review_of_related_literature

1. Chapter II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
This segment of the study portrays the studies and literature carrying
similarities and differences with the study being conducted. They were derived
from the readings made from books and other printed sources, from unpublished
studies – thesis and dissertation, and from electronic sources. These review
materials assisted much in providing insights and learning to tally complete the
study in concentration.
A. Related Literature
Foreign
Historically, during the 1970s when the self-monitoring concept was
introduced it became part of two larger ongoing debates. Within personality
research there was the tension between traits and situation; one could think of
this as the nature versus nurture debate. The self-monitoring construct offered a
resolution to this debate because there was no need to argue that humans
needed to fit entirely into the nature or nurture paradigm. High self-monitors
were better predicted by their environment (situation/nurture) while low self-
monitors were better predicted by their traits (traits/nature). Another debate that
was raging during this time period within social psychology was whether or not

2. 9
attitudes were good predictors of behavior. The self-monitoring construct
offered a resolution to this debate as well because it posited that low self-
monitors would behave largely consistent with their attitudes, while attitudes
would be poor predictors of behavior for high self-monitors. The self-monitoring
construct fit neatly into the arguments of the day where high self-monitors
affirmed the situation-oriented view typically associated with social psychology,
while the low self-monitors affirmed the trait-oriented view typically associated
with personality psychology.
Self-monitoring is useful for students from preschool to adulthood and
can be taught to individuals at a variety of levels of cognitive functioning. Self-
monitoring interventions foster independent functioning, which allows individuals
with disabilities to rely less on prompts from others (Koegel, Koegel, Harrower, &
Carter, 1999).
Self-monitoring interventions are among the most flexible, useful, and
effective strategies for students with academic and behavioral difficulties
(Mitchum, Young, West, & Benyo, 2001). They have demonstrated efficacy for
targeting a range of academic abilities (Rock, 2005), self- help skills (Pierce &
Schreibman, 1994), behavioral problems (Todd, Horner, & Sugai, 1999), and social
behaviors (Strain & Kohler, 1994). Students with behavioral and academic

3. 10
difficulties typically have limited awareness and understanding of their own
behavior and its effects on others.
Self-monitoring interventions equip students to recognize and keep track
of their own behavior (Hoff & DuPaul, 1998; Rhode, Morgan, & Young, 1983).
Using these strategies, students can learn to identify and increase positive, pro-
social behaviors, the behaviors necessary for success in general education
settings. Self-monitoring strategies are individualized plans used to increase
independent functioning in academic, behavioral, self-help, and social areas. Self-
monitoring strategies develop skills that lead to an increase in appropriate
behavior. When self-monitoring skills increase, corresponding reductions in
undesired behaviors often occur, even without direct intervention (Dunlap, Clarke,
Jackson, Wright, 1995; Koegel, Koegel, Harrower, & Carter, 1999). The five steps
involved in planning a self-monitoring intervention: 1. Identify the target
behavior. 2. Select/design a self-monitoring system. 3. Choose reinforcers and
how the student will earn them. 4. Teach the student to use the system. 5. Fade
the role of the adult in the intervention.
Mark Snyder originally developed a scale to measure whether people were
high or low self-monitors in 1974 as a 25-item measure. In his original study he
found that Stanford University students scored significantly higher on the scale
than did psychiatric inpatients, but significantly lower than people in the acting

4. 11
profession. The scale was revised into an 18-item measure that is considered
psychometrically superior to the original scale and has been used extensively in
self-monitoring studies. There has developed great debate over whether or not
the self-monitoring scale is a unitary phenomenon. During the 1980s, factor
analysis postulated that the self-monitoring scale was actually measuring several
distinct dimensions. The three-factor solution was the most common and usually
interpreted as Acting, Extraversion, and Other-Directedness (see willingness to
communicate). There has developed consensus about the multifactorial nature of
the items on the self-monitoring scale; however, there remains differing
interpretations about whether or not that jeopardizes the validity of the self-
monitoring concept.
A score of 0-12 on Snyder's scale indicates low self-monitoring, while a
score of 13-25 indicates high self-monitoring. Some traits of high self-monitors
include readily and easily modifying their behavior in response to the demands of
the situation, whereas low self-monitors care little about modifying their behavior
in response to the situation and tend to maintain the same opinions and
attitudes regardless of the situation. High self-monitors find it much easier to
modify their behavior based on the situation than low self-monitors do. High
self-monitors would be more likely to change their beliefs and opinions
depending on who they're talking to, while low self-monitors would tend to be

5. 12
consistent throughout all situations. This has been studied mainly in
correspondence with relationships. Compared to Low self-monitors, High self-
monitors will have more dating and sexual partners, are more interested in
having sex with people they are not in love with, and are more likely to have had
sex with someone only once, as well as be more likely to deceive potential
romantic partners. High self-monitors are more likely to choose a romantic
partner who is attractive but unsociable, while low self-monitors are more likely
to choose a partner who is unattractive but sociable. High self-monitors are also
more likely to take on leadership positions than low self-monitors.
Gudykunst et al, (1987) argued that individualism should influence self-
monitoring. Cultures high on individualism focus on the self, not others. In
individualistic cultures, knowing the context is not necessary to predict others'
behavior, thus people from individualistic cultures are more likely to be low self-
monitors. Cultures low on individualism (i.e., collectivist cultures), in contrast,
value conformity to ingroups and group memberships. In collectivistic cultures,
knowing the context and social status of the other person is essential to
predicting his or her behavior, thus people from collectivistic cultures are more
likely to be high self-monitors.
Local

6. 13
Filipinos are generally good at English. At least that s the impression
foreigners get when they encounter us. It is also one of the primary reasons why
foreign employers like hiring Filipinos. It is well-established that English has made
its way into the world as a sort of lingua franca, and we wield it as an advantage
for now.
Charisse M. Tocmo stated that the Philippines is always referred to as an
English-Speaking country. Amidst of the Mother Tongue Based Education
Program of Department of Education, still, some schools implement the English
Policy. English as a medium of instruction, practice in developing a competitive
individual being thrown in the land of competition and are more prioritize in
applying a job here and abroad. An institution is in charge of the student s
additional knowledge and learning as well as opening a door towards chances.
Have we notice? That a student came from a school, wherein English is the
medium of instruction, is competitive is speaking the language than those who
are not?
Carlos Conde of Davao City Philippines in his article Erosion of English
Skills Threatens Growth in the Philippines states that the deterioration of English
proficiency has been linked to an overall decline in Philippine education.
Accordingly, there s a recent government study that shows only seven 7 percent
of high school graduates can properly read, speak or understand English, and

7. 14
poorly trained teachers are partly blame. Education is a key to success. We should
go with the flow of change and competence, throwing our best assets;
OURSELVES. In this world of competition, it is ourselves that we cling to. Be
practical. Don t be the last in the human race. Being proficient in English
language can make anybody to be in any place, can prosper a business and has
an edge to anyone.
Synthesis
The foreign and local research literature have some connection with this
study for they dealt with the correlation of self-monitoring and the English
proficiency of students. The ideas provided by the foregoing review of literature
will help the researchers in the conceptualization of the study.
The above literature provides a background on the concept of self-
monitoring and English proficiency correlations.
With the works of Mark Synder, he stated the self-monitoring is useful in
the present study for teaching to individuals at a variety of levels of cognitive
functioning. It fosters independent functioning, which allows individuals with
disabilities to rely less on prompts from others. Using self-monitoring strategies,
students can learn to identify and increase positive, pro-social behaviors, the
behaviors necessary for success in general education settings. They are
individualized plans used to increase independent functioning in academic,

8. 15
behavioral, self-help and social areas and develop skills that lead to an increase in
appropriate behavior.
B. Related Studies
Foreign
Research has demonstrated a number of ways in which high and low self-
monitors differ. Some studies gathered descriptions of these people from those
who know them well in daily life. Funder and Harris (1986) have found out that
high self-monitors were more likely than low self-monitors to be described by
those who knew them with Q-sort items such as
 Skilled in social techniques of imaginative play, pretending, and humor
(e.g., is good at charades)
 Talkative
 Self-dramatizing, histrionic (exaggerates emotion)
 Initiates humor
 Verbally fluent
 Expressive in face and gestures
 Having social poise and presence
Low self-monitors, by contrast were more likely to be described as
 Distrustful

9. 16
 Perfectionist
 Touchy and irritable
 Anxious
 Introspective
 Independent
 Feeling cheated and victimized by life
It is clear from these lists that high self-monitors are described more
favorably and are more popular than low self-monitors. However, according to
the construct, the difference arises because being positively regarded and
popular is more important to high self-monitors. So although the description of
low self-monitors might seem more negative, the low self-monitor probably
doesn t care – other things such as independence are more important to him or
her.
A second kind of research borrows a leaf from the empiricists book by
comparing the self-monitoring scores of members of different criterion groups –
groups that, if the theory of self-monitoring were correct, would be expected to
score differently. For instance, Synder (1974) administered his scale to
professional stage actors. Because their profession involves putting on a persona
called for by the script, he expected them to score high in his scale – and they
did. He also examined hospitalized mental patients, who typically are hospitalized

10. 17
because their behavior has been highly inappropriate. Synder expected them to
get low scores on self-monitoring – and they did. (Please note: this does not
mean that low self-monitors are mentally ill.
Synder also performed some interesting experiments. He asked his
participants to read the following passage into a tape recorder: I m going out
now, I won t be back all day. If anyone comes by, just tell them I m not here.
Each participant had to read this passage six times, while trying to project one of
a number of emotions – happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and remorse –
by using tone of voice, pitch, speed of talking, and so forth. It turns out to be
easier to figure out which emotion is being projected when the reader is a high
self-monitor (Synder, 1974).
Studies have demonstrated relationships between self-monitoring scores
and numerous other behaviors. For example, compared to low self-monitors,
high self-monitors perform better in job interviews (Osborn, Field, & Veres, 1998),
place themselves in central positions in social networks (Mehra, Kilduff, & Brass,
2001), use more strategies to influence their co-workers (Caldwell & Burger,
1997), are willing to lie in other to get a date (Rowatt, Cunningham, & Druen,
1998), and even masturbate more often (Trivedi & Sabini, 1998).
Recent research also indicates that self-monitoring is related to the
experience of emotion. In one study, men put on headphones and heard a tape

11. 18
of heartbeats that they were told (falsely) were their own, and then were shown a
series of pictures of women. High self-monitors reported feeling most attracted
to the women whose pictures were shown when they thought their hearts had
sped up. Low self-monitors were less likely to be influenced by the bogus heart-
rate feedback. In a second study, high self-monitors thought that jokes were
funnier if they heard a laugh track along with it; low self-monitors were less prone
to this effect (Graziano & Bryant, 1998). These findings imply that high self-
monitors look to the environment for clues as to how they are feeling, whereas
low self-monitors are more prone to look within.
Self-monitoring is a theory that deals with the phenomena of expressive
controls. Human beings generally differ in substantial ways in their abilities and
desires to engage in expressive controls. People concerned with their expressive
self-presentation tend to closely monitor their audience in order to ensure
appropriate or desired public appearances. Self-monitories try to understand how
individuals and groups will perceive their actions. Some personality types
commonly act spontaneously and others are more apt to purposely control and
consciously adjust their behavior. Self-monitoring, is defined as, a personality trait
that refers to an ability to regulate behavior to accommodate social situations.
High self-monitors can be thought of as social pragmatists who project images in
an attempt to impress others and receive positive feedback. Conversely, low self-

12. 19
monitors do not participate, to the same degree, in expressive control and do not
share similar concern for situational appropriateness. Low self-monitors tend to
exhibit expressive controls congruent with their own internal states; i.e. beliefs,
attitudes, and dispositions regardless of social circumstance. Low self-monitors
are often less observant of social context and consider expressing a self-
presentation. (Synder, 1987)
Language Teaching Methods. Presented here is a summary of eight
language teaching methods in practice today: the Grammar-Translation Method,
the Direct Method, the Audio-Lingual Method, the Silent Way, Suggestopedia,
Community Language Learning, the Total Physical Response Method, and the
Communicative Approach. Of course, what is described here is only an
abstraction. How a method is manifest in the classroom will depend heavily on
the individual teacher's interpretation of its principles.
Some teachers prefer to practice one of the methods to the exclusion of
others. Other teachers prefer to pick and choose in a principled way among the
methodological options that exist, creating their own unique blend.
Grammar-Translation Method. It focuses on developing students'
appreciation of the target language's literature as well a teaching the language.
Students are presented with target-language reading passages and answer
questions that follow. Other activities include translating literary passages from

13. 20
one language into the other, memorizing grammar rules, and memorizing native-
language equivalents of target language vocabulary. Class work is highly
structured, with the teacher controlling all activities.
Direct Method. It allows students to perceive meaning directly through
the language because no translation is allowed. Visual aids and pantomime are
used to clarify the meaning of vocabulary items and concepts. Students speak a
great deal in the target language and communicate as if in real situations.
Reading and writing are taught from the beginning, though speaking and
listening skills are emphasized. Grammar is learned inductively.
Audio-Lingual Method. It is based on the behaviorist belief that
language learning is the acquisition of a set of correct language habits. The
learner repeats patterns until able to produce them spontaneously. Once a given
pattern – for example, subject-verb-prepositional phrase – is learned, the speaker
can substitute words to make novel sentences. The teacher directs and controls
students' behavior, provides a model, and reinforces correct responses.
The Silent Way. The theoretical basis of Gattegno's Silent Way is the idea
that teaching must be subordinated to learning and thus students must develop
their own inner criteria for correctness. All four skills – reading, writing, speaking,
and listening – are taught from the beginning. Students' errors are expected as a

14. 21
normal part of learning: the teacher's silence helps foster self-reliance and
student initiative. The teacher is active in setting up situations, while the students
do most of the talking and interacting.
Suggestopedia. Lozanov's method seeks to help learners eliminate
psychological barriers to learning. The learning environment is relaxed and
subdued, with low lighting and soft music in the background. Students choose a
name and character in the target language and culture, and imagine that person.
Dialogs are presented to the accompaniment of music. Students just relax and
listen to them being read and later playfully practice the language during an
activation phase.
Community Language Learning. In Curren's method, teachers consider
students as whole persons, with intellect, feelings, instincts, physical responses,
and desire to learn. Teachers also recognize that learning can be threatening. By
understanding and accepting students' fears, teachers help students feel secure
and overcome their fears, and thus help them harness positive energy for
learning. The syllabus used is learner-generated, in that students choose what
they want to learn in the target language.
Total Physical Response Method. Asher's approach begins by placing
primary importance on listening comprehension, emulating the early stages of

15. 22
mother tongue acquisition, and then moving to speaking, reading, and writing.
Students demonstrate their comprehension by acting out commands issued by
the teacher; teachers provide novel and often humorous variations of the
commands. Activities are designed to be fun and to allow students to assume
active learning roles. Activities eventually include games and skits.
The Communicative Approach. It stresses the need to teach
communicative competence as opposed to linguistic competence; thus, functions
are emphasized over forms. Students usually work with authentic materials in
small groups on communicative activities, during which they receive practice in
negotiating meaning.
The self monitoring (SM) construct was introduced by Snyder (1974) as a
trait that describes and explains individual differences in the (self-) control of
expressive behavior:
There are, however, striking and important differences in the extent to which
individuals can and do monitor their self-presentation, expressive behavior and
non-verbal affective display (Snyder, 1974). The SM-questionnaire developed by
Snyder (1974) covers self-report items like I m not always the person I appear to
be that usually were analyzed in a quantitative fashion, i.e., by summing the item
responses after coding all items in the same direction. In hundreds of empirical

16. 23
studies, however, a median-split was applied to these sum scores in order to
differentiate between two groups of people, the high self monitorer and the low
self monitorer. The results of those investigations strongly depend on how well
two possibly different kinds of individuals, the high SM and low SM, are
represented by such a fifty-fifty splitting of the sample behavior in social
contexts.High self monitoring people consider the self performances and
strategic appearences they generate. Low self monitoring individuals consider the
consistency of the self's deeds with ones life world of beliefs (Snyder and
Campbell, 1982 ).
Local
In the Philippines, English proficiency is found out to be declining. A recent
language test result showed that the Philippines is no longer the top one English-
speaking country in Asia. This brought up an alarming impact towards job-
providing industries in and out of the country, and is currently driving the
Department of Education to intensify the effort of providing an educational
system that will improve student s mastery in English. However, programs and
projects conducted by schools are not enough to promote the development of
English language proficiency among Filipino students. Teachers have to be
competitive enough in using the language to effectively teach students in
becoming critical and analytical in communicating with the the use of English.

17. 24
Learning experiences that will help students reach the optimum level of their
communicative ability must be provided (Suelto, 2005).
There are various ways that we could take in order to pursue the
improvement of our students English language proficiency. One way is to
encourage students to speak the language regularly especially within the school
premises. Schools have been promoting the English Speaking Campaign
wherein students are obliged to speak in English whenever they are inside the
classroom. Development always start within oneself, thus, students are
encouraged to do self-study and practice to improve their skills. Interacting with
native speakers of English is also highly encouraged.
Watching movies in English and listening to English spoken media is also
an effective way in improving English communication skills. Students nowadays
are highly exposed to music and films that are using the English language.
Although it has been observed that songs of today have a lot grammatical error
or simply because of the writer s choice to make the lyrics poetic , students tend
to adopt the way native speakers deliver the language.
Another helpful factor that students are being exposed to is the Internet
where sources of all information they need are always in their reach. Visiting
websites, reading different types of articles, and discussing topics in English help
them become confident in using English.

18. 25
Taking those helpful ways presented above are of great help in developing
the student s proficiency in English. However, the teacher s assistance in the
classroom setting will further motivate students to pursue learning and
developing their English language skills.
According to Maria Lourdes DC. Ramirez, in her articles, English is
considered the universal language. It serves as a tool for global networks and for
local identities. There is a need to achieve higher English proficiency level among
students in order to meet the demands of time and to totally gear them up for
global competitiveness. This is the reason why our educational system is taking
the lead to uplift the level of proficiency of our students in English. Most of the
students have difficulties on using the language both in oral and written. They
have found having low mastery level in English. Many factors are found to be the
reasons why the students have such performance particularly in their English
subject. One is the exposure of students in the use of the language. After learning
the structure and all the important aspects of it, there is no application they are
not using what they have learned when they go out of their classes. Even in
watching television program they prefer programs in Filipino or translated in
Filipino. Second, teachers of other subjects who supposed to use English as
medium of instruction are using the first language. Third, some of the teachers
handling English subject have also an average English proficiency level. Teachers

19. 26
failed to expose students in more encouraging activities which could develop
their confidence in the use of the second language.
The Department of Education is trying its very best to find ways in order to
solve those problems. It has conducted programs and projects which could
lessen the problems on English proficiency among Filipino students. The
department put the low performing schools in English under the Project Turning
Around. This is part of the Department s task to raise the low performances of the
schools specifically in English proficiency. There was the conduct of intensive
intervention programs. The program includes teacher trainings, school
administrator capability building and improvement of student nutritional status
as well as school physical facilities and additional instructional materials. A Whole
School Approach to Master Reading and Writing was also launched. It is a model
that considers the whole school as learning community where reading and
writing as tools for lifelong learning. It strengthened to effect the desired changes
in students performance in terms of improved comprehension and
communication skills both oral and written language. The Department also
continuously delves into better ways of organizing and delivering the curriculum.
It continues to provide programs in enhancing students English proficiency level.
Still the teachers of English play an important role to finally achieved the
highest level of English proficiency among their students. It is on the teachers

20. 27
hands where students could embrace the challenges ahead of them as they
compete globally.
Synthesis
The proponents believe that each and every studies stated in this research
is similar on the present study. The proponents relate and differentiate the
research based on the methods used in teaching English Language among the
students in order for them to develop their proficiency and fluency in using our
second language. Both research studies believe that the teacher is the one who
have a vital role in achieving the highest level of English proficiency among
their students. The programs, strategies, methods and approaches are important
elements to come up with effective teaching. It is necessary among students to
become proficient in using English Language for them to be globally competitive.
With the help of government agencies such as Department of Education,
we can pursue our self to be competitive individual in terms of English Language
Proficiency. The Department also continuously delves into better ways of
organizing and delivering the curriculum. It continues to provide programs in
enhancing students English proficiency level.