-

munication is the real work of leadership” writes Nitin Nohria,
business school professor at
Harvard. Badaracco, an expert on leadership, states that
knowing your audience and being
an excellent listener is key: “With the fluidity of information in
business today, leaders need
to be masterful listeners; they need to be able to receive as well
as send.” David Thomas,
another Harvard professor, adds that leaders need
“multimodality” skills in communication.
He claims, “What you say is only the beginning. Your behavior,
your actions, and your deci-
sions are also ways of communicating, and leaders have to learn
how to create a consistent
message through all of these.” Jeff Bezos, founder and CEO of
Amazon, noted an ability to tell
the hard truths is another requirement of leadership
communication (Blagg & Young, 2001).
Although the precise essence of leadership communication is
elusive, the importance of effec-
tive communication in leadership is not. Communication, the
process of conveying informa-
tion and meaning between a sender and receiver, is one of the
most important competencies
of leaders (Brass, Galaskiewicz, & Tsai, 2004) because it
affects every aspect of leading: influ-
encing, motivating, visioning, creating culture, developing
strategy, mobilizing change, and
managing stakeholders locally, face-to-face, and globally
through digital information technol-
ogies. All of these require that ideas and values be
communicated and executed clearly and
accurately.
It should be no surprise that studies

have shown that communication is seen
as a necessary skill for being an effec-
tive leader (Kalargyrou, Pescosolido, &
Kalargiros, 2012). In fact, among “The
10 Skills Employers Most Want In 2020
Graduates” two of the most important
were cognitive flexibility (“the ability
to adapt how you communicate based
on who you are talking to”) and judg-
ment (“the ability to analyze data and
use it to make intelligent decisions”),
according to a survey of 350 employers
by the World Economic Forum (Cur-
tin, 2018). In a survey of 1,000 senior
executives across a range of indus-
tries, 49% of respondents—asked to
rank the three most important skills a
leader needs—placed communication
ahead of strategic thinking, decision-making, motivating others,
and emotional intelligence
(Borderless, 2016).
The importance of communication is not limited to leaders—but
note that when a leader
miscommunicates, doesn’t listen effectively, or is inconsistent
in his or her communications,
the results are amplified and consequently potentially more
harmful. Communication occurs
between any number and combination of people, and everyone
in the organization must com-
municate effectively in and between teams and with key
stakeholders in order to achieve
organizational goals.
Randy Faris/Fuse/Thinkstock

Effective communication is stating clearly what you
want and expect of others; clearly expressing your
thoughts and ideas; and maintaining a constant and
precise flow of information.
redistribution.
149
Sender
communications
intended meaning
Receiver decodes
and interprets
meaning
Encodes
EncodesTransmitsResponds
Perceptual
Screens
Transmits Messages
Section 7.1 The Communication Process Defined
We begin by defining the communication process before
presenting methods and styles of
effective leader—and follower—communication. We then take a

closer look at communica-
tion within the organizational context. In the final section we
take it a step further, looking
at methods of communication that can best lead to persuasion
(Conger, 1998). As you read
through this section, think of leaders for whom you have
worked. Evaluate their communica-
tion effectiveness based on the content here.
7.1 The Communication Process Defined
If communication is the process of conveying information and
meaning, then effective com-
munication is being able to do this successfully, so that both the
sender and the receiver of the
information are on the same page. We can state this more
clearly by saying that effective com-
munication is stating clearly what you want and expect from
others, clearly expressing your
thoughts and ideas, and maintaining a precise and constant flow
of information. Being able
to do this well comes from understanding and strategically
managing the communication
process, or the flow of information.
Regardless of the form or number of individuals
communicating, the classic communication
process depicted in Figure 7.1 is the same, whether the
communicators use Facebook, Insta-
gram, Twitter, WhatsApp, or other instant-messaging software.
A sender has a purpose that
she or he develops into a message before sending it to a
receiver, who decodes the meaning
(Berlo, 1960). The speed and form of technology, whether video
with webcams or two-way or
one-way instant messaging, allows individual communicators to
share some form of meaning

that is intended to be understood by someone else. It is
important to break down this process
in more detail in order to understand how to avoid
miscommunication and noise that garbles
the intended message or meaning.
A sender, as shown in Figure 7.1, initiates a message by
encoding an idea or thought into a
physical product or audible or legible form—words, film,
photos, video, or typing. The mes-
sage can also consist of nonverbal symbols or gestures—facial,
hand, or body movements.
The sender decides what form, or channel, to use to send the
message. Channels can be digital
Figure 7.1: Communication process
Sender
communications
intended meaning
Receiver decodes
and interprets
meaning
Encodes
EncodesTransmitsResponds
Perceptual
Screens
Transmits Messages

redistribution.
150
or face-to-face, formal or informal, and more. We discuss this
topic in more detail later in the
chapter. The receiver to whom the message is directed must
decode (i.e., translate and inter-
pret) the symbols in order to understand the meaning. In
addition, noise represents distor-
tions, problems, and issues that alter the intended meaning in
the message. Noise can be
perception biases or misunderstandings, information overload,
confusion, misinterpreted
word meaning, inferences, or just cultural differences). Getting
feedback is the last part of the
loop in the communication process, in which the receiver or
sender inquires to see if the
intended and received meaning of the message were the same.
Effective communication between employees is vital to a fully
functioning organization. Build-
ing a positive and productive workplace culture is everyone’s
responsibility. Employers are
responsible for welcoming and sharing open communication and
setting a tone at the top, role
modeling effective communication. This precludes hiding
strategic information from employ-
ees and favoring select individuals and in-groups. It means
having the company’s best inter-
est in mind and communicating clearly and concisely what is

expected of employees and their
roles in the organization, which is more likely to create respect
and trust among everyone in
the company. Effective communication for leaders and
followers also involves being aware
of and concerned with how the messages they send—orally,
written, and nonverbally—will
be received. How a message is perceived can be as important as
the message itself. Marshall
McLuhan, a media expert, once said, “The medium is the
message” (Levinson, 1999). This is
especially important with regard to leaders, managers, and
supervisors who must interpret
the vision, mission, strategy, assignments, performance reviews,
and tasks to followers and
stakeholders.
Delivering messages effectively and efficiently first involves
having a plan for the message: the
what, who, why, when, and where. Articulating the goal, intent,
timing, medium, and place(s)
for delivering a message can minimize mistakes and miscues.
Then, because communication
involves people, establishing rapport counts. Overly mechanical
or whimsical communication
is generally ineffective. Putting people at ease while attracting
their attention is important.
Gaining an understanding of the receivers’ reception of the
message is likewise necessary.
Checking if the message was understood and clear is also part
of effective communication.
Finally, receiving assurance that the receiver can and will
follow-up with required action is
important (Bolton, 1979; Harvard Business Review, 2011).
Sources of Miscommunication

Understanding and preventing barriers to effective
communication between sender and
receiver is also part of the communication process. A list of
common types of miscommunica-
tion between individuals and between individuals and teams is
shown in Figure 7.2.
Nonverbal, paraverbal, and perceptual cues, for example, are
common in sending unintended
miscommunication messages. Individuals are often not
conscious of such cues they convey.
Facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, hand gestures,
eye contact, and paraverbal
communication (i.e., how people say and emphasize words) can
be misinterpreted and dis-
rupt effective communication. Observing yourself on video and
audio devices can provide
objective feedback. Also asking for feedback from trusted
colleagues and friends can increase
your awareness of how others perceive your communication.
redistribution.
151
1) Nonverbal and perceptual cues
2) Cultural differences
3) Assumptions
4) Selective perception

5) Information overload
6) Filtering, manipulating, and lying
7) Vertical communication (boss and employee)
Communication apprehension
refers to an individual’s “fear or
anxiety associated with either real
or anticipated communication
with another person or persons”
(McCroskey, 2001). This apprehen-
sion is a barrier to effective com-
munication. A large percentage of
Americans suffer from symptoms
of communication apprehension
and are therefore not able to com-
municate effectively, both nonver-
bally and verbally. Related in some
ways to severe shyness and intro-
version, there are methods and
tactics to help individuals manage
this apprehension. The first tactic
is to be aware of this apprehen-
sion, not hide from it, but deal with
it. Relaxation and deep breathing
techniques are recommended, as are the following methods:
Remember that this condition
can be controlled and even overcome; focus on the person or
someone in a group when you
are speaking; list specific fears and tactics to manage each; be

prepared ahead of time for pre-
sentations and speaking with others; get support from people
and friends around you; build
confidence from small “wins.”
Being aware of cultural differences while planning a message
can increase understand-
ing and acceptance of messages. Cultural barriers consist of
issues related to language,
semantics, and word connotations that have different meanings
in different cultures. The
tone of the message is also very important, that is, formality
versus informality, blunt ver-
sus gracious (Munster, 1993; Hall, 1976). Although not every
individual is conditioned
or influenced in the same way by a country of origin culture,
generalizations about coun-
try cultures in general can be informative with regard to how
she or he communicates.
People in “high-context” cultures (Hall, 1976) such as China,
Korea, Japan, and Vietnam
tend to place importance on relationship, informal
communication that builds trust. Ver-
bal agreements are commonplace. “Low-context” cultures such
as Germany, Switzerland,
Scandinavia, and North America emphasize precision, being
legalistic, and being more for-
mal in relationships. So, culture matters in the way we
communicate, even though one’s
background, experiences, exposure to other cultures, and
generational differences also
influence the process.
Consider the following guidelines to prevent
miscommunication: (1) Be aware of your own
cultural influences, habits, and biases; (2) Consider the other

person’s cultural context, val-
ues, and background; (3) Listen before talking, and stay with
the facts to avoid your own
biases and opinions; (4) Learn about the other person’s
perspective first; (5) Create an
atmosphere and environment of trust, respect, and fairness that
is inclusive; and (6) Also,
help create a common-ground “third culture” that includes all
parties’ goals, accommodates
differences, and adapts to intercultural communication
differences (Hopson, Hart, & Bell
2012).
3) Assumptions
Figure 7.2: Sources of miscommunication
Sources: Byron, K. (2008). Carrying too heavy a load? The
Communication and
Miscommunication of Emotion by email. Academy of
Management Review, Vol. 33,
No. 2, pp. 309–327; CAI. (2010). Five Common Causes of

Miscommunication in the
Workplace and How to Avoid Them.
http://blog.capital.org/five-common-causes-
of-miscommunication-in-the-workplace-and-how-to-avoid-
them/; Robbins and
Judge, 2015.
3) Assumptions
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152
Related to cultural differences, one’s assumptions and selective
perceptions can also influ-
ence and interfere with effective communication. Selective
perception is a cognitive bias that

involves a person perceiving only what she or he is able,
desires, or ignores (Pronin, 2007).
As with assumptions, selective perception can exclude objective
information, including others’
viewpoints, and thus negatively influence effective
communication. Everyone makes assump-
tions. However, when communicating strategic and tactical
information to others who depend
on accuracy and objectivity to implement assignments erroneous
or biased assumptions serve
as communication barriers to receivers and might result in poor
performance for all involved.
Manipulating and filtering information, and lying when
communicating involve intentional
deception; “deception occurs in business meetings, phone
conversations, electronic mes-
sages, office memoranda, and other everyday organizational
media” (Carlson, Kacma, Carlson,
2005). Moreover, although many of these lies may be casual
“white lies,” some are used with
clear intentionality to further an employee’s goals within the
organization. Nevertheless,
there has been little consideration of whether or not such
deception is “effective” (Carlson,
2012). Manipulating information and lying in the workplace can
be addressed by organiza-
tional codes of conduct, policies, and discipline procedures.
Creating an open and transparent
organizational culture based on honesty, trust, and individual
and team accountability is rec-
ommended. At the individual level of communication, each
leader and employee can revisit
his or her own personal ethics and code of conduct. (See
Chapter 1.)

Information overload is another barrier to communication that
has been influenced by Inter-
net communication technologies and social media sites
delivered on mobile devices (Twit-
ter, Instagram, and Facebook, to name a few). In addition and
combined with the 365x24x7
work schedule that many companies expect, many leaders,
managers, and employees experi-
ence information overload. The pressures that result can affect
communication effectiveness.
Personal, as well as professional, quality of life may also be
negatively affected (Boswell &
Olson-Buchanan, 2007). A problem affecting communication
from this barrier is not being
able to focus or plan for meaningful exchanges, thus committing
errors. Information overload
is a problem for organizations and individuals (HBR, 2009;
Lavenda, 2012). Tips to deal with
information overload range from using organizing technologies
to developing a mind-set of
closing out unnecessary responses to the influx of information.
Organizational leaders and
managers can consider assigning tasks that can be completed in
realistic time frames.
Lack of taking ownership and accountability of one’s
communication effectiveness is a major
barrier.
All organizational members have roles and responsibilities to
fulfill. “With-
out accountability, employees subconsciously become
comfortable dumping
duties and shifting their weight onto another’s plate, opening
the door for
future problems to transpire. The system of the company, as

anticipated, will
ultimately fail unless employees recognize that their role is not
only impor-
tant, but it is critical to the overall success of the organization.
(CAI, 2010)
Communication in a Digital World
Dispersed workforces and teams that interact with customers,
suppliers, and stakeholders
nationally and globally are becoming more the norm than
exception in companies. Corporate
communications leaders must adapt to evolving digital trends,
such as by building employees’
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153
digital acumen and by choosing digital channels that reach both
internal and external audi-
ences (Bryan, 2019). Although different forms of
communication continue to be important
in organizations, digital uses of technology are increasingly
adding value. For example “wikis
enable more efficient virtual collaboration in cross-functional
projects; internal blogs, discus-
sion boards, and YouTube channels encourage global
conversations and knowledge sharing;
sophisticated viral media campaigns engage customers and
create brand loyalty; next-gener-
ation products are codeveloped in open-innovation processes;

and corporate leaders work
on shaping their enterprise 2.0 strategy” (Deiser & Newton,
2013). As a consequence, lead-
ers and managers are challenged to create more horizontal
structures, collaborative systems
of communicating, and “technologically linked social
infrastructure that by design promotes
constant interaction across physical and geographical
boundaries, as well as self-organized
discourse and exchange” (Deiser & Newton, 2013). Facebook,
Twitter, Instagram, Skype™,
YouTube, and other groupware (programs that facilitate
collaboration among remote indi-
viduals) are now primary forms of communication.
Leaders and followers alike are adjusting to and combining new
digital literacy technologies and
tools into existing and changing organizational and marketing
strategies, structures, customer
and working relationships. Relevant to Figure 1.1 in this text,
digital changes in communication
involve and affect persons, processes, and systems in
organizations. A 2017 McKinsey Global
Institute survey reported 45% of employees saying that social
technologies are very or extremely
integrated into day-to-day work at their companies, up from one
third of respondents the previ-
ous year. The survey reported that
• 52% of employees use team collaboration platforms/apps,
• 57% of employees use collaborative document editing, and
• 19% of employees use online video conferencing.
What communications leaders first saw as an improved business
practice for employee-to-
employee communication has begun to drive change among the

leadership. Companies using
new communication technologies (like those previously listed)
for peer-to-peer communica-
tion are showing a similar pattern among executives, who are
increasingly using social tools
with external partners: 59% in 2016, up from 49% in 2015
(McKinsey Global Institute, 2017).
This communication evolution stems from the failure of older
technologies—such as email,
phone calls, and texting—to meet leaders’ and followers’ needs.
According to Burke (2015),
• only one third of emails are opened, whereas 99% of texts are
responded to;
• 14% of calls are answered before being put on hold;
• 78% of people wish they could text businesses; and
• 95% of texts are read within 3 minutes of being sent.
There is much to be learned about how to use new technology
most effectively as a leader.
How to Use Digital Tools in the Communication Process
“Six social media skills every leader needs” (Deiser & Newton,
2013) can be summarized as
follows. At the personal level, leaders can
redistribution.
154

1. Develop creative competencies to produce compelling content
by using authenticity,
storytelling, and artistic vision, while honing technical skills
such as video produc-
tion. General Electric, for example, has accomplished this
through its media lab,
Colab, which GE employees created to facilitate global
teamwork and collaboration.
The lab combines competencies from Facebook, Twitter, and
other social applica-
tions that facilitate “networking, information sharing, instant
communication,
advanced search, blogging, video blogs” (Deiser & Newton,
2013).
2. Understand what causes messages to go viral. Develop and
sustain a critical mass of
social followers. Social communication invites people to
cocreate and contextualize
content to add new meaning. Recipients contribute by adding
content on blogs, post-
ing videos, and commenting on questions.
3. Manage the communication overflow by also being a
recipient. Meaning creation is a
collaborative process in which leaders can play a thoughtful
role by developing empa-
thy with different communication channels and understanding
how people consume
and share information in different forms, including social
media.
At the strategic, organizational level, leaders can
4. Be advisers and orchestrators, diving strategic social media
utilization. Because

social media is still developing commercially, leaders can help
build the experience
into their cultures by becoming mentors, content curators, and
social entrepreneurs.
5. Become architects. Leaders can create organizational
infrastructure that protects
against irresponsible use. Leaders will have to flex between
adding and participat-
ing in personalized content that is shared with more formal,
organizational business
content. Again, one of GE’s Oil & Gas Drilling vice presidents
launched a video proj-
ect with the history and time line of that business, which he
shared with customers
and team members. He told a story that involved people who
maintained an interest
and continued to request updates.
6. Keep ahead of the curve by also becoming analysts. Once
leaders embrace and sup-
port social media and digital ways of communicating, they have
to keep innovating.
The Web 2.0 revolution is about the interconnectivity of things
and processes (the
“Internet of Things”). GE’s leadership university has a program
called Leadership
Explorations that supports continuous learning of top executives
in cutting-edge
technologies and mixes seasoned leaders with millennial mind-
sets and new ways
of thinking.
E-skills and Virtual Communication
Today, “e-skills” are becoming more important as technology
develops. E-leadership skills

involve being able to effectively run different types of
organizations; explore new ways of
administering organizational processes; and establish new
business models. To be able to
achieve these goals, e-leaders must have skills such as expertise
in a focused area, “transver-
sal skills” to allow for collaboration, and user skills that
involve being able to use systems as
tools for their work (Ivanova & Arenas, 2014).
Avolio, Sosik, Kahai, & Baker (2014) postulate that there are
four key behaviors of e-leaders.
These leaders need to be flexible, resolve conflicts, manage how
they treat followers in a “vir-
tual context,” and develop geographically or socially distant
followers. In terms of cognition,
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155
it is important for e-leaders
to “be present,” understand
expectations of followers,
and build trust.
Video conferencing and
text-based communication
are also important digital
capabilities leaders use to
keep in touch globally with

employees and customers.
Synchronous interaction
and asynchronous commu-
nication are two primary
ways of interacting virtually
(Hambley, O’Neill, & Kline,
2007). Synchronous interac-
tion involves interacting at
the same time through a vari-
ety of different mediums. For
example, with Google docu-
ments, all team members can work on the same document, at the
same time while staying in
communication through a chat feature. Asynchronous
communication involves communicating
virtually at different times. One example would be emailing a
word document back and forth
between group members, where only one group member at a
time can edit the document. Gen-
erally, asynchronous communication takes more time and is
better suited for less complicated
tasks. Because synchronous interaction is faster, it is better
suited for more complicated tasks.
Due to the continuous improvements in technology, it is easier
than ever to keep constant
communication between leaders and followers (Avolio et al.,
2014). Faster feedback time is
achieved through email and texting. Instant messaging, Twitter,
Skype, and more protected
group software programs (via Intranets) like Yammer also
enable professionals to stay in
constant contact, and help ease communication between time
zones.
Back to Basics

Although leaders use contemporary forms of media, they must
also rely on basic, traditional
forms of communicating as well, such as press conferences,
face-to-face speeches, and infor-
mal and formal talks with different stakeholders and audiences.
But even in what may appear
an informal conversation on a mobile phone, a text message, or
a Skype conversation, leaders,
managers, and followers may be sending strategic information
without realizing it. Before send-
ing strategically important messages, leaders and followers can
benefit from considering the
following strategies, which apply to e-messages as well as
traditional forms of communicating:
Planning the Goal and Content
Ensuring that your message achieves its intended goal involves
thoughtful consideration of what
you want to say. Senders usually address the following
questions: What is the intended goal of
the message? Is it to inform, persuade, express an opinion, or
solicit ideas? What is the intended
Ted S. Warren/Associated Press
Microsoft IT leaders take their organization’s pulse using ana-
lytical software that monitors trending topics in their Yammer
collaboration space. This allows CEO Satya Nadella to hear
early warning signals. (Thomas & Silverstone, 2015).
redistribution.
156

result of the message? What is the receiver expected to feel,
believe, react, respond, or do? (Brass
et al., 2004). Lubrin (2015) notes that “Managers need to make
time for face time.” This is espe-
cially true with regard to performance reviews. Alan Buckelew,
chief operations officer of Carni-
val Corporation stated that “A review is probably the one time
when you want to be physically
present” (Lubrin, 2015). Lubrin noted that “When it comes
down to it, there is still no good sub-
stitute for being in the same room with a direct report or a high-
level boss. . . . Yet there is little
consensus about how much face time it takes to manage
effectively” (Lubrin, 2015).
Deciding Upon the Sender
Deciding who should send a particular message is critical
because the receiver will usually
react differently to different people. An organization should
take into account the content
of the message, the sender’s position in the organization, the
expertise and knowledge of
the sender, and the audience receiving the message. If layoffs
are to be announced, a CEO
may want to deliver that message personally to show that he or
she understands that such a
decision disrupts people’s lives. In contrast, an emailed
announcement of impending layoffs
would seem callous and insensitive.
Also for sensitive issues and during emotionally charged crises,
the CEO or president is
often the best spokesperson. When the BP oil rig explosion
occurred in the Gulf of Mexico in

2010—the worst of its kind in history, taking the lives of 11 rig
workers—CEO chief execu-
tive officer Tony Hayward received a series of crisis updates in
his London office on that day.
A person with the CEO said on several occasions that Hayward
asked, “What did we do to
deserve this?” (Muffin, 2010). When responding to that crisis,
Hayward’s strategic commu-
nication skills have been widely criticized by management and
crisis scholars alike. Manage-
ment experts spoke out at the time saying that Hayward’s
leadership failure started with his
delay during the initial weeks of the spill to address the severity
of the problem. Others point
to his lackluster appearance before the U.S. Congress. Hayward
testified, “I wasn’t part of the
decision-making process in this well” (Chen, 2010). One of the
lessons for CEOs from that
communication fiasco is noted: “It’s a fundamental rule of crisis
management: Think with a
little less head and a little more heart” (Chen, 2010).
Identifying the Receiver
Identifying the receiver involves knowing who the receiver is,
what the receiver’s needs and
interests are, and whether the receiver is the right and relevant
audience for whom the par-
ticular message is intended. A chairperson at a private
university announced a meeting for
the entire college a few years ago. Word spread that something
exciting and different might be
announced. Faculty, staff, and administrators gathered in the
large auditorium waiting to hear
what was thought to be institution-wide news. The chairperson
moved to the podium and
announced that the administration had decided to offer 30 older

professors a small financial
package in exchange for their agreeing to an early retirement
plan. Disbelief, bewilderment,
and dismay were sensed throughout the gathering and in
hallway discussions after the meet-
ing: wrong audience, wrong place, and wrong timing for that
misplaced message.
Selecting the Best Channel
Berger and Iyengar (2013) investigated how “the medium
shapes the message” believing that
written communication tends to lend itself to more interesting
topics, partly because written
communication takes more time, which allows for more
refining. Figure 7.3 illustrates the
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157
High channel
richness
Low channel
richness
Disadvantages
Impersonal
One-way
Slow feedback
Disadvantages
No records

Spontaneous
Dissemination hard
Advantages
Personal
Two-way
Fast-feedback
Advantages
Provides record
Premeditated
Easily disseminated
Formal report
Blogs
Skype
Email,
text messaging,
internet
Twitter
Telephone
Memos, letters
Face-to-face
verbal
type of communication channel with the information richness of

the message and the amount
of information that can be sent during a particular episode. Each
channel has advantages and
disadvantages.
Figure 7.3: Communication channels
Source: Daft, Richard L., Lane, Patricia G. (2008). The
Leadership Experience, 4th ed. Reproduced with permission of
Thomson/South-
Western. © Cengage Learning.
High channel
richness
Low channel
richness
Disadvantages
Impersonal
One-way
Slow feedback
Disadvantages
No records
Spontaneous
Dissemination hard
Advantages
Personal
Two-way
Fast-feedback
Advantages
Provides record
Premeditated

Easily disseminated
Formal report
Blogs
Skype
Email,
text messaging,
internet
Twitter
Telephone
Memos, letters
Face-to-face
verbal
The richness of the channel, Lengel and Daft (1988) stated, is
influenced by the ability of the
receiver to understand many cues simultaneously, handle two-
way rapid communication, and
establish a personal focus in the communication exchange.
Face-to-face is the richest type of
communication channel. When a message is complex with
emotional content, a richer chan-
nel (face-to-face) may be more appropriate. Layoffs, firings,
and right-sizing are examples of
when face-to-face communication may be more appropriate than
a more formal, distant type
of communication. If the receivers are dispersed geographically,
then digital communication

or conference calling may be appropriate. If the message is a
routine, straightforward report
for which no immediate feedback is required, then a memo, text
message, or email will work.
Because digital communication is swiftly replacing the print
medium, it is easier to confuse
matching communication channels with particular messages.
Blogs, instant messaging, and
Twitter are becoming preferred forms of communicating faster
and more inexpensively (King,
2015). Social networking sites are also a platform of
communication that companies use for
nonconfidential information. The point here is that leaders’
communication effectiveness
depends in large part on matching the type of channel (formal
report, memo, email, phone,
instant messaging, Skype, face-to-face) with the type of
message (low richness and emotional
content versus high richness and emotional content).
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158
Timing the Message
Finally, selecting the right time to send messages matters.
Messages that carry highly emo-
tional, sensitive content should not only be delivered through
the right communication
channel but should be timed so that receivers can understand

and discuss or respond to
the message. For example, it is not recommended that layoffs be
delivered through email,
Twitter, or instant messaging, or at times that are inconvenient
for people to receive such
news. Although layoffs may be necessary for the survival of a
business unit or organiza-
tion, how, when, and by whom the news is delivered sometimes
has as much impact as the
content. Consideration for the receiver is an important element
with all types of commu-
nication. Leadership communication affects not only those who
are laid off but also those
who stay.
Styles of Communication
Are some communication styles more effective than others?
There are no definitive theories
or evidence that one individual style of communication is more
effective than another. Dif-
ferent studies, however, show how certain personality styles
relate to ways of communicat-
ing (de Vries, Bakker-Pieper, & Oostenveld, 2013). Knowing
your style provides a baseline
for increasing your strengths and developing less effective ways
of relating. As discussed
in Section 4.3 on contingency theory, leadership effectiveness
depends on the fit between a
leader, the environment and situation, followers, and the
success factors for the organization
to succeed. The same holds true for communication.
DeVries et al. (2010) also described seven communication style
dimensions: “expressiveness,
preciseness, niceness, supportiveness, verbal aggressiveness,
(expressed) emotional tension

(or, reversed, assuredness), and argumentativeness.” The two
primary styles of communica-
tion are niceness and verbal aggressiveness. Tskhay, Xu, & Rule
(2014) argue that communi-
cation is not only what you say, but also what you do. It is
important for leaders to know that
their nonverbal behavior can have an impact on their ability to
communicate (Tskhay et al.,
2014). Even simply communicating with your arms crossed
instead of by your side can have
an impact on the message that you are trying to send. In order to
use this as an advantage,
you must be constantly aware of your body language when you
are communicating in order
to ensure that the correct message is conveyed.
The popular DISC (Dominance, Influence, Steadiness, and
Conscientiousness) personality
type also offers a method for relating personality type to
communication style. Take the online
assessment and see if your communication style relates to your
personality. The printed ver-
sion may be downloaded at http://bcnysbc.org/images/DISC.pdf.
An online version (http://
discpersonalitytesting.com/free-disc-test/) is also available.
Have someone who knows you
well and is unbiased take the DISC assessment about you and
compare your results.
The styles of the DISC personality inventory include the
following, which also describe accom-
panying communication styles (Kathy M., 2014):
Dominant (D)—Described as demanding, vocal, adventurous
and competi-
tive, people with dominant personalities often make the first

move in social
situations and take the lead at work. They are often project
leaders, pioneers
redistribution.
http://bcnysbc.org/images/DISC.pdf
http://discpersonalitytesting.com/free-disc-test/
http://discpersonalitytesting.com/free-disc-test/
159
in their field, and innovators. People with this personality type
may seem rude
as they are often in a hurry and tend to interrupt other people as
they are
speaking. Most people would consider them blunt, opinionated
and not up for
open discussion.
Influential (I)—Influential people are the social butterflies of
the world. They
love to communicate, to perform and joke around. They often
appear excited,
open and friendly with everyone they meet. This personality
type is also
almost unfailingly positive.
Steady (S)—Steady personality types are stable, deliberate and
follow a sys-
tem. These are the people that like routine and dislike
distractions. They pro-

ceed carefully and like to have all the details before making a
decision. They
can be quiet. However, they are great listeners when
communicating one-on-
one with someone. People with this personality type are rarely
jealous and
tend to keep their emotions on an even keel.
Conscientious (C)—Precise, logical, and preferring perfection,
conscientious
personality types are hard on themselves and like to follow the
rules. They
are often not very expressive in person and prefer to
communicate in writing.
For this reason, they can come across as cold and distant.
However, this is not
the case. They do not like to disagree or to be wrong, so they
often keep their
feelings to themselves. (Kathy M., 2014)
The purpose of this section is to provide you with information
to describe your communica-
tion style and effectiveness, and also to enable you to observe
others’ communication skills.
You may also compare your DISC profile with your Myers–
Briggs personality style from Chap-
ter 3 to gain insight into how these styles relate to your
communication effectiveness.
The Johari Window: Toward Open Communication
The Johari window is a framework to help individuals and teams
increase open commu-
nication by sharing more information with one another.
Increased trust and confidence in
self and others leads to more self-disclosure, thus enhancing
more communication among

all members. Observing Figure 7.4 shows that quadrant 1, the
open/free area, is the desired
space for both individuals and team members, because
information is openly shared here.
The idea is for an individual or team member to create an
organizational and team culture
that welcomes self-disclosure and information sharing, thereby
expanding quadrant 1 in the
figure to quadrants 3 and 4.
Quadrant 3 in Figure 7.4 represents the secret or hidden side of
an individual, leader, or team
member, who knows what she or he thinks and believes but
others do not know. The person
may be keeping such information concealed deliberately or is
not able to share information
for whatever reason. This could be a new member of a team or
organization who is not yet
comfortable enough to share, or there may be conditions within
the team or organization that
contribute to the individual’s not feeling comfortable or trusting
enough to share informa-
tion. Fear of reprisal, violating group norms, or hoarding
information for self-interests may
be other reasons for concealing information (Nayab, 2011).
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160
SELF
Known Unknown

Known open/free area blind area
hidden area unknown areaUnknown
OTHERS
1
43
2
Section 7.2 Communication in Organizations
Using and facilitating discussions using the Johari window by a
team or organizational leader
is another way of creating an open environment for sharing
information that is beneficial for
organizational productivity, growth, and development. Although
there may be certain situa-
tions in which confidential or strategic information should not
be shared with certain mem-
bers and groups at certain times, information sharing in general
is an important principle
for teams and organizations because no single individual or
group has all the answers and
insights to solve problems and generate innovations (Nayab,
2011).
Figure 7.4: Johari window
SELF
Known Unknown

Known open/free area blind area
hidden area unknown areaUnknown
OTHERS
1
43
2
7.2 Communication in Organizations
Communication in organizations is a complex process, given the
different functions, structure,
positions, and human elements involved. Eisenberg, Goodall,
and Trethewey (2010) describe
and summarize five models that chronologically evolved and
that describe how communication
occurs in organizations. Although each model captures some of
the complexity of theses com-
munication processes, the five models each contribute to an
understanding of an overall view.
The last model, organizations as dialogues, captures elements of
organizational complexity and
nuance that the previous ones do not. The models include:
“information transfer, transactional
process, strategic control, a balance of creativity and constraint,
and organizations as dialogues”
(Eisenberg, Goodall, & Trethewey, 2010, p. 28). We will
elaborate upon each of these here.
Communication as Information Transfer defines communication
as “the exchange of informa-
tion and the transmission of meaning.” In this model,
information flows between individuals

and teams as in a pipeline. Information transfer views language
as an exchange of thoughts and
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161
feelings between parties. There is miscommunication when
messages are missing, ambigu-
ous, or misinterpreted; when there is information overload; or
when noise (contextual, word
meaning, or physical) causes distortion. Critics say this model
views receivers as passive and
the process as incomplete and simplistic with nonverbal
communication unexplained.
Communication as a Transactional Process focuses on people,
not the message, and views
sender and receiver as simultaneously the same, although the
receiver is the focus because
he or she interprets the meaning (nonverbal and verbal) of the
message, not the sender.
This model is criticized because of its emphasis on shared
meaning, omitting the variety of
issues that can go wrong with communication—disagreement
over perspectives, conflict, and
ambiguity.
Communication as Strategic Control portrays communication as
a control tool to respond
and manage the environment. In this view, communication

effectiveness is described as goal
attainment with the primary objective centering on organized
action. Senders and receiver
have different goals and select strategies for goal attainment.
Rational and objective com-
munication is not the primary mode. Clarity in information and
interaction sharing is not a
central goal; instead, individuals’ communication is typically
unclear and strategically ambig-
uous in goal achievement in this model. This strategic
communication ambiguity also uses
different meanings given to the same messages to increase
unified diversity among people.
Issues with this model are that it overemphasizes individuals’
function and power in meaning
creation while deemphasizing cooperation, coordination, and
interdependence of people and
groups; and minimizes the ethics with this system of
communicating.
Communication as a Balance of Creativity and Constraint views
communication as a dichotomy
between a macro and micro perspective. At a micro level,
employees are viewed as creating
and molding organizations. At a macro level, the focus is on
organizational constraints that
affect communication and employees. Structures are viewed as
outcomes of communication
practices but are simultaneously obligated to rules that created
them. From this perspective,
communication becomes the continuous settling of tensions
been individual creativity and
organizational restrictions. From this balancing, creativity
evolves as the strategic responses
to organizational constraints. With this perspective,
communication can be understood and

analyzed as a balancing act between these forces. An apparent
limitation of this model is the
omission of how each person’s “voice” and the dialogue
between individuals and others help
explain reality that is also constructed through and between
interpersonal communications.
Finally, organizations are viewed as dialogues. Because
communication is a balance of cre-
ativity and constraint, the authors stated that “we maintain that
dialogue is balanced com-
munication, or communication in which each individual has a
chance to both speak and be
heard.” Dialogue has four elements that represent the
development of more collaboration
and respect for others. In this regard, dialogue encompasses and
makes possible “(1) mind-
fulness, (2) equitable transaction, (3) empathic conversation,
and (4) real meeting” (Eisen-
berg et al., pp. 40, 41). Mindfulness (as contrasted with
mindless communication) means
being centered; it requires focus and discipline. Mindful
communication can add both pur-
posive and strategic content, context, and depth to
communication, thereby create possi-
bilities for a more open, trusting, and collaborative
environment. Dialogue also facilitates
possibilities for members in the organization to be more
equitable (and ethical) in their
transactions because everyone is given a voice and can be
heard. While this is not a given,
it is more possible.
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162
Empathetic conversation involves “the ability to understand or
imagine the world as
another person understands or imagines it” (Eisenberg et al., p.
44). Empathic conversa-
tion encourages listening to others’ perspectives and viewpoints
in different work units,
and thereby creates opportunities for more shared information.
Respect for individuals can
also develop when different voices are heard. Appreciating the
diversity of individuals and
groups can be enhanced and can contribute to satisfaction and
productivity. Finally, the
authors define real meeting as “through communication, a
genuine communion can take
place between people that transcends differences in role or
perspective and that recognizes
all parties’ common humanity” (Eisenberg et al., p. 70).
Through real meeting, individuals
engage “to learn more about the self in context with others” (p.
71). Related to empathy,
real meetings involves individuals appreciating and paying
attention to others as if they
mattered, not just as objects.
Limitations to this model include the following: dialogue is
time consuming; it can also lead to
people assuming that their ideas and opinions will be
implemented when the leaders or deci-
sion makers may not agree; and it may lead to “a lack of closure
or to the feeling that ‘no right

answer’ can be found” (Eisenberg et al., p. 46). Still, this view
does present a more nuanced
and realistic view of individuals than the earlier models
described in this perspective. Also,
although somewhat idealistic in sections, studies do support
propositions in this model with
regard to the value of dialogue, empathy, ethics, and
mindfulness.
Leaders as Champions of Strategic Communication
Leaders are the face, voice, and role models of their companies.
What they say, to whom, and
how is important, and their ability to change organizations and
cultures, particularly during
times of crisis and uncertainty, is significant. They are and must
be, in effect, champions of
strategic communication. As strategic communicators (Clampitt,
Berk, & Williams, 2002),
leaders must communicate from a big picture, systems
perspective (as discussed in the first
part of this chapter). They must always be conscious of
upholding and maintaining the vision,
mission, values, and strategy of the entire organization when
they communicate. They must
also look to inspire, build trust, unite, and mobilize followers
around a common identity and
purpose of the organization.
Tactical communicators, on the other hand, are more concerned
with transactional types of
exchanges that involve implementation and hands-on details and
tactics. For example, man-
agers, as tactical communicators, spend over 80% of each day
communicating as “information
processors” (Mintzberg, 1973). As transactional managers, they
control, schedule, correct, and

direct daily processes, procedures, and people around specific
tasks, projects, and programs.
They spend 48 minutes of every hour on the phone, in meetings,
and communicating with
teams, suppliers, and vendors to implement details of
organizational objectives. Of course,
both strategic and tactical communication are necessary for
organizational goal attainment.
It is important here, however, to distinguish between these
types, because strategic leader-
ship communication sets the overall tone and context for
organizational exchanges.
Strategic leadership conversations differ from transactional,
tactical discussions. They cre-
ate an open climate for dialogue, emphasize strategic topics to
provide clarity, focus on the
customer’s needs and wants, share responsibility with followers,
and involve constant and
consistent feedback (Young & Post, 1993).
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163
Open Climate for Dialogue
Leaders engage in strategic
conversations by creating an
open climate that is two-way,
not top-down; communication
flows and is not constrained

by status of position titles. By
asking the right questions,
leaders discover what people
feel and think about issues
and opportunities. There are
two types of questions leaders
can ask: leader centered and
follower centered (Spitzer &
Evans, 1997). Leader-centered
questions seek to gain follower
knowledge and expertise as
well as feelings and thoughts
about different topics relevant
to the goals, strategies, and ini-
tiatives of the organization. Leaders also build trust and
confidence in followers by asking
these types of questions with authenticity, concern, and interest
(Newberry, 2003). Follower-
centered questions focus on developing new ideas, expanding
awareness, and stimulating
critical thinking. Similarly, with these types of questions,
leaders ask in ways that show inter-
est in followers’ ideas and opinions.
Listening
Burleson (2011) defines listening as “a collaborative process …
of interpreting the commu-
nicative behavior of other in the effort to understand the
meaning and implications of that
behavior” and states that there are multiple names for listening,
including: “message recep-
tion,” “message processing,” and “decoding.”
Edwards (2011) describes the listening model as having three
parts: listening presage, listening
process, and listening outcome. Listening presage focuses on

personality traits, such as listen-
ing style preference, empathy, and listening capacity. The
listening process not only focuses on
processing the message, but also the behavioral response. The
listening process has four stages:
attention, decoding/interpretation, memory systems, and
response preparation. Attention is
the difference between simply hearing and actually listening to
what is being said. Decoding
/interpretation is where the listener actually processes what they
are hearing and forms it into
meaning. Memory systems involve putting the meaningful
communication into a memory so
that it may be recalled at a later date. The last stage of the
listening process is response prepara-
tion where the listener exhibits behavioral responses that could
be either spoken or physical.
Similarly, Burleson (2011) describes the listening process by
touching on similar points,
but uses a five-step process. The process includes: hearing,
comprehension, interpretation,
act recognition, and understanding. The third stage of the
listening model is interpretation,
Wavebreak Media/Thinkstock
Creating an open dialogue is vital to effective organizational
communication.
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164

which includes the outcomes of listening, such as gaining
knowledge, building relationships,
and responses.
Although there are different stages in the listening model, there
are also different levels of
listening, as Burleson (2011) describes. The most basic level of
listening is called surface-level
where the listener can interpret the message at face value
instead of looking for a deeper
meaning. The more advanced level of listening deals with depth
processing, where the listener
searches for a deeper meaning, which requires more extensive
analysis and thinking.
Active Listening
Active listening is another classic communication technique that
strategic leaders use to
gain knowledge and build relationships with followers. In active
listening, the listener’s
focus and attention is on understanding, interpreting, assessing,
and showing the sender
that what was said is understood. This sounds easier in theory
than in practice. Active
listening is not passive; after absorbing what the speaker is
saying without interrupting,
distracting, or indicating disinterest, the listener asks questions
for clarification if neces-
sary. Eye contact and nonverbal body language show that the
listener is fully engaged and
interested in the messenger as well as the message. Poor
listeners, on the other hand, do
not show interest through eye contact and attentive body
language; listen for facts and not

emotion; and usually daydream, interrupt, and respond with
judgmental or argumentative
opinions (Morgan & Baker, 1985; Okum, 1975). Poor listening
and communication habits
foster closed cultural climates and emotional disconnection
between leaders and followers.
Strategic conversations cannot thrive without active listening
skills. Take Assessment 7.1 to
see how effective a listener you are.
Assessment 7.1: Are You an Effective Listener?
Instructions
Go through the following questions, answering no or yes next to
each. Mark each as truthfully
as you can in light of your behavior in the last few meetings or
social gatherings.
No Yes
1. I give attention to nonverbal clues of others when
communicating.
________ ________
2. I ask someone to explain or make clear what they are
saying if I don’t understand.
________ ________
3. I try hard to understand someone’s position and
opinion when communicating.
________ ________
4. Most people sense that I understand their viewpoint

even if we don’t agree .
________ ________
(continued)
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165
5. I try to listen to many conversations at once instead
of focusing on one at a time.
________ ________
6. I prefer individuals to share factual information with
me and let me decide.
________ ________
7. I act like I am listening when I really am not. ________
________
8. I can tell what someone will say before they even
say it.
________ ________
9. I answer right after someone finishes talking to me.
________ ________

10. I assess what someone is saying while they’re talking.
________ ________
11. I usually focus on the other person’s style while
they’re talking, which sometimes distracts me from
what they are saying.
________ ________
12. I am thinking about how I will respond while
someone is talking with me.
________ ________
Scoring and Interpretation:
According to communications experts, “no” is the correct
choice to statements 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 11, 12; and “yes” is the correct choice to statements 1, 2, 3,
4. Use the following suggested
interpretation for self-development in listening:
9–12 correct items: You evaluated yourself as an effective
listener.
7–8 correct items: You have some areas that need improvement
in your listening skills.
6 correct items: You need improvement in listening skills; your
followers and coworkers
may observe that you are not giving your full attention when
listening to them.
Source: Daft, Richard L. (2011). The Leadership Experience,
5th ed., Mason, OH: Cengage Learning. Copyright
© Cengage Learning.

Assessment 7.1: Are You an Effective Listener? (continued)
Emphasize Strategic Topics
Effective leaders use strategic conversations and dialogue to
understand issues that followers
and stakeholders have about certain strategic topics and to gain
acceptance on these topics.
Leaders rely on discussion to clarify controversial topics and on
dialogue to reach agreement
and gain acceptance. In dialogue, in contrast to discussion,
people share their positions on a
topic, gain understanding of each other and the topic, and reach
common ground. Discussion,
on the other hand, involves stating positions and opinions based
on facts, logic, and beliefs and
may not lead to agreement between two parties. Although
dialogue certainly involves facts, logic,
and beliefs, it differs from discussion in that “people usually
hold relatively fixed positions and
argue in favour of their views as they try to convince others to
change. At best this may produce
agreement or compromise, but it does not give rise to anything
creative” (Bohm & Peat, 1987,
p. 241). David Bohm further suggested that “the purpose of
dialogue is to reveal the incoherence
in our thought. In so doing it becomes possible to discover or
re-establish a ‘genuine and creative
collective consciousness’”(Bohm, Factor, & Garrett, 1991). The
process of dialogue is a process of
“awakening”; it entails a free flow of meaning among all the
participants (Smith, 2001).
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166
Clarification of the topic may be gained through discussion, but
mind-sets may not be changed
(Schein, 1993). Dialogue requires active listening skills, an
open mind, and the ability to bring
people of differing opinions together on controversial topics.
Leaders in organizational cul-
tures that are built on trust have a higher probability of leading
change through dialogue than
those in distrusting settings.
Focus on the Customer
Clampitt, Berk, & Williams (2002) found that leaders and
managers who were successful in
dealing with change included the following mantra in their
strategic conversations: “Keep
close to the customer.” The researchers concluded that
successful companies’ communica-
tions programs, in their interactions with employees who dealt
directly with customers,
framed certain types of questions: What does the customer want
to know? When do they
prefer to receive information? In what form (at home, email,
graphic display) do they want to
receive it?
In these companies there was a clear trend toward insisting that
employee communications
staff monitor their customers and audiences, and understand the
organizational issues, job
demands, and other communications efforts that affect the
customers. In the best companies,

communications programs serve the audience’s needs and, as a
result, improve the organiza-
tion’s capacity for dealing with change (Clampitt, Berk, &
William, 2002).
Share Responsibility
An underlying theme of effective strategic conversations is that
leaders share responsibility
with followers. Whether good or bad news occurs, followers
want their leaders and managers
to inform them, share with them, and explain such happenings
to them. A major theme from a
study on leaders as communication champions was that “people
want to hear news from their
boss, not from their peers or from the grapevine” (Clampitt et
al., 2002).
Give and Receive Feedback
Leaders give and receive feedback more easily as part of a
shared communication process in
organizations where trust and an open climate are cultural traits.
Both leaders and followers
must give and receive feedback in their mutual influencing
process toward organizational
goal attainment. Feedback consists of letting others know in a
straightforward manner what
you think of them, how well they have performed, and if they
have met your needs and expec-
tations. We note that giving and receiving constructive
feedback, especially if it is negative in
content, is not easy—and probably never will be. In addition to
the guidelines offered here,
it is important to separate emotions from the message. Focusing
on the goal of the feedback
and importance of communicating the message involves taking
an objective perspective. Also,

followers who have less power than the leaders and supervisors
to whom they report have
an added burden in giving feedback—especially negative
feedback. Again, in addition to the
following guidelines, ensuring that your message is true,
verifiable, and necessary to deliver
can provide assurance that how it is delivered is often as
important as what is being delivered.
Guidelines for giving honest feedback include the following
(Bolton, 1979):
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167
1. Check your motivations before giving feedback. Make sure
your reasons are clear
and justifiable.
2. Check your frame of mind. Being angry, tired, or uncertain
interferes with giving
objective feedback.
3. Ensure that your feedback is purposed to help the receiver.
4. Offer feedback directly to the receiver, with genuine feelings.
5. Be descriptive, not evaluative. Omit words like should, must,
and ought.
6. Be specific instead of general; offer clear, recent examples.
7. Choose a time when the receiver and you are ready.
8. Check the validity of your intended feedback with others who
are reliable and will

keep your communication confidential. Be sure you are
communicating facts, not
gossip.
9. Include only areas that the recipient has control over.
10. Do not share more than the receiver can handle emotionally
or factually.
Confident leaders will often ask followers as well as peers as
part of giving feedback, “How
am I doing? What do I need to be doing differently? What needs
do you have that aren’t being
met by the organization?”
Guidelines for receiving honest feedback include the following
(Athos & Gabarro, 1978):
1. Avoid being defensive. Take a neutral, objective view that
will facilitate the sender’s
offering you unbiased information.
2. To ensure that you understand the feedback, summarize what
you heard and ask
for clarification in an understanding, nonjudgmental way.
3. Share your feelings about specific behaviors at issue in order
to validate the
information, feelings, and understanding of the subject.
4. Remember that you have the right to evaluate and validate
what you hear, to decide
what you believe about the feedback, and to decide if you feel
that it is personally
and professionally worth the effort to change.

Each of these characteristics of strate-
gic conversations could also be termed
leadership communication skills: ways
that leaders can ensure they are effec-
tively conveying the information they
need to convey and receiving the infor-
mation they need to receive. In the
last section of this chapter, we turn to
another essential leadership communi-
cation skill: persuasion.
Von Bergen, Bressler, & Campbell (2014)
describe an ineffective method of giving
feedback, before moving on to guidelines
for proper feedback. Many people use a
“sandwich method,” which they cling to
like a safety blanket, because they are
uncomfortable giving criticism. In this
Creatas/Thinkstock
Feedback consists of letting others know what you
think of them, how well they have performed, and
if they have met your needs and expectations.
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168
Section 7.3 Leadership Skills in Persuasion
method, the criticism is sandwiched between two compliments.
However, this can lead to
confusion in the intended message. Instead, Von Bergen et al.

(2014) suggest that the proper
way to give feedback is by using the following guidelines:
• Plan the discussion, when possible.
• Keep positives and negatives separate.
• Time discipline so as not to be too soon or too late.
• Focus on the issue regarding behavior.
• Connect the behavioral issue with how the issue has an
impact.
• State consequences if behavior does not improve.
• Identify the proper and required behavioral change that is
expected.
• Ask how you can help with the change.
• Express confidence in their ability to improve.
7.3 Leadership Skills in Persuasion
Persuasion is commonly defined as the act of convincing
someone to believe or do some-
thing; it uses communication to achieve a goal. Leaders use
persuasion as a form of influence
to get work done through other people. Even in high-
performance cultures, leaders still have
to influence and persuade followers. It is a fundamental
leadership competency. Jay Conger,
an expert on leadership, wrote:
Effective persuasion is a difficult and time-consuming
proposition, but it may
also be more powerful than the command-and-control
managerial model it
succeeds. As AlliedSignal’s CEO Lawrence Bossidy said . . . ,
“The day when you
could yell and scream and beat people into good performance is
over. Today
you have to appeal to them by helping them see how they can
get from here

to there, by establishing some credibility, and by giving them
some reason
and help to get there. Do all those things, and they’ll knock
down doors.” In
essence, he is describing persuasion—now more than ever, the
language of
business leadership. (Conger, 1998, p. 86)
If persuasion is the language of business leadership, as Conger
(1998) put it, then it is critical
that leaders know how to perform it effectively. We will
examine the four steps of persuasion
before examining the common pitfalls.
Four Steps of Persuasion
The four steps of persuasion are (1) establishing credibility, (2)
building goals from a com-
mon frame, (3) presenting a compelling position, and (4)
connecting emotionally (Conger,
1998). Establishing credibility involves expertise and
relationships: The leader—or whoever
is doing the persuading—must possess the relevant knowledge
as well as a trusting relation-
ship with whomever he or she is trying to persuade. For
example, suppose you wanted an
honest assessment of your health. You would more likely be
inclined to believe a longtime
family doctor than some stranger at the ballpark. In taking the
first steps to establish their
credibility, leaders must make an honest assessment of how
others perceive their knowledge
redistribution.

169
and of the strength of their relationships with those whom they
will try to persuade. Leaders
can also ask to what extent their audience perceives them as
trustworthy and helpful.
However, credibility is not enough to persuade others. Leaders
also need to build goals from
a common ground, or find an area that those being persuaded
can agree on. People need to
know and be shown how they will personally benefit from the
offer to be made. Knowing
their audience will help leaders find common ground on the
proposal that is the subject of
persuasion. To do this, leaders need to talk with the people
whom they will engage—test the
waters—and find out what they are thinking and what they
want. If leaders cannot see, feel,
or experience any common ground, they should revisit their
proposal.
Leaders who can present a compelling position after they have
established credibility and
framed a common ground have a higher probability of
succeeding. Winning others over
involves the use of lively metaphors, stories, numbers, and
analogies that paint a vivid picture
and pave the way for a compelling, tangible description of the
persuader’s offer.
Finally, effective leaders connect emotionally with their
followers or others whom they are per-

suading. They have to show their emotional commitment to their
position in a reasonable and
clear headed way. People are persuaded not only in their heads
but also in their hearts, especially
if leaders are asking for significant time, energy, or effort from
those who are being persuaded.
Nasar (2013) identified 21 principles of persuasion that resonate
with our general presenta-
tion on leadership communication and with Conger’s arguments
here. Here is a sample of
some of the more notable principles:
1. Persuasion is not manipulation. Persuasion is the art of
getting people to do things
that are in their own best interest that also benefit you.
2. Context and timing. Context creates a standard of what is
acceptable. Timing
requires what we want from others and life. We make choices in
terms of context
and timing.
3. You have to be interested to be persuaded. The first art of
persuasion is learning
how to talk to people about them; doing that means you always
have their captive
attention.
4. Persistence pays. Abraham Lincoln lost his mother, three
sons, a sister, and his
girlfriend; failed in business; and lost eight separate elections
before he was elected
president of the United States.
5. Don’t assume. Don’t ever assume what someone needs;

always offer your value and
leave the choice to them.
6. Truth-tell. Truth-tell without judgment or agenda, and you’ll
often find others’
responses quite surprising.
7. Build rapport. You can build a sense of rapport where people
feel more comfortable
with you and become more open to your suggestions.
8. Behavioral flexibility. The larger your repertoire of
behaviors, the more persuasive
you’ll be.
9. Learn to transfer energy. The most persuasive people know
how to transfer their
energy to others, to motivate and invigorate them. It can be as
simple as eye contact,
physical touch, laughter, excitement in verbal responses, or
even just active listening.
10. Communicating clearly is key. The art of persuasion lies in
simplifying something
down to its core, and communicating to others what they really
care about.
redistribution.
170

Four Traps That Lead to Persuasion Failure
Leaders fail at effective persuasion when they too often fall into
one or more of the falling
traps. First, leaders who try to make their case with a hard,
upfront sell more often than not
fail, according to Conger (1998), because they show their logic
and tactics at the outset, thus
giving their potential opponents reasons to attack. It is more
effective to start a dialogue or
conversation before trying to convince the person to be
persuaded or back the person into a
corner.
Second, leaders who resist compromise at the outset and see it
as a weakness usually commu-
nicate inflexibility and stubbornness. Persuasion is often a two-
way path that involves some
give and take, listening, and accepting parts of what others have
to offer into the proposed
perspective.
Third, some leaders believe that their arguments and ideas are
the greatest and that the secret
of persuasion lies in sharing these ideas with others. Arguments
are important, but they are,
as Conger noted, only part of the equation; persuasion also
depends on the four steps men-
tioned earlier.
Finally, when leaders assume that
they have one shot at getting others
to buy into a proposition, they are
again wrong. Persuasion, said Con-
ger, is a process. It can take time. Dif-
ficulties are experienced. Listening is
required. Developing and redevelop-

ing a position that is tested and com-
promised before being accepted is to
be expected. Through the process, the
results may be worth the time and
energy given.
Successful persuasion, then, involves
all of the skills and competencies
required for effective communica-
tion. Leaders must plan their mes-
sages, know their audiences, actively
listen, give and receive feedback,
have strategic conversations, create
an open environment for dialogue,
use the right communication channels for the type of messages
they convey, and establish
credibility with those whom they are persuading. Effective
communication is an integral
part of who leaders are and what they do; that is, as we
discussed in Chapter 1, influencing
followers to achieve common goals through shared purposes.
iStock/Thinkstock
The four traps that lead to persuasion failure are the
hard, upfront sell, resisting compromise, failing to
present a compelling position, and failing to connect
emotionally.
redistribution.
171

Summary & Resources
Take the Lead
Leadership and Strategic Communication
You’ve just been recruited to lead an organization’s sales and
marketing department. You
are leaving behind your old company, where you became
famous for elevating their brand to
new heights in your 15-year career. However, leadership did not
support the challenge you
desired in new product development, so you determined your
best next career move would
be outside the organization.
You arrive at your new organization and find the sales and
marketing department runs
like a well-oiled machine. Instead of being broken, as at your
prior organization, this new
organization has a much better structure, processes for
performing business, and what
appears to be a highly qualified and eager staff ready and
willing to forge ahead.
Considering your leadership and strategic communication, how
will you:
1. Immediately develop ties with your new sales and marketing
community?
2. Disseminate your thoughts within the department?
3. Identify the best forum for communicating effectively?
4. Ensure that members of the department are being heard?
See the appendix for possible answers.
Summary & Resources

Chapter Summary
Effective communication is essential to successful leadership.
Communication involves a per-
son’s capacities, personality, skills, competencies, and
relationship abilities. Communication
also affects every aspect of leading: influencing, motivating,
visioning, creating culture, devel-
oping strategy, mobilizing change, and managing stakeholders
locally, face-to-face, and globally
through digital information technologies. Leading and managing
digital communication has also
become a requirement of leadership because most businesses
now involve some form of digital
communication. To succeed in a digital world, leaders must also
become participants as well as
producers, architects, directors, and change agents in embracing
and integrating groupware and
social media into their strategies, marketing, and customer and
employee relationships. Under-
standing how leaders’ personalities and communication styles
affect their ability to send and
receive messages across different channels to different
audiences is also important. Discerning
when blind spots in communication occur can assist leaders in
giving and receiving feedback
more effectively. Leaders also have the obligation of owning
and communicating strategic con-
tent with followers, which involves active listening, creating an
open climate for dialogue as well
as discussions, emphasizing strategic topics, focusing on the
customer, and sharing responsibil-
ity. Learning principles of effective persuasion is also a key
competency of leaders whose pri-
mary role is responsible influence.
As you take the assessment in this chapter and digest the

different elements of communica-
tion from a leader’s perspective, reflect on what specific
changes and development you need
to increase your communication effectiveness.
redistribution.
172
Summary & Resources
Web Resources
Leadership Is All About Emotional Persuasion
http://www.forbes.com/2010/02/02/communication-emotional-
persuasion-leadership-
managing-speaking.html
A communications consultant offers insight on persuasion.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Describe some important similarities and differences between
a leader’s communi-
cation and that of followers in an organization?
2. Identify some major miscommunication issues that you face
in your work, profes-
sional, and student life. What methods do or can you use to
change or eliminate those?
3. Describe some advantages and disadvantages of relying only
or mainly on digital

ways of communicating. Answer this same question about
yourself.
4. Give an example of how you would use the Johari window to
move from a blind spot
you have with another person or group to open knowledge
between you and that
person or group.
5. Referring to the chapter and assessment, what is your
communication style and
describe some advantages and liabilities (issues) that you
experience with your
style? Identify a few ways you could develop or change the
issues you experienced
with your style.
6. Describe your effectiveness as an active listener. What
particular issues do you expe-
rience in your current work or job that hinder active listening?
Identify some ways
you can improve your active listening skills.
7. Suggest ways that an organization in which you work or are
familiar could imple-
ment elements from the fifth model (communication as
dialogue) in the organiza-
tional communication part of this chapter.
8. In what ways is persuasion important for leadership
communication? How effective
are you in persuading people to do something? What ways can
you improve your
ability to be more effective in persuading others to do
constructive tasks?

Key Terms
active listening A communication tech-
nique that involves the listener’s focus and
attention on understanding, interpreting,
assessing, and showing the sender that what
was said is understood.
communication The process of conveying
information and meaning between a sender
and a receiver; one of the most important
competencies of leaders. It is also stating
clearly what you want and expect from oth-
ers, clearly expressing your thoughts and
ideas, and maintaining a precise and con-
stant flow of information.
redistribution.
persuasion-leadership-managing-speaking.html
persuasion-leadership-managing-speaking.html
173
Summary & Resources
communication process The flow of
information in an organization. An effec-
tive communication process involves send-
ers and receivers connecting with each
other’s intended and accurate messages and
meanings.

dialogue A form of communication that
entails a free flow of meaning among all the
participants, with the aim of opening up
differences to arrive at new insights. It is
not centered on debate or proving right or
wrong; it aims at collaboratively discovering
common ground between communicators.
Contrast with discussion.
discussion A form of communication that
involves stating positions and opinions
based on facts, logic, and beliefs and may
not lead to agreement between two parties.
Contrast with dialogue.
Johari’s window A communication and
training model that is used to improve
understanding and awareness of self and
of others for development and improving
communications.
persuasion The act of convincing someone
to believe or do something; using communi-
cation to achieve a goal.
strategic communication Communicating
from a “big picture,” systems perspective.
Being conscious of upholding and maintain-
ing the vision, mission, values, and strategy
of the entire organization when communi-
cating. Seeking to inspire, build trust, unite,
and mobilize followers around a common
identity and purpose of the organization.
redistribution.

redistribution.
SYLLABUS
COURSE NUMBER: NGR 5101
COURSE TITLE: Nursing Theory
COURSE CREDITS: 3 credits
PREREQUISITES: See student handbook
INSTRUCTOR: Dr. (Gene) Barry Eugene Graham, DNP, MSN-
Ed., RN
INSTRUCTOR'S EMAIL:[email protected]
EMERGENCY CONTACT NUMBER: 920-374-3631
SEMESTER: Spring 2020
1.Texts and Materials:
Smith, M. & Parker, M. (2014). Nursing Theories and Nursing
Practice. (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: F. A. Davis Company.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8036-3312-4 (Required)
Publication Manual American Psychological Association (APA)
(6th ed.). 2009 ISBN: 978-14338-0561-5 (Required)
Masters, K. (2015). Nursing Theories: A Framework for
Professional Practice. (2nd ed.). Burlington, Massachusetts.
Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN-13: 9781284048353.
(Recommended)
2. Course Description:
Conceptual and theoretical bases for nursing practice and
research with emphasis on scholarly writing and critique.
3. Learning Outcomes:
1. Upon successful completion of this course, the MSN student
will be able to provide a general overview of nursing theory and

the application of nursing theory as a framework for
professional practice (AACN Essentials I, II, IV, VII, and VIII).
4. Course Objectives:
a. The student will be able to demonstrate Theoretical
knowledge as the framework for nursing by critiquing and
evaluating the concepts, principles, and theories of advanced
nursing practice.
b. The student will be able to demonstrate an understanding of
philosophies and the major theories of nursing.
c. The student will be able to construct an instructional
PowerPoint that articulates the underpinning assumption of
nursing theory as it applies to nurse practice.
II. Upon successful completion of this course, the MSN student
will be able to understand the relationship between nursing
theories and nursing practice that is evidence-based and guided
by the nursing process.
d. The student will be able to select theories and principles to
define their roles in interdisciplinary relationships using case
studies and virtual presentations.
III. Upon successful completion of this course, the MSN
student will be able to integrate theory, evidence, clinical
judgment, research, and interprofessional perspectives using
translational processes to improve practice and associated
health outcomes for patient aggregates.
e. The student will be able to write a research paper using a
theory of choice to analyze implications of nursing theory and
concepts on advanced nursing practice
Teaching Strategies:
This course will use a variety of learning experiences to attain
the course objectives, including but not limited to: lecture,
online discussion, case study, independent reading, assessment
strategies, group and or individual exercises, team and

individual presentation, and learning games.
5. Course Requirements:
ASSIGNMENTS % WEIGHT
Participation (Live Meeting & 3 Reflection Posts) 5
points
Acknowledgement of Syllabus Content
(Mandatory)
1st Quiz Assignment (Mandatory)
Personal Philosophy of Nursing Reflection Paper 20
points
Theorist Presentation 15 points
Discussions (10) 3 points each
30 points
Scholarly Paper 30 points
Total 100%
6. Library Assignments:
For this course, students will be required to utilize the
university’s library on-campus and online resources to conduct
research and analyses of nursing theories and the MSN
Essentials. Students will need to routinely cite scholarly sources
in all course assignments to include weekly discussions, formal
papers, and presentations. Such online resources available via
the university library include search engines such as CINAHL,
PsychInfo, Medline, and PubMed. Students will be required to
utilize such sources to obtain peer-reviewed articles for
reference in all course assignments.
The required assignments will be discussed throughout the
semester giving adequate time for questions and clarification
prior to the date that assignments are due. Specific rubrics for
each assignment are posted in the course syllabus and will also
be posted on Blackboard. All assignments must follow APA 6th
edition format.
All assignments must be completed and submitted as Microsoft
Word documents. Assignments submitted as a PDF or any other
document will not be graded. It is highly recommended that

students seek the assistance of the Writing Lab as they construct
their discussions and papers in order to get assistance with
structure and APA formatting as is required for all written
assignments.
All discussion posts will open on Sundays at 12:00 am and will
be closed on Saturdays at 11:59 pm. Students will be required to
submit an initial post as well as submit 2 reply posts to 2
separate classmates. Initial posts must be made no later than
Wednesdays at 11:59 pm and at least a 1response well thought
must be completed by this time as well. Students who do not
post initial posts and response posts by the established
deadlines will have points deducted from weekly discussion
board grade. Weekly discussion board assignments will close
every Saturday by 11:59 pm and are to be submitted via
Blackboard unless otherwise specified by the course instructor.
Late discussion posts will not be accepted and will be
automatically given a grade of zero. Written assignments
submitted after the due date will be deducted by 5% each day
for the first 48hrs. Assignments will not be accepted past 48hrs
after the established deadline and will be given a grade of zero.
Any extensions for assignments must be pre-negotiated with the
faculty member 48 hours before the due date.
All papers submitted must be in APA format according to the
Publication Manual American Psychological Association (APA)
(6th ed.).
2009 ISBN: 978-1-4338-0561-5
7. Field Trips or Guest Speakers:
There are no field trips or guest speakers for this course.
8. Course Outline:
Course Outline is subject to changes at the faculty’s discretion.
Date
Module/Topic
Assigned Readings
Weekly Assignments

WEEK ONE
01/05/20
Section I:
An introduction to Nursing Theory
Chapter 1:
Nursing Theory & the
Discipline of Nursing
Chapter 2:
A guide for the Study of Nursing Theories for Practice
Introduction Post
Due: 01/11/20
WEEK TWO
01/12/20
Section I: An
Introduction to
Nursing Theory
Section II:
Conceptual Influences on the Evolution of Nursing Theory
Chapter 3:
Choosing, Evaluating and Implementing Nursing Theories for
Practice
Chapter 4:

Florence Nightingale’s
Legacy of Caring & its
Applications
Discussion 1
Due: 01/18/20
WEEK 3
01/19/20
Section II:
Conceptual
Influences on the Evolution of
Nursing Theory
Chapter 5:
Early
Conceptualizations
About
Nursing
Chapter 6:
Nurse- Patient
Relationship Theories
Discussion 2

Due: 01/25/20
WEEK 4
01/26/20
Section III:
Conceptual
Models/Grand
Theories in the
Integrative-
Interactive
Paradigm
Chapter 7: Dorothy Johnson’s Behavioral System Model
and its Application
Chapter 8: Dorothea Orem’s
Self-Care Deficit Nursing
Theory
Chapter 9: Imogene King’s Theory of Goal
Attainment
Personal Philosophy of Nursing
Due: 02/01/20
Reflection #1
Due: 02/01/2020
WEEK 5
02/02/20

Section III:
Conceptual
Models/Grand
Theories in the
Integrative-
Interactive
Paradigm
Chapter 10:
Sister Callista
Roy’s Adaptation Model
Chapter 11:
Betty Neuman’s Systems Model
Case Study 1
Due: 02/08/20
WEEK 6
02/09/20
Section III:

Conceptual
Models/Grand
Theories in the
Integrative-
Interactive
Paradigm
Chapter 12:
Helen Erickson, Evelyn Tomlin and Mary Ann Swain’s Theory
of
Modeling and Role Modeling
Chapter 13:
Barbara Dossey’s Theory
Of Integral Nursing
Discussion 3
Due: 02/15/20
WEEK 7
02/16/20
Section IV: Conceptual Models and Grand Theories in the
Unitary
Transformative Paradigm
Chapter 14:
Martha E. Roger’s Science of Unitary Human Beings
Chapter 15:

Rosemarie Rizzo Parse’s Human
becoming
Paradigm
Discussion 4
Due: 02/22/20
WEEK 8
02/23/20
Section IV: Conceptual Models and Grand Theories in the
Unitary
Transformative
Paradigm
Section V: Grand
Theories about
Care or Caring
Chapter 16:
Margaret Newman’s Theory of
Health as Expanding Consciousness

Chapter 17:
Madeleine Leininger’s Theory of Culture Care Diversity and
Universality
Chapter 18:
Jean Watson’s Theory of
Human Caring
Discussion 5
Due: 02/29/20
WEEK 9
03/01/20
Section V: Grand
Theories about
Care or Caring
Section VI: Middle Range Theories
Chapter 19:
Theory of
Nursing as Caring
Chapter 20:
Transitions Theory
Discussion 6
Due: 03/07/20
WEEK 10

03/08/20
Section VI:
Middle Range Theories
Chapter 21:
Katharine Kolcaba’s
Comfort Theory
Chapter 22:
Joanne Duffy’s
Quality-Caring Model
Reflection #2
Scholarly Paper
Both Due: 03/14/20

WEEK 11
03/15/20
Chapter 23:
Pamela Reed’s Theory of Self-Transcendence
Chapter 24:
Patricia Liehr and
Mary Jane Smith’s Story Theory
Nola J. Pender’s Health
Promotion Model: (click on the following link for readings on
this model)
http://currentnursing.com/nursi ng_theory/health_promotion_m
odel.html
Case Study 2
Due: 03/21/20
WEEK 12
03/22/20
Chapter 25: The Community Nursing Practice Model
Chapter 26: Rozzano Locsin’s
Technological Competency as Caring in Nursing
Discussion 7

Due: 03/28/20
WEEK 13
03/29/20
Section VI:
Middle Range Theories
Chapter 27:
Marilyn Anne Roy’s Theory of Bureaucratic Caring
Chapter 28:
Troutman-Jordan’s Theory of Successful Aging
Theorist Presentation
Reflection #3
Both due: 04/04/20
WEEK 14

04/05/20
Chapter 29:
Barrett’s Theory of
Power as Knowing Participation in Change
Chapter 30:
Marlaine Smith’s Theory of Unitary Caring
Chapter 31: Kristen Swanson’s
Theory of Caring
Discussion 8
Due: 04/11/20
WEEK 15
04/12/20
N/A
Reflection #4
Due: 04/18/20

WEEK 16 04/19/20
FINAL WEEK
FINAL WEEK
NO DISCUSSION
04/27/20
9. Class Policies:
All students are responsible for reviewing the School
Catalog Policies
http://www.fnc_edu/publications/Cataloggeneral.pdf
Students are expected to logon to Blackboard at least once
every 24 hours to ensure that they remain on schedule and
aware of assignments or any changes to class schedules. All
assignments are due on the due date and at the specified time,
and must all be submitted via Blackboard. All major written
assignments will be submitted through designated TurnItIn links
accessible via Blackboard.
All students are required to access their university email
accounts at least twice per week as important information will
be shared using this form of communication. In emergency
situations such as natural disasters, important information
regarding university functions and operations will be
communicated via email.
Students will be graded on the achievement of the objectives,
not on the effort put into completing assignments. All online
discussions, written assignments and documentation of others'
ideas and words in presentations must be in APA 6th edition
format. Students have one opportunity to complete each
assignment. Papers cannot be rewritten and presentations cannot
be resubmitted in an attempt to obtain a higher grade.
10. Grading Criteria:

All course assignments must be completed and submitted as
Microsoft Word documents. Discussion Posts:
Each student must be actively engaged in course discussions.
Each student must post one original post weekly with a
minimum of 250 words addressing the assigned question or
topic of the week. Postings must be original, clear and relevant
to the weekly assigned course topic. Weekly postings must also
contain 2 peer-reviewed reference articles/sources that are to be
used to support posting. Students must also create 2 response
posts of at least 150 words that are relevant to and addresses 2
other student’s original posting regarding the specified
discussion topic.
Thus, in total students are to post a total of 3 posts weekly; one
original and 2 responses. Lastly, students will be required to
reply to posts and questions posed by the course instructor on
discussion board posts. Failure to reply to instructor
posts/questions will result in point deductions to discussion post
grade.
Case Studies: Students are required to complete case studies as
they are assigned via Blackboard.
The case study rubric will be posted on the Blackboard and will
be available for viewing by students. After posting a critique of
the article, students must also respond to 2 other original posts.
Reflection and Scholarly Papers:
All papers must be completed and submitted as Microsoft Word
documents. Assignments submitted as a PDF or any other
document will not be graded. All written assignments submitted
through TurnItIn will be evaluated using the TurnItIn similarity
index to determine if work submitted by students is original and
not plagiarized. All work submitted by students must contain no
more than 20% similarity index, any percentage greater than
20% is unacceptable and considered as plagiarism. Papers
submitted with greater than 20% similarity index maybe receive
a grade of zero.
Student Code of Ethics:

Cheating or plagiarism is dishonest, undermines the necessary
trust upon which relations between students and faculty are
based, and is unacceptable conduct. Students who engage in
cheating or plagiarism will be subject to academic sanctions,
including a lowered or failing grade in a course; and the
possibility of an additional administrative sanction, including
probation, suspension, or expulsion. Cheating is the act of
obtaining or attempting to obtain credit for academic work by
using dishonest means. Cheating at FNU includes but is not
limited to: Copying, in part or whole from another's
examination, paper, mathematical analysis, research or creative
project, or the like; Submitting as one's own work an
examination, paper, mathematical analysis, research or creative
project, or the like which has been purchased, borrowed, or
stolen; or fabricating data; Consulting notes, sources, or
materials not specifically authorized by the instructor during an
examination; Employing a surrogate to take an examination,
write a paper, do mathematical analysis, or complete, in part or
wholly, an evaluation instrument; Aiding or abetting any act
that a reasonable person would conclude, when informed of the
evidence, to be a dishonest means of obtaining or attempting to
obtain credit for academic work; and committing any act that a
reasonable person would conclude, when informed of the
evidence, to be a dishonest means of obtaining or attempting to
obtain credit for academic work.
Plagiarism is the act of obtaining or attempting to obtain credit
for academic work by representing the work of another as one's
own without the necessary and appropriate acknowledgment.
More specifically, plagiarism is: The act of incorporating the
ideas, words of sentences, paragraphs, or parts thereof without
appropriate acknowledgment and representing the product as
one's own work; and The act of representing another's
intellectual work such as musical composition, computer
program, photographs, painting, drawing, sculpture, or research
or the like as one's own. If a student is in doubt about the nature

of plagiarism, he/she should discuss the matter with the course
instructor. All written assignments will be submitted via
Turnitin for evaluation. Papers submitted with a Similarity
Index of greater than 20% will be viewed as an indication of
high plagiarism content and subject to receive a grade of zero.
Theft - Copying computer programs owned, leased, or rented by
the College for use by the student in his or her course of studies
is considered theft and will be dealt with according to the laws
covering such actions and to the College norms for disciplinary
actions. In cases like these, the Campus Dean will convene a
Hearing Committee which will hear, investigate and render a
report to the Campus Dean. This Committee will be composed
of three members from the faculty or staff. According to the
findings, the Campus Dean has the choice to make a decision. If
this decision is not acceptable to those involved, a petition to
the Dean to appoint an Honor Court must be signed by at least
three people. The Honor Court procedure is explained in the
Student Handbook.
Religious Holidays:
Religious holidays are an excused absence, but not beyond the
day for the holiday itself. Students should make their requests
known at the beginning of the semester and arrangements must
be made with the faculty member for missed work.
Disability Statement:
Students with disabilities who may need special
accommodations must register with the Office of Disability
Services. In addition, students must contact the instructor so
that arrangements can be made to accommodate their needs.
ADA Statement:
FNU is committed to offering accessible courses to all students,
in full compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA) Amendments Act of
2008 (ADAAA), Titles I and II of the ADA of 1990, and
Sections 503 & 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. If you

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