Feature-aligned N-BEATS with Sinkhorn divergence (ICLR '24)
Sex selection and or prediction
1.
2.
is the attempt to control the sex of the offspring to
achieve a desired sex. It can be accomplished in
several ways, both pre- and post-implantation of an
embryo, as well as at birth. It has been marketed
under the title family balancing.
Sex selection
4.
Two major types of pre-implantation methods can be
used for social sex selection. Both of them are based
on actively rendering the second sex chromosome to
be either a Y chromosome (resulting in a male), or an
X chromosome (resulting in a female).
Pre-implantation
5.
The Ericsson method, first applied in a clinical
setting in the 1970s by Dr. Ronald J. Ericsson, uses
higher concentrations of sperm of the desired sex to
increase the likelihood ofconceiving that sex. The
method has a 70-72% success rate for boys and a 69-
75% success rate for girls.[15] Currently,
approximately 50 gender selection centers in the
United States use the Ericsson Method for artificial
gender selection.[16]
The Ericsson method
6.
Multiple eggs are removed from the mother. The
eggs are fertilized in the laboratory using the father's
sperm in a technique called in vitro fertilization
(IVF). "In vitro" is Latin for "within glass". Fertilized
eggs are called embryos. As the embryos develop
through mitosis, they are separated by sex. Embryos
of the desired gender are implanted back in the
mother's uterus.
Prior to fertilization with IVF, the fertilized eggs can
be genetically biopsied with preimplantation genetic
diagnosis(PGD) to increase fertilization success
IVF/PGD technique
7.
first formally theorized in the 1960s by Landrum B.
Shettles, proposes that sperm containing the X (female)
chromosome are more resilient than sperm containing the
Y (male) chromosome. The method advocates intercourse
two to four days prior to ovulation. By the time ovulation
occurs, the cervix should contain a higher concentration
of female sperm still capable of fertilization (with most of
the male sperm already dead). Intercourse close to
ovulation, on the other hand, should increase the chances
of conceiving a boy since the concentration of Y sperm
will be higher at the height of the menstrual cycle.
The Shettles method
8.
is an "intercourse timing" method that advocates the
opposite of the Shettles method. The Whelan method
suggests intercourse four to six days prior to
ovulation to increase likelihood of fertilization by
male sperm.
The Whelan method
9.
Sperm sorting is an advanced technique that sorts
sperm "in vitro" by flow cytometry. This shines a laser
at the sperm to distinguish X and Y chromosomes, and
can automatically separate the sperm out into different
samples.
Sperm sorting
10.
Sex selection after implantation can be performed by
prenatal sex discernment, followed by sex-selective
abortion of any offspring of the unwanted sex. For
prenatal sex discernment, a blood test can be taken
from the mother for testing of small amounts of fetal
DNA within it, and has been estimated to be reliable
more than 98% of the time, as long as the samples are
taken after the seventh week of pregnancy
Post-implantation
11.
Sex-selective infanticide - Killing children of the
unwanted sex. Though illegal in most parts of the world,
it is still practiced.
Sex-selective child abandonment - Abandoning children
of the unwanted sex. Though illegal in most parts of the
world, it is still practiced.
Sex-selective adoption - Placing children of the unwanted
sex up for adoption. Less commonly viewed as a method
of social sex selection, adoption affords families that have
a gender preference a legal means of choosing offspring
of a particular sex.
Post-birth
12.
PGD gender selection is the most reliable
method for gender selection, approaching
100% accuracy (although, of course, there are
always possibilities for technical errors).
13.
In contrast, in an interview study, sex-selection
technology providers generally argued that sex
selection is an expression of reproductive rights, was
initiated and pursued by women, and was a sign of
female empowerment that allowed couples to make
well-informed family planning decisions, prevented
occurrences of unintended pregnancy and abortion,
and minimized intimate partner violence and/or child
neglect.
Ethical concerns
14.
In contrast, primary care physicians questioned
whether women could truly express free choice
under pressure from family and community.[41] In
addition, primary care physicians voiced the
concerns that sex selection led to invasive medical
interventions in the absence of therapeutic
indications, contributed to gender stereotypes that
could result in child neglect of the lesser-desired sex,
and was not a solution to domestic violence.[41]
15.
When gender selection is used to prevent a genetic
disease, the process is called "medical gender
selection." In some cases, the so-called "sex-linked
diseases" are inherited via the mother but only male
offspring are affected (muscular dystrophy,
hemophilia, etc.).
16.
In other cases, conditions are more severely
expressed in one gender (Fragile X syndrome, autism
in males, etc.) than the other. Medical reasons for
gender selection can, however, also be psychological:
a single female may feel better equipped having a
daughter than a son; parents who lost a child may
feel a strong need for a child of the same gender.
17.
There are only two techniques that reliably
affect gender: One is PGD with In Vitro
Fertilization (IVF) , and the other is an
experimental sperm-sorting technique, called
Microsort.
18.
Sex selection is officially prohibited in China, but the
Chinese government admits that the practice is
widespread, especially in rural areas of China and
among lawless groups such as ghettoized migrant
workers in cities (despite denials by the government-
sponsored studies).
Legality
19.
Social sex selection is illegal in India.[61] To ensure
this, prenatal determination of sex through
ultrasound is also illegal in India. These laws are
instituted to combat the prevalent practice of sex-
selective abortion. However, these laws have
generally failed to be effective in rural areas and,
despite education efforts, sex-selective abortion
continues to be widely practiced there.
Legality
20.
Sex selection is legal in most of the world, and it is
practiced particularly in Western countries, but is
more limited in Eastern countries, such as India or
China. There is fertility tourism from the United
Kingdom[62] and Canada[61] to the United States for
sex selection, because preimplantation genetic
diagnosis (PGD, a potential expansion of IVF), which
can be used for sex selection, is prohibited in the UK
and Canada, except when it is used to screen for
genetic diseases, while the laws in the US are more
relaxed in this subject.
Legality
