Forensics Research Paper

Forensics Research Paper
Forensics are one of the most supportive way we make decisions today. It has helped judges and the jury of the court prove that the person is either
guilty or innocent. It completely changed the way the prison system on how it convicts the felons. Not only does it help lawyers it can also be used
against others. Until it was discovered those who had prior been convicted of a crime did not get a fair trial. Forensics are usually for those who are
fascinated with solving crime or are intrigued with crime or murder shows or situations. (good job!!) Forensics go back to the 19th century, although it
was not yet called that yet. .Forensics vary from blood samples to getting the fingerprints and even doing autopsies.Forensics are used to find why...
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Forensic science R&D in the 1980s laid the groundwork for advances in the 1990s and early 2000s that had a profound impact on crime laboratories.
(the impact) Autopsies are usually the ones where they are needed to be tested in labs. In crime laboratories, scientists analyze evidence collected from
crime scenes, suspects and victims. They may analyze anything from DNA or fingerprints to human remains or suspicious substances. the scientific
advances, particularly the growth of DNA testing, provided more effective tools for analyzing evidence and identifying perpetrators, they also led to
a dramatic increase in the demand for lab services. Autopsies are used to find how or why the person passed away. Autopsies go back to the greek
times when they would use them the same way we use them today. Although the reason why autopsies are very important some may argue that it is
unnecessary if one was already made or if the cause of death is obvious. Scientist will point out though that autopsies not only give the reason of death
but they will also reveal the health condition of the patient that is being tested. The growing awareness of the influence of genetic factors in disease has
also emphasized the importance of autopsies.(the
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Pros And Cons Of Miscarriage Of Justice
As we all may realize once a crime is committed the suspect is charged and then sentenced based off the judge's decision. As we recall a crime is an
unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. In other words, those who commit minor or major crimes get incarcerated depending how serious
is crime. Also, in some cases suspects receive supervised probation and must be watched periodically by an assigned officer. It is understandable that
those who commit crimes are held accountable for their actions. Over the past decade families have been destroyed after knowing their significant
other will be in jail for a long period of time based off a wrongful conviction. Over the past years victims have been incarcerated wrongfully on charges
such as rape or murder. In many cases the victims were coerced to speak, confessions were manipulated to make the detective look good, or the officer
yelled and smuggled their face so that the victim can forcefully say anything. A wrongful conviction known as a miscarriage of justice primarily is
the conviction and punishment of a person for a crime they did not commit. During the late years of 1980 it was truly a year of miscarriage of justice
for a family of five teens who were arrested and charged with raping a woman in a New York City park. According to an article published by PBS.org
"On April 20, 1989, the body of a woman barely clinging to life is discovered in Central Park. Within days, Antron McCray, Kevin Richardson,
Raymond

Forensic Police Work Research Paper
Forensic Police Work and PCR
Prior to the discovery in 1983 of the polymerase chain reaction by Kary Mullis, forensic police work was very different. Before the discovery, partial
or scant DNA recovery from a crime scene meant that there was little chance of matching evidence to a suspect. However with modern day PCR, even
partial DNA can be replicated many times in order facilitate repeated testing. With abundant evidence it is more likely a match will be made. PCR is
like a copy machine for DNA (Nobel). A very small amount of the DNA strand comprises the Genetic Fingerprint. That small section is specific to the
individual only.
99.9% of the DNA strand information is shared throughout the human population. The .1% remaining carries

The Importance Of Fingerprinting And Blood Testing
Fingerprinting and Blood testing are essential methods of identification to prove if a defendant committed a crime or if there is a relationship between
victim and defendant. Information of this nature is critical to criminal proceedings; however, there is no testimony being taken; therefore, counseling is
not needed because a defendant cannot refuse such testing on the grounds of the Fifth Amendment. "Fingerprint identification evidence is equated with
guilt, while the lack of fingerprint identification evidence infers a weakness in the prosecution's case" (Lawson, 2013). "Fingerprint identification is
one of the most important criminal investigation tools due to two features: their persistence and their uniqueness. A person's ... Show more content on
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DNA analysis permits the identification by reference to the information contained in any human nucleic cell; considering, which body part the cell
came from; therefore, DNA evidence helps articulate the procedure for use in a criminal investigation. (Gans & Urbas, 2002) "Crime investigators
utilize DNA profiles from two sources: human bodies and small samples of human bodily material" (Gans & Urbas, 2002). DNA is an effective
weapon for both prosecutors and defendants; therefore, the DNA crime investigators need to compare a profile believed to be from a crime
perpetrator with a known person's profile. (Gans & Urbas, 2002) DNA conclusively establishes identity using such specimens like hair, blood,
tissue, and semen from suspect to determine guilt or innocence. (Hall, 2014) DNA evidence is most commonly used in sexual assault and murder
cases; it's not perfect; nevertheless, it's sufficiently reliable for admission into evidence. DNA testing is used to compare a profile from an
unidentified person or corpse with a known person's profile. All fifty states are authorized to collect DNA from individuals convicted of terrorism,
violent, sexual, and some property crimes and these samples are entered in CODIS. (Hall, 2014) Law enforcement agencies use DNA fingerprints to
place a name to file the charge and obtain an arrest warrant

Why Is Fingerprints Important
Fingerprints are detailed, difficult to alter, and permanent over the life of a person, which makes them suitable as a long–term identifier of an
individual. They also can be used to identify people who are deceased in the aftermath of a crime. The recovery of fingerprints from a scene is an
important part of forensics in identifying a possible suspect. Blood is often found at various types of crime scenes, such as homicide, assault, rape,
robbery and burglary. Blood type can be an identifying factor to assist investigators to narrow the search for a suspect. WithDNA typing technologies,
an individual bloodstain can now be used to identify an individual of a crime or a suspect. Blood spatter can also be used to identify which hand a
person used during a stabbing, the direction of a shot and even the distance of the shot from the victim.

Malcolm Bryant Case Analysis
The innocence project has exonerated 349 people and of those 349 people, 71% of them have involved eyewitness misidentification. In the Malcolm
Bryant case, eyewitness misidentification was a huge reason why he was convicted. The witness testified against Bryant during court and was certain
that it was him. David Camm and Malcolm Bryant were convicted based on testimony and evidence, which lead to issues in their cases, but they were
later exonerated based on advancements in DNA testing.
Camm and Bryant both were found guilty from the testimony and evidence that was presented during court. Charles Boney was at the scene of the
murders of the Camm family. It came down to Boney's word against Camm's during the testimony. Boney told police and... Show more content on
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Camm's attorney knew from the start that DNA evidence would prove that he was innocent. Although DNA evidence originally linked Boney to the
scene of the murders, prosecutors still said that Camm killed his family alone. For years, Camm's attorneys said that he was innocent and DNA tests
would show someone else committed the crime (Gazette). This evidence shows that DNA testing was not advanced at the time of Camm's
conviction, but this same evidence was later used to prove that Camm did not kill his family. Charles Boney was found to be linked to the murders.
At Camm's trial, a state police detective testified how DNA evidence found from the sweat shirt by a private lab and a bloody palm print on
Kimberly's car at the scene of the murder linked Boney to the murder scene in early 2005 (Gazette). This evidence suggests that the DNA testing they
had at the time showed that Boney was linked to the crime scene. Improvements in DNA testing not only helped David Camm but it also helped
Malcolm Bryant.
Advancement in DNA testing helped prove that Malcolm Bryant was innocent. The victim's shirt that was sent in for DNA testing had a full male
DNA match with the partial sample from the nail clippings. This result was inconsistent with Malcolm Bryant's DNA (Richardson). This evidence
shows that DNA evidence was huge in the exoneration of Bryant. After this DNA test there was no question on whether or

1986 Act 1986
Looking first at Adam's relationship with the first child, Rebecca, the relevant statute here is the Law Reform (Parent and Child) (Scotland) Act 1986.
The identity of the the biological father is presumed rather than proven and section 5 of the act looks at the presumptions of fatherhood. S.5(1)(a) says
that a man shall be presumed to be the father of a child if he was married to the mother of the child from conception to birth. Here, this is the case as
Adam and Eve's marriage is accepted as being valid. Therefore, following the presumptions of s.5 of the 1986 Act, Adam can be considered the legal
father of Rebecca. The fact that Adam's name is not on the birth certificate is not relevant here as he was married to Eve throughout the relevant ... Show
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Josh meets this criteria and therefore can claim to be Jasmine's father. However, section 5(4) of the 1986 act states that any presumption under section
5 may be rebutted by proof on a balance of probabilities. What this means is that if Adam can prove on the balance of probabilities that he is the father
of Jasmine, he can gain parental rights and responsibilities in relation to Jessica. The way this is most easily established is through DNA sampling
evidence. However, Jessica has indicated that she will not allow the baby to undergo a DNA test. Section 6(3) of the 1986 act says that where a
sample is sought from a child under 16, consent may be given by anyone with parental rights and responsibilities within the meaning for s.1(3) of
the Children (Scotland) Act 1995 or someone having care and control of the child. As the mother of the child, Jessica has the capacity to give or
withhold consent. Since she has made it clear that she will not give consent, it is not possible for a DNA sample to be taken. Section 5(3) of the
1986 Act says that the court may consent to the taking of a sample but only where there is no person who is entitled to give consent; or there is such a
person but it is not reasonably practicable to obtain their consent; or they are unwilling to accept the responsibility of giving or withholding consent.
However, in this situation these circumstances do not apply as Jessica is entitled to give or withhold her

Dna Analysis
"DNA Analysis: the key to solving crimes" explains how DNA can help solve crimes. DNA can help solve crimes as long as there is evidence at the
crime scene. If there is no evidence at the scene, then you can't really get a suspect to help solve the case. DNA is found throughout the body of living
things. Investigators use the DNA to compare to a suspect. DNA, identity, and extracting DNA describes genes from both of your parents, and
where it is found in the body. A person's DNA can not be identical to another persons DNA unless they have a twin. Your parents DNA will have
been passed along to you, when scientists examine your DNA along with your parents it will tell them if you are their child. DNA can be found in
blood, saliva, hair, and

Technology In Homicide Investigation: A Case Study
Abstract:
Currently, technology has proven to helpful tool in criminal investigation. This report analyses and discuss recent research on how ICT(Technology)
helps in homicide investigation. A case study will portray how the use of evolving technology has helped in homicide investigation. The discussion
focuses on influence of some of the main technology used and its setbacks in modern day investigations; Tools like Fingerprinting, Digital evidence,
DNA analysis, 3D reconstructions are examined and outlined in the report on their effectiveness and setbacks.
Introduction:
Technology has revolutionized police and law enforcement practices in the world. Technology plays an important role in helping to solve crimes all
around the world, as the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The reconstruction was based on the entrance wound and location of bullet, from the technological facts and calculations of bullet trajectory and
position of victim it came into a conclusion that the offender must have been in an upright position when he fired the gun. This approach of 3D
documentation of the deceased in a homicide investigation has been proven significantly for various reasons; e.g. medical findings can be analysed,
allows for information to be delivered regarding events of incident, and lastly, the offenders/suspects testimony or statements can be proven right or
wrong in the reconstruction.
Disadvantages of technology used:
Although technology has done more better than the bad for homicide investigation there has been issues with the way the evidence can be manipulated
and affect the course of investigations. This is one of the major setbacks. As the technology advances in fighting crime, new problems and issues arise.
Digital evidence like digital imaging brought up several issues when it comes to court admissibility, this is because of the image manipulation software
like photoshop, tools like this can change how we perceive the photos/images, and people with the familiarity of these photo manipulation change the
evidence and interfere with the outcomes of an

Using DNA in Criminal Trials Essay
Using DNA in Criminal Trials
DNA evidence is extremely helpful in criminal trials not only because it can determine the guilt of a suspect, but also because it can keep innocent
people from going to jail. The suspect must leave a sample of their DNA at the crime scene in order for testing to occur, butDNA can be found in the
form of many things such as semen, blood, hair, saliva, or skin scrapings. According to Newsweek, "thousands of people have been convicted by
DNA's nearly miraculous ability to search out suspects across space and time… hundreds of innocent people have also been freed, often after
years behind bars, sometimes just short of the death chamber" (Adler ). Though some may think it is a waste of time to go ... Show more content on
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The DNA from the saliva was a perfect match with the DNA from the semen collected from the rape victims. Puetz, the investigator on the case defends
the constitutionality of his evidence–gathering methods; the courts, he says, have held that once you've put out your trash, you've waived your right
to keep the contents private, and "I don't see why the same wont hold true for saliva."(Adler). Because there are many different types of crimes, it
is often difficult to find enough physical evidence to convict a person. For example, in rape cases there is usually only a small amount of physical
evidence, so cases are based on word alone. Because of DNA testing we can now take samples from the victim and attempt to match the results with
those of the suspect. Therefore, DNA is sometimes the only real way of determining the guilt or innocence of a suspect without having any
witnesses. Since many rape cases are left unsolved, DNA testing is believed to be the most accurate way of keeping sex offenders off the street.
Because of the growing trend of using DNA in rape cases especially, a company in Brooklyn now advertises a small flashlight–like device intended to
be used to jab at attackers in order to collect a sample of his skin for later use (Adler). According to a study by Joseph Peterson, with the Department
of Criminal Justice at the University of Illinois, DNA evidence does not have a major impact on the decision to either convict or acquit

Dna Evidence And The Justice System
Considered one of the most reliable forms of evidence, in many criminal cases in DNA evidence. Since the 1980s, DNA analysis has continued to
make steady progress as an adjunct to police investigations. DNA can be collected from blood, hair, skin cells, and other bodily substances. Similar to
fingerprints, each individual has a unique DNA profile, but unlike that of fingerprints, only a miniscule amount of genetic material is needed to
identify or eliminate suspects. However, the reliability and accuracy of the use of DNA evidence in criminal trials in Australia is constantly being
challenged. It raises the question as to whether or not the justice system has been placing too much faith in DNA evidence. Although it has the power
to put criminals behind bars, over confidence and careless mistakes in the use of DNA evidence can lead to miscarriages of justice.
There have been many criminal cases across Australia where DNA evidence has been used to "convict the guilty and clear the innocent". This
successful use of DNA evidence is seen in the Frank Alan Button case. Frank Button was convicted of raping a 13–year old girl by a jury in August
1999. Initially, the girl denied knowing the rapist and provided a description of the man to the police. She then, altered her original statement and
identified Frank Alan Button as her rapist. During the trial, no DNA evidence was used. A rape kit was prepared and intimate swabs were obtained
from the victim. These tests revealed the

Karl Landsteiner's Discovery Of DNA Evidence
Another work by Jobling and Gill, it states that the DNA analysis has beenknown to become a crucial and in day to day life as part of modern forensic
casework, alluringhighlyperceptive PCR(Polymerase Chain Reaction) based techniques to analyze the biological material. Suspects can be companion
to crime scenes, or one crime scene to another, using DNA evidence from arestricted as the saliva on a cigarette butt, skin cells on steering wheel or
pet hairs on clothing. Large DNA databases can be quicklyquestion formally and systematically for matches to a DNA profiles at the crime scene, or
even half matches to close relatives of a criminal. Unexamined 'cold' cases involving the sexual assault can be solved decades after investigations
were begun by studying depraved DNA from stored swabs or microscope slides. However, they noted that the DNA evidence must always be studied
within the framework of other evidence off ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The timeline sum up the significant advancements has been come off from a past time until now. It is enough to be notice that even a simple
inherited system such as ABO can be used to give information that proves absolutely that a sample did not come from a distinct person to prove
exclusion. In the first place, showing that the sample is actually did to move forward from another distinct person is not easy to deal with or even
manage and depends on the degree of interpretation discovered by the typing system. Up to the time that the 1980s, serological and protein
electrophoretic a way of doing something were used to penetrate variety in blood groups and polymorphic proteins, but the major disadvantage of
these markers was that they tended to happen quickly degrade or were give and take by bacterial

The Effects Of Dna Technology On The World Of Forensic...
Advances in DNA technology has expanded greatly in the world of forensic science. In the past a vast number of crime scene evidence was not
considered for analysis is now being tested. Trace DNA is more effective in this century when convicting a criminal than it was 20–30 years ago. Due
to the consist improvement of DNA technology forensic scientist are able to put away criminals the correct way.
"In fact, requests for post–conviction DNA analysis have become so prevalent that the federal government and almost every state have passed laws
that govern when and how a convict can request to revisit a conviction based on new DNA evidence" (Post–Conviction DNA Analysis – FindLaw).
Post–conviction DNA can release an convicted prisoner in two ways: first, the evidence could prove conclusively that the person convicted did not
commit the crime; second, reasonable doubt that justifies overturning the "conviction without conclusively proving innocence" (Post–Conviction DNA
Analysis – FindLaw).
Every state has a standard for post–conviction DNA analysis except for Massachusetts and Oklahoma. The federal government also has a statute that
convers DNA testing. The judge uses the standards that are contained in the laws to determine if the evidence is enough to reopening the case. "In
New York, for example, the new evidence must create a probability that had such evidence been received at the trial the verdict would have been more
favorable to the defendant" (Post–Conviction DNA

Meredith Kercher : Studying Abroad
Meredith Kercher was studying abroad in Italy when she was murdered in November 2007. Before long, the media was reporting horrific details of
the murder of Meredith, and theorizing on what could have happened. For the Perugian authorities, there was exceptional pressure to solve the murder.
The question now became who killed Meredith and how she was killed. Amanda Knox and Raffaele Sollecito, immediately became persons of interest
along with Rudy Guede. The evidence presented was a kitchen knife, bra clasp, footprints, shoeprints, DNA and Behavior. Knox and her
then–boyfriend, Raffaele Sollecito, were both found guilty of killing Kercher, receiving 26– and 25–year prison sentences, respectively. In October
2011, Knox and Sollecito were acquitted and set free. In March 2013, Knox was ordered to stand trial again for Kercher 's murder; Italy 's final
court of appeal, the Court of Cassation, overturned both Knox 's and Sollecito 's acquittals. Knox and Sollecito were again found guilty of murder in
February 2014, with Sollecito receiving a 25–year prison sentence and Knox receiving a 28.5–year sentence. The Supreme Court of Italy overturned
her and Sollecito 's convictions in 2015; the ruling was the final decision. Rudy Guede was found guilty of the murder and sexual assault of Meredith
Kercher and sentenced to 30 years in prison.
On November first, 2007, Meredith Kercher was discovered ruthlessly killed in her room at the cottage. She was discovered mostly nude, and

Dna Fingerprinting Process
Throughout the years technology has come an extensive way, resulting in the Criminal Justice System to improve their ways to catch criminals. One of
these ways includes, DNA Fingerprinting. This reveals an opportunity for Crime Scene Analyst to have a greater possibility to capture criminals; a
greater chance than DNA itself.
Alec Jeffery, discovered the differences regarding DNA in 1984 at the University of Leicester. Jeffery had attended school at Merton College and
reportedly studied biochemistry and genetics, after his studies the individual decided to teach at the University of Leicester, the professor taught
Genetics and was rewarded the name of Research Professor. Professor Jeffery has been awarded multiple awards for the following, ... Show more
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A teen by the name of Mary Sullivina, was found raped and dead after a recently arrival in her new home town of Boston. The attacker had raped an
approxam. Eleven women before her and had got away with it, until, DNA came into play. This case was ruled a cold case, the town had a funding for
reviewing cold cases. Due to this funding, the DNA that was collected from the scene––found on the victims body and a blanket located near the
body–– was compared to a nephew of a suspect, the DNA showed a similar allies with the nephew, which indicated a man by the name of Albert
DeSalvo was charged with the rape and murder of Mary Sullivan . The man was sentences to life in prison and years later he was stabbed to death by
inmates. Thanks to the discovery of DNA Marys case––and many other individuals who have not had justice––have been solved.
A downfall to this innovation in technology, would be some "kinks." Some individuals believe that storing DNA would be a violation to our
constitutional rights as a citizen of the united states, this would only be a violent if DNA was taken without knowledge. If DNA was left at acrime
scene, the analyst have evryright to examine the DNA. Another severe kink would include planting evidence. DNA evidence can show who the culprit
is; unless the evidence is planted. The real suspect could try and plant evidence to convict the wrong suspect, DNA cannot determine

The Louisiana State Police Crime Laboratory
The Louisiana State Police Crime Laboratory was developed to provide the highest quality of professional forensic services to the State of Louisiana.
The commitment of the agency includes applying sound scientific principles in all analyses, being responsive to our customers, conducting our
operations in a fair and objective manner, and being a leader in advancing forensic science. The mission of the laboratory is to assist all of the local,
state, and federal law enforcement agencies in Louisiana in the investigation of criminal activity (Office of Public Safety Services, 2015). The agency
is also committed to providing accurate and timely scientific analysis of items of physical evidence and reporting the results of those analyses to
appropriate entities in the criminal justice community.
As the program manager, I am accountable for public safety dollars that the crime lab spends. We also aim to implement cost–effective policies and
programs directed toward improving the overall turnaround time it takes to complete forensic of DNA evidence. To ensure that all of the units' goals
and objectives are achieved through June 30, 2016, the department of public safety's budget officer has asked each division chief to prepare requests
for changes to the current year's budget. As the program manager for the Louisiana State Police Crime Lab, I have been asked to prepare the request for
2016 and forecast revenue and control costs.
Cost containment is considered as the process which

DNA Based Conviction Case Study
The first DNA–based conviction in the United States occurred shortly after in 1987 when the Circuit Court in Orange County, Florida, convicted
Tommy Lee Andrews of rape after DNA tests matched his DNA from a blood sample with that of semen traces found in a rape victim (Calandro,
2005). It was two years later that DNA was again ruled admissible in a Virginia state ruling. In the years that followed the use of DNA in trial
proceeding was not disputed. It was not until the technique of obtaining the evidence was more largely used did the practice become questionable.
In the court case People of New York vs. Castro, it was the laboratory's procedures that were called into question. This case was a landmark murder
case commonly cited as the

Use Of Forensic DNA Profiling
The use of forensic DNA can be a valuable tool in the investigative field. The use of DNA profiling has only been around for 20 years in criminal
investigations. The first famous DNA forensic analysis took place in 1986 when the British police used DNA fingerprinting to solve a case involving
the rape and murder of two girls. Today,police departments work with the Combined DNA Index System of the FBI, which has computerized records
of the DNA of individuals who have been convicted in the past. Recently, federal laws have been passed to include preconviction DNA in their
databases. In 2013, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Maryland v. King that the collection and testing of DNA can be done without a warrant.
Today, many people are concerned

Misdemeanor Crime Memo Essay
Introduction The purpose of this memo is to take a look at recent legislation that passed in two States. The two states we are looking at are Colorado
and New York. Some other States have also decided to pass similar legislation. As you may know, these two States have passed legislation to collect
DNA from individuals who are convicted of committing a misdemeanor crime. There are also States who have rejected similar legislation. In majority
of the United States, States only collect DNA from individuals who are convicted of felony crimes. I will discuss my stance on this issue as we go
throughout this memo. I believe that there should be no collection of DNA in misdemeanor convictions.
DNA Collection should be approved Colorado and New ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
At what part does this becomes a violation of our 4th amendment right?
As we take a look, individual's 4th amendment right plays a role in this as well. When an individual is going through the booking process, law
enforcement can take DNA samples from them. If the individual is not convicted of the misdemeanor, what happens when they already collected the
DNA from the alleged suspect in the case? That means the State gets to keeps a person DNA for however long they want, even when the person is
not convicted of the crime. This is major concern of violation of privacy, since DNA is unique to one person and no one has the same DNA make–up.
Summing up, States like New York, Colorado, and even Wisconsin have passed legislation to collect DNA from misdemeanor. As a society I can
see some good that can from this. However, I believe there can be more shame being done than useful outcomes coming from this legislation. I do
not believe that a state can afford to run all these DNA samples. Also, if you look at States DNA processing time, some results may take long as
two weeks to come back. If it takes this long to get results back on felony crimes, it may take double the time if legislation was allowed in all 50
States. My recommendation is that legislation of this sort should not be allowed. States should only be allowed to collect DNA for those who are
convicted of felony

Comparison Between DNA And CODIS
Once these analysis are done on the DNA then is compared to a known collected same from a suspect or compared in CODIS. CODIS is a
databank of DNA samples. CODIS stands for combined DNA index system, it was created by the FBI and is maintained by them as well. The
purpose of this databank of DNA is to help in investigations with linking samples to a suspect and to help a forensic lab match samples faster than
before it was created. A CODIS search only allows access to certain pieces of information like; an identification to a lab, a sample identification
number, the specific DNA characteristics or markers, and the specific of the integrity of the DNA on record.
This system contains many different sources of DNA profiles; convicted felons,

Wayne Williams Evidence
When Wayne Williams was trialed for the death of two victims, DNA testing was not a reliable source in courtrooms as evident (Polk, 2015). A
conviction could have been rendered without the fiber evidence in this case. The prosecution had a strong case in providing the evidence from the
DNA of the hair obtained from the crime scene. On February 13, 1981, when Patrick Baltazar's body was found dumped down a wooded slope behind
an office park (Polk, 2015). A forensic scientist discovered two human scalp hairs inside Baltazar's shirt. TheDNA sample was tested under a
microscope by both the FBI and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (Polk, 2015). The hair sample was consistent with Wayne William's DNA. This
placed William at the scene of the crime. The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Another major evidence were also dog hairs on the body of Baltazar. In 2007, the dog hair sample was sent to a genetics laboratory at the
University of California School of Veterinary Medicine of Davis (Polk, 2010). It was confirmed that Williams' German Shepherd had the same DNA
sequence. The lab reported that DNA chain could only be found in 1 out of 100 dogs (Polk, 2015). A major factor, in this case, was multiple
jurisdictions for conviction, not the forensic evidence. It was ruled and confirmed by scientists that the hair evidence in the Baltazar murder to be the
strongest of this case (Polk, 2010). Consequently, the trial took place in Fulton County Court, one of the largest parts of Atlanta. Baltazar's body had
been found just over the line in the DeKalb County portion of Atlanta. Due to a different jurisdiction, trying to include his death among the Fulton
County charges would have raised legal issues (Polk, 2010). The lack of this critical scientific evidence made it hard to convict Williams of this
murder and other murders in the state of

Misuse Of DNA In The Justice System
The Misuse of DNA
"Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country?" (John F. Kennedy). This is true to today the justice system is
broken, and it is up to the people to fix it. People like the innocence project have come to realize how bad the used of evidence really is in our justice
system. Often times people are sentenced for crimes they did not commit which could have been prevented through DNA testing. The misuse of
evidence in the justice system is a huge problem, which can be solved by testing and using DNA properly.
Inadequate evidence is causing wrongful convictions. DNA comes in many different forms. Often times there are things such as bottles, and more
near the crime scene that are left because they are thought to be irrelevant. "Virtually all biological evidence found at crime scenes can be subjected to
DNA testing" (Weedn and Hicks 2). This is big because it means there are tons of potential testing that is not happening. Evidence is all around and
many cases now collect everything they can. Things such as finger nails, finger prints, cups, chewing gum, and more can be tested for DNA (Weedn
and Hicks 2). Often times these things are overlooked or only tested for one thing instead of many. Any and all items... Show more content on
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There are many ways to make DNA more efficient. First off today they try to collect any and all DNA evidence they can (Weedn and Hicks 7). By
collection as much DNA and evidence as possible it is less likely someone will be wrongfully convicted. Then using more than just juries to
determine relevance of evidence and using all evidence available properly ("Times London" 4). By letting a jury decide what evidence is relevant they
are susceptible to bias from defence or prosecution. This in makes it more likely for wrongful convictions. Finally a big problem is DNA and evidence

Baran And Vogel: A Literature Review
Annotated Bibliography
Baran, Madeleine, and Jennifer Vogel. "DNA and the Wetterling abduction." American Public Media Reports, 13 Sep. 2016, apmreports.org/story/2016
/09/13/dna–wetterling–abduction.
Baran and Vogel begin by describing the kidnapping case of Jared Scheierl which occurred before Jacob Wetterling's kidnapping. After 26 years,DNA
profiling was used to match DNA from Scheierl's clothes to Danny Heinrich. The court used Heinrich's pornography charges to compel him to admit
the assault of Scheierl and killing of Wetterling. Baran and Vogel then went to explain how modern DNA analysis worked and the challenges found
when a sample contains more than one person's DNA. This is where DNA analysis can become uncertain. DNA technology can be flawed when there
are small samples of mixed DNA or the DNA is damaged or worn out by high temperatures, or prolonged periods in water or the sun. Another reason
DNA technology can be flawed is that different labs interpret data differently which causes controversy and in some cases, inconsistent results.
This article was written only a little over two months ago, therefore it is still very relevant. The federal laws regarding DNA testing in criminal justice
have not changed since this article was written. Madeleine Baran is an ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He then goes on to acknowledge the use of DNA databases and how they work to apprehend repeat offenders. Hurst focuses on the South African
Police Service and their need for an expansion of their DNA database to help solve criminal cases. Hurst then goes on to explain the legislation that has
been proposed that will ensure that all criminals arrested will be put into the national DNA database and that only registered medical practitioners will
be allowed to receive and store the evidence. He concludes his article by explaining the risk of having the database run by a private

Forensic Paper
This paper explores deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) collection and its relationship to solving crimes. The collection of DNA is one of the most
important steps in identifying a suspect in a crime. DNA evidence can either convict or exonerate an individual of a crime. Furthermore, the accuracy
of forensic identification of evidence has the possibility of leaving biased effects on a juror (Carrell, Krauss, Liberman, Miethe, 2008). This paper
examines Carrells et al's research along with three other research articles to review how DNA is collected, the effects that is has on a juror and the pros
and cons of DNA collection in the Forensic Science and Criminal Justice community.Keywords: deoxyribonucleic acid, United States ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
This paper examines Carrell et al's research along with three other scholarly research articles to better understand the effects that the DNA recovered
from a crime scene has on a particular case and the forensic science community.
In McClure, Weisburd and Wilson (2008) summary article arguing that in addition to bench science, field experimentation involving forensic methods
is key to assess the utility of various methods to solve crimes. The study reflected that there is a need for more research into many aspects of forensic
science, criticizing the strength of scientific evidence that's collected at a crime scene and interpretations of most forensic methods while omitting
DNA testing. McClure et al's (2008) explains that in sexual cases and homicides, the presence of DNA evidence actually increased the likelihood of
prosecution and a conviction. According to the article "...the case of convictions, the odds–ratio for the presence of DNA evidence was 33.1 for sexual
offenses and 23.1 for homicides" (McClure et al., 2008). Subsequently, the research shows that there was a consistent gradual decline in the national
homicide rates that began in the 1900s and continued through into the 21st century. The decline of homicides in the US has dropped by from more
than 90% in the 1960s to 62% in 2003. Even though this significant drop has occurred during the introduction of the new DNA testing

Why Is DNA Testing Important?
DNA testing is a powerful tool used for identification. It is used by scientists to gather evidence at crime scenes, determine paternity tests and find out
any predispositions to diseases. DNA can be a powerful tool used to help solve criminal cases, and determine whether a person is innocent or guilty (1.
Easy DNA, 23rd February 2015). It is shown that DNA databases reduce crime rates, especially in categories where forensic evidence can be
collected from the scene such as murder, rape, assault, and vehicle theft (6. H. Brevy Cannon, January 11 2013). DNA is the master molecule of life
and controls the growth and development of every living thing (2. Katie Lachter, 1997). There are many sources for DNA testing. Some of these
sources are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Scheck, Peter J. Neufield at eh Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law at Yeshiva University. The aim of this non for profit organisation was to acquit
prisoners, who would be proven innocent through the use of DNA. Since 1992, more than 300 people in the United States have been proven innocent,
and 18 of those were on death row. The innocence project uses ground breaking DNA technology to free innocent people, has provided irrefutable
proof that wrongful convictions are not isolated or rare events but instead arise from systemic defects.
The innocence project works in Congress, and state legislatures, to pass legislation and administrative policies that will prevent wrongful convictions
and make it easier for the inn ocent to receive justice. They work to make sure that all physical evidence in all criminal cases be properly maintained
as long as the defendant is incarcerated, under supervision or in civil litigation. Laws and policies protecting evidence preservation give innocent
inmates a last chance to prove their innocence(7. Barry C. Scheck, Peter J. Neufield at eh Benjamin N. Cardozo – the innocence project,

It Is Easier To Identify The Remains In Crime Investigation
Throughout history there has been multiple problems trying to identify victims or remains of victims because the remains were either too manipulated
to use or there wasn't enough pf the remains to use towards discovering the victim that was involved in whatever incident that has happened. Now that
Science has become more advance in the forensic area, it's now easier to identify remains even if they were in harsh conditions or if there aren't very
much of the remains left, through multiple types of DNA analysis such as restriction fragment length polymorphism which looks at variable number
tandem repeats, short tandem repeat and PCR. With these new processes available to forensic labs, all the answers can be given even from small
samples of DNA, much like how it's done on the television like in CSI show series. If you've ever seen an episode of CSI, you'll understand that the
people in the forensic labs are given extremely small samples of the supposed killer in the show. The forensic lab then takes these samples and puts it
through multiple machines and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This will also help family members come to peace when knowing what actually happened to a loved one. DNA is always tricky to use when it
comes to identify a victim but with new advances in DNA analysis, it's more possible and a lot easier to do now through RFLP and PCR.
The article that was used was written with great knowledge of DNA analysis and is extremely informative. If anything had to be added to this article
about DNA analysis I feel other methods should be included if there are any and there should also be information on the equipment used in these
processes. The topic discussed in this article is extremely helpful because it explains topics that can help other people find closure with incidents that
have happened in their lives with a friend or loved

Sequency Hereditary Material
INTRODUCTION: Since days bygone, study of living beings required to break barriers of the single cell and throw light into hereditary material,
giving us great insights into nucleic acid sequences. To face the challenges associated with various questions thrown at biology, great advent was
required to be made in the area of working out the correct order of how nucleic acids are arranged in an array of genes to give rise to various
phenotypes and often, its deviations. Focus was to be shifted out of the wet laboratory and into silicon chips .Ever since the Thus, arose the
requirement of sequencing the hereditary material, knowing about the entire genetic content of the organism or rather, it's genome and its analysis.
With the help of sequencing a great number of laboratories across the globe have conducted groundbreaking research and this very important
technique has been established as the basis of a plethora of investigations REASON BEHIND CHOOSING GENOME ASSEMBLY: From research
laboratories to personalized genome analysis, genome sequencing and downstream processing of the sequenced data has become a mandate for most
biological experimentation. The complete genome sequence of Haemophilus influenzae by TIGR in 1995 turned a lot of heads with the scope of
studying actual relatedness between organisms,their hereditary material,their genotypic data and biggest of all what advantage we can derive of
them.With the advent of geomic era,or the era of studying not ony

Dna Analysis : Dna Profiling
Tammy Venhuda
Mrs. Paris P.4
English 7–8
10–20–17
DNA Profiling
Hook: Have you ever thought about your personal DNA and why it is important to you? Besides showing factors of how you grow, develop, and
function, your DNA has more to it. What is DNA profiling?DNA profiling is when someone uses DNA to identify someone, make sure someone is not
being wrongly accused, or to claim criminals. But there are pros and cons to DNA profiling. This is because some people are for it and others are
against it.
Claim/Thesis/Argument: Even though DNA samples violates individuals privacy, DNA profiling should be a supported controversial science topic
because DNA profiling helps prove paternity and also helps reduces wrongful convictions. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Others also try DNA testing for finding out their ancestors. To learn about relationships and families and where they came from. How it works is that
the DNA sequences looks at the genomes and compares them to databases to find any similarities. This helps find similar backgrounds and patterns of
genetic variations.
Counterclaim 2: Sometimes the technologies can give incorrect results. Some limitations to ancestry testing is that these tests are calculated online
through private companies. So, the information that is tested may be wrong. This is because the different companies compare test results to different
databases. Their process works by searching different populations in the past and mixing them all together. This proves how individuals have different
variations in their DNA.
Rebuttal 2: Can help solve crimes by collecting blood or saliva. Using forensic tools is a good way of having evidence. This is because the DNA has
molecules that does not fade away easily. Meaning that the DNA can still be useful even if the sample was from a long time ago.
Evidence 3: DNA profiling is less intrusive. The best way of retrieving a DNA sample is by using either blood, saliva, or hair. For example, if you

happen to be in a situation where your town is taking DNA samples to help solve a crime, that would be the best way to go. This way you are helping
but also giving less information for the better.
Conclusion Ideas: DNA profiling illustrates advantages

Dna Evidence Essay
Allowing the annual report of the National DNA Database Strategy Board as of 2012–2013, NDNAD helps the law enforcement in giving worthful
information that will lead in determining the suspect and solve crime cases. However, sometimes the crime doesn't solve and more evidence needs to
be collecting to secure a conviction but in dealing with NDNAD it provides the police of its needed information for DNA matches. Another report
from Turman, herarticle about the importance of DNA evidence to say in a strong and definite way that the offenders or to prove prisoner in criminal
cases has arose in the media with the developing regularity over the last few years. Criminal justice professionals and the public behold that the
forensic DNA technology is reforming ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
She focused on providing to give persons credit for,that they should know how the DNA knowing the significance of its identification, collection and
preservation at the crime scene is critical in obtaining accurate test outgrowth. Anyways, she also established report for the clarifying conclusions of
DNA analysis, and she stated that there are three types of results that can occur in the DNA testing, the inclusion, exclusion, and inconclusive.
Inclusion, when the DNA profile of a known individual (a victim or suspect) matches the DNA profile from the crime scene evidence, the individual
is "included" as a capable of becoming real source of that evidence. While the exclusion, when the DNA profile from an individual (a victim or
suspect) does not match the DNA profile bring about from the crime scene evidence, the referenced individual is "excluded" as the patron of the
evidence. Lastly, the inconclusive results, exemplify that the DNA testing did not yieldthe corollaryinformation that would allow a individual to be
either included or excluded of the biological evidence that provides what is wanted or

Pros And Cons Of Dna Databank
A DNA databank is a database of DNA profiles of people. A DNA database can be used to analyze genetic diseases, fingerprinting for criminology, or
genealogy. DNA databases may be public or private to people, but the biggest are national DNA databases. Using DNA to trace people who are
suspected of committing a crime has been a major advantage in policing people and their bad ways. When DNA profiling is used correctly it can help
convict people who have committed serious crimes.
The controversy surrounding the issue is that DNA databases can be used to track individuals who have not committed a crime. Some people argue
this invades their privacy. Certified people can go through and view anybody's DNA profile.
There should be a DNA databank

The Importance of Dna Evidence
The Importance of DNA Evidence
What is DNA? Is it these winding strands that look like ladders or is it what gives a person blonde hair and blue eyes? Actually, DNA is both of these
things. DNA is a person's genetic makeup–their hereditary blueprint passed on by their parents. It is a part of almost every cell in the human body. In
each cell, a person's DNA is the same; it stays the same throughout their lifetime. DNA is found in skin tissue, sweat, bone, the root and shaft of hair,
earwax, mucus, urine, semen, and vaginal or rectal cells. The DNA found in a person's saliva is the same as the DNA found in their blood. Parts of the
DNA determine our physical characteristics, such as eye and hair color, height, and bone structure, but the... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Every State in the Nation has a DNA database that allows for the collection of DNA profiles from offenders convicted of particular crimes. CODIS
software enables State, local, and national law enforcement crime laboratories to compare DNA profiles electronically, thereby linking serial crimes
to each other and identifying suspects by matching DNA profiles from crime scenes with profiles from convicted offenders. The success of CODIS is
demonstrated by the thousands of matches that have linked serial cases to each other and cases that have been solved by matching crime scene
evidence to known convicted offenders.
Recent advancements in DNA technology have improved law enforcement's ability to use DNA to solve old cases. Original forensic applications of
DNA analysis were developed using a technology called restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Although very old cases (more than 10
years) may not have had RFLP analysis done, this kind of DNA testing may have been attempted on more recent unsolved cases. However, because
RFLP analysis required a relatively large quantity of DNA, testing may not have been successful. Similarly, biological evidence deemed insufficient in
size for testing may not have been previously submitted for testing. Also, if a biological sample was degraded by environmental factors such as dirt or
mold, RFLP analysis may have been unsuccessful at yielding a result (Turman).
Although DNA technology can be used in criminal cases

Argumentative Essay On Dna Databanks
DNA databanks are a highly debated subject in the United States. A DNA databank is a database containing DNA profiles. These profiles can be
used to track genealogy, genetic diseases, and criminal history. There are several different types of DNA databanks. Forensic DNA databases keep
profiles to compare with DNA samples found at crime scenes. Genetic genealogy databases keep results from genealogical DNA tests. Medical DNA
databases keep track of genetic variations for medical purposes. These databases, however, are very controversial and many fear its expansion,
particularly that of the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), the United States national DNA database
Those in support of DNA databases cite many benefits to having every U.S. citizen's

Argumentative Essay On Junk Science
In court, before testifying, the speaker is asked to put their hand on a bible and swear to tell the truth and nothing but the truth. When a forensic
specialist is testifying in court, they often say the phrase "To a reasonable degree of scientific certainty"when presenting their analysis (Balko par.10).
This phrase sounds convincing and persuasive to both the judge and the jury, but does not have any accepted meaning in the world of science and it
does not give away the percent error of the analysis. If these experts were to provide the percent error of their analysis in their testimony without
saying this common phrase then maybe the judge and the jury will have a better understanding of the data that is being presented to them and may not
even make a conviction based off the information that of which was stated. The question that should be asked is how reliable is forensic science and are
any advances being made to prevent "junk science" from being used in the courtroom?
The opposition may argue that Forensic science is a good way to present evidence to the judge and the jury to convince them that the defendant is
guilty. Although this may be the case in some circumstances it is not in every case. Forensic science is perceived as a form of science that is
typically being applied to criminal investigations. Most forensic sciences, such as odontology which is the scientific study of the structure and diseases
of teeth, are viewed as "junk science" because "...it does not

Using DNA To Solve Crimes
"Advancing Justice Through DNA Technology: Using DNA To Solve Crimes." U.S.
Department of Justice, Department of Justice, Web. Accessed 9 Oct. 2016. This online article gives background to how DNA is used to solve crimes.
It tells about the constant advances in the technology of this testing. This article explains how important it is to make sure that people are properly
trained in the criminal justice community to use this technology properly. I am not sure that this is the best source for my paper, but it may work for
some background information on DNA.
"DNA Evidence." Issues and Controversies, July 2013. pp. n. pag. Infobase Learning.
Web.
This online article explains both sides to the way people feel about post–conviction DNA ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Accessed 9 Oct. 2016. This article is about Henry W. Skinner, who was on death row for murdering his girlfriend and her two children. He was
minutes away from being executed, but the Supreme Court decided to hear the case. This is a case that shows how important post–conviction DNA
testing can be. The decision to allow re–testing gives a chance to ensure that someone who is not guilty does not end up being punished. This is very
important when it comes to those who are on death row. This case can be used as an example of why post–conviction DNA testing is a positive thing
to help support my thesis.
Krimsky, Sheldon and Tania Simoncelli. Genetic Justice: DNA Data Banks, Criminal
Investigations, and Civil Liberties. Columbia UP, 2011. In this book, Sheldon and Simoncelli list out concerns for DNA testing. They give
background on how DNA databanks were first used for violent criminals and sex offenders, and how it has now changed into holding DNA of people
who have not even been convicted. They explain how doing this can infringe on people's rights. Sheldon and Simoncelli write negatively towards how
much time and human resources it takes to re–investigate a case for post–conviction DNA testing. This book is full of information about what is wrong
with DNA testing. This should be helpful to argue against post–conviction DNA

The Implications of DNA Profiling Essay
The Implications of DNA Profiling
Former attorney General Janet Reno described our system of justice as a search for the truth.(1) Increasingly, the forensic use of DNA technology is
an important ally in that search. DNA fingerprinting, better known in the scientific realm as DNA profiling, has given police and the courts a means of
identifying the perpetrators of rapes and murders with a very high degree of confidence. However, nine years after its introduction, forensic DNA
typing is still used only selectively. This is due to a variety of factors, including the unavailability of forensic typing to local prosecutors, the time
required to perform the typing, and the costs of the tests if private laboratories are utilized. Formerly ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Sometimes, this can be a difference of just one base pair. These differences are called polymorphisms and are the key to DNA typing.(3)
There are many sources of DNA for testing. Blood is one of the key sources, though the surface on which a bloodstain is found can profoundly affect
the ability to successfully perform an analysis. In addition, bloodstains may be mixtures of blood from two different people and can produce DNA
profiles that are more complex than those from a single individual. Ironically, DNAprofiling may be the only way to determine if a given stain is a
mixture. Semen stains are the most common evidence to be submitted for DNA analysis, which is not surprising since the cases in which DNA
testing has been used the most often are rapes. DNA can also be extracted from tissues (taken at autopsy), hair roots, saliva, and in rare instances,
urine.(4) It is important to note that only a miniscule amount of DNA is needed for analysis. For example, the amount of DNA found at the root of one
hair is usually sufficient. Environmental factors also play a role in determining whether a particular sample of DNA can be utilized. Moisture, sunlight,
bacterial action and heat are detrimental to the DNA. Depending on the intensity and combination of these conditions, survival of the DNA is measured
in weeks or months. Even so, DNA in usable amounts can

The Individual And Technology
The Individual and Technology– A Contemporary Issue
GENETIC PROFILING
2800 6500
Executive Summary
Effects of Technology
The Australian Institute of Criminology has produced documentations explaining "the technique of 'DNA identification' compares the DNA of two
bodily samples to ascertain whether or not they came from the same human being. Identity of DNA in the cells across both samples implies that the
samples are derived from the same person (or identical twins); non–identity implies different human sources."
Beginning in the mid–1980s, the development of DNA analysis technology has revolutionised the field of forensic science within the criminal justice
system. As the refinement of procedures and technology continues, even minute samples of biological material (including blood, saliva, semen and
skin cells) are able to be analysed and used to link or acquit perpetrators of crimes. (Whitney, R n.d.)
A Brief history of DNA testing– TIME http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1905706,00.html
Issues and Legal Implications
DNA Identification in Post–conviction Reviews
Mishandling of Evidence
The mishandling and contamination of evidence poses serious threats to the achievement of justice within the court. In October of 2009, Wyong Local
Court was forced to overturn a burgular's conviction after samples were mishandled in the laboratory, leading to a false match. Victoria has also
experienced problems with DNA contamination, leading to a

Forensic Technique
In forensic science, corpses from various homicides are different. There are both complete and incomplete corpses, depending on the causes of death
or the forms of homicide. For example, some corpses are cut into pieces, some are camouflaged by dumping into the river, some are buried, some are
burned to destroy the evidence, and others. If the corpses are incomplete, it can lead to the difficulty of personally identifying because some tissues and
bones are destroyed.
To specify the gender of the corpses from skeletal remains, the most precise method is DNA identification. However, this method is costly and takes
longer, so the other identification techniques are used instead. The first technique that is widely used is considering the features of the bones. In
general, an evidence from the corpses such as some pieces of bones, especially the skull and pelvis can be used to identify their gender. To use this
technique, the forensic scientists require the observation skills in order to classify the difference between male and female bones (see Figure 1 and 2
[1]). Although this technique is uncomplicated, saving time and cost, and the forensic scientists can fairly accurately determine the gender by using
this technique (apparently an accuracy rate of 90% or more), the crucial disadvantage is there are some ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The advantage of this method is it can be used in several positions in one piece of bones, and it can be used even if the bones are not complete. To
improve the gender specifying by using this technique, we will apply the classification and cluster analysis (Kth Nearest Neighbor Classification,
Classification Tree, Ward Linkage cluster, K–mean Cluster, Two Step Cluster) with the variables from skeletal measurements in order to determine
gender, and we will compare the performance of both methods by considering the apparent error rate

Foresnic Scientists Investigate Crimes by Collecing...
Forensic scientists investigate crimes by collecting and analyzing physical evidence. They specialize in DNA analysis or firearm examination. By
performing tests on weapons or on substances like fiber, glass, hair, tissue, and body fluids forensic scientist determine the importance of the substance
for a trial. Forensic scientists prepare reports to document their findings and the laboratory techniques they used, to give to investigators. When
criminal cases come to trial, forensic scientist will give a testimony as an expert witness on laboratory findings collected at the crime scene.
Communication between other scientists is a key part in being a successful forensic scientist. For instance, they may consult a medical expert about the
exact time and cause of a death, or another scientist who specializes in DNA typing to match a DNA type to a suspect. Some scientist might be
exposed to hazardous chemicals, or toxic materials. But often are exposed to human body fluids and firearms. These working conditions pose little
risk only if safety procedures are followed correctly (Science Buddies, n.d.). Forensic scientist work outside in all types or weather, but spend a
majority of their time in laboratories and offices. They work in groups with specialists and other law enforcement, but specialist work only in
laboratories. Scientist working in laboratories usually works a standard workweek, although they may be on call outside of normal business hours if
needed to work

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