* Chapter 10 Motivating Others [These slides are intended to be used in conjunction with Health Care Management by Donald J. Lombardi and John R. Schermerhorn, Jr. with Brian Kramer (the Text).    Please refer  to the Text for a more complete explanation of the materials covered herein and for all source material references.] Copyright by John Wiley and Sons, 2006 Copyright by John Wiley and Sons, 2006 *The term motivation is used in management theory to describe forces within individuals that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort they expend at work. Simply put, a highly motivated person works hard at a job; an unmotivated person does not. Needs are unfulfilled physiological or psychological desires of an individual. Good managers and leaders establish conditions in which people can satisfy important needs through their work. They also take action to eliminate things that can block the satisfaction of important needs. There are three main theories of motivation based on needs. Motivation Based on Human Needs * Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow’s theory of human needs views people as seeking the satisfaction of the five levels of needs. Two principles are central to Maslow’s theory:deficit principleprogression principle * Two-Factor Theory Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory offers another framework for understanding motivation in the workplace. * Acquired Needs Theory David McClelland offers another motivation theory based on individual needs.Need for achievement is the desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.Need for power is the desire to control other people, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for them.Need for affiliation is the desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other people.Managers are encouraged to recognize the strength of each need in themselves and in other people. Attempts can then be made to create work environments responsive to them. * Motivation Based on ProcessProcess theories are motivational theories that focus on how people actually make choices to work hard or not, based on their individual preferences, the available rewards, and possible work outcomes. Equity Theory. The essence of this theory is that perceived inequity is a motivating state – that is, when people believe that they have been inequitably treated in comparison to others, they will try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a sense of equity to the situation. For example, people who feel underpaid and perceive negative inequity, for example, tend to reduce their work efforts to compensate for missing rewards. These workers are less motivated to work hard in the future. * Motivation Based on Process (con’t)Expectancy theory. Victor Vroom’s motivation theory based on an individual’s willingness to work hard at tasks important to the organization. Vroom suggests that the motivation to work depend.

1. *
Chapter 10
Motivating Others
[These slides are intended to be used in conjunction with Health
Care Management by Donald J. Lombardi and John R.
Schermerhorn, Jr. with Brian Kramer (the Text). Please refer
to the Text for a more complete explanation of the materials
covered herein and for all source material references.]
Copyright by John Wiley and Sons, 2006
Copyright by John Wiley and Sons, 2006
*The term motivation is used in management theory to describe
forces within individuals that account for the level, direction,
and persistence of effort they expend at work. Simply put, a
highly motivated person works hard at a job; an unmotivated
person does not. Needs are unfulfilled physiological or
psychological desires of an individual. Good managers and

2. leaders establish conditions in which people can satisfy
important needs through their work. They also take action to
eliminate things that can block the satisfaction of important
needs. There are three main theories of motivation based on
needs.
Motivation Based on Human Needs
*
Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow’s theory of human needs
views people as seeking the satisfaction of the five levels of
needs.
Two principles are central to Maslow’s theory:deficit
principleprogression principle
*
Two-Factor Theory
Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory offers another
framework for understanding motivation in the workplace.
*
Acquired Needs Theory David McClelland offers another
motivation theory based on individual needs.Need for
achievement is the desire to do something better or more
efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.Need
for power is the desire to control other people, to influence their
behavior, or to be responsible for them.Need for affiliation is
the desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations
with other people.Managers are encouraged to recognize the
strength of each need in themselves and in other people.
Attempts can then be made to create work environments

3. responsive to them.
*
Motivation Based on ProcessProcess theories are motivational
theories that focus on how people actually make choices to work
hard or not, based on their individual preferences, the available
rewards, and possible work outcomes.
Equity Theory. The essence of this theory is that perceived
inequity is a motivating state – that is, when people believe that
they have been inequitably treated in comparison to others, they
will try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a sense of equity
to the situation. For example, people who feel underpaid and
perceive negative inequity, for example, tend to reduce their
work efforts to compensate for missing rewards. These workers
are less motivated to work hard in the future.
*
Motivation Based on Process (con’t)Expectancy theory. Victor
Vroom’s motivation theory based on an individual’s willingness
to work hard at tasks important to the organization. Vroom
suggests that the motivation to work depends on the
relationships among the following three factors:expectancy: A
person’s belief that working hard will result in a desired level
of task performance being achieved instrumentality: A person’s
belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards
and other potential outcomes valence: The value a person
assigns to the possible rewards and other work-related outcomes
Expectancy theory suggests that motivation (M), expectancy
(E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one
another in a multiplication-based equation:
M = E x I x V

4. *
Motivation Based on Process (con’t)
*
Motivation Based on Process (con’t)Goal-setting theory. Edwin
Locke’s theory that clear, desirable performance targets (goals)
can motivate. Specifically, goalsgive direction to people in their
workclarify the performance expectations between a supervisor
and subordinate, between co-workers, and across subunits in an
organizationestablish a frame of reference for task
feedbackprovide a foundation for behavioral self-management
The degree to which people are involved in setting performance
goals can influence their satisfaction and performance. Research
indicates that a positive impact is most likely to occur when the
participation:allows for increased understanding of specific and
difficult goals andprovides for greater acceptance and
commitment to them
Some additional tips for successful goal-setting include the
following: set specific goals set challenging goalsbuild goal
acceptance and commitment clarify goal priorities reward goal
accomplishment
*
Motivating through External Forces Reinforcement theory.
Motivational theory that explains human behavior as a result of
one’s external environment. The basic premises reinforcement
theory is based on what E. L. Thorndike called the law of
effect: Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to
be repeated; behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is

5. not likely to be repeated.
*
Reinforcing Behaviors Operant conditioning. B. F. Skinner’s
concept of learning by reinforcement. Four strategies of
reinforcement are used in operant conditioning: positive
reinforcement negative reinforcement punishment extinction
*
Utilizing Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement can be
a valuable motivational tool. When using positive reinforcement
in the workplace, managers need to always be mindful of two
important laws:law of contingent reinforcement law of
immediate reinforcement The timing of positive reinforcement
can also make a difference in its impact: continuous
reinforcement intermittent reinforcement
*As a reinforcement strategy, punishment attempts to eliminate
undesirable behavior by making an unpleasant consequence
contingent with its occurrence. To effectively use punishment:
tell the person what specifically he or she is doing wrongtell the
person what specifically he or she is doing rightmake sure the
punishment matches the behavioradminister any punishment in
privatefollow the laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcementcombine punishment with positive reinforcement
for maximum effectiveness
Using Punishment

6. *Job design is the process of creating or defining jobs by
assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups. Job
performance is the quantity and quality of tasks accomplished
by an individual or group at work. More and more health care
organizations now consider a value-added aspect when
evaluating the worthwhileness of jobs and/or jobholders. An
important goal in job design is to always create jobs rich with
potential satisfaction.
Motivating through Job Design
*A good job provides a fit between the needs and capabilities of
workers and tasks so that both job performance and satisfaction
are high. Common job design alternatives, include: job
simplificationjob rotationjob enlargementjob enrichment
Exploring Job Design Alternatives
*
The core characteristics model offers a way for health care
managers to create jobs, enriched or otherwise, that best fit the
needs of people and organizations.
Relying on the Core
Job Characteristics
*
When job enrichment is a good job design choice, you have four
main ways of improving the core characteristics: form natural
units of work combine tasks open feedback channels practice
vertical loading
Relying on the Core

7. Job Characteristics (con’t)
*
Some of the most popular and effective new developments
in the way jobs are structured include:Compressed workweek:
any work schedule that allows a full-time job to be completed in
less than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts. Flexible working
hours: also called flexitime or flextime, describes any work
schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of
their daily work hours. Job sharing: one full-time job is split
between two or more people.Telecommuting: also called
flexiplace or cyber-commuting, is a work arrangement that
allows at least a portion of scheduled work hours to be
completed outside of the office, facilitated by various forms of
electronic communication and computer-mediated linkages to
clients, patients, and a central office.Independent contracting:
specific tasks or projects are assigned to outsiders rather than
full-time workers.
Exploring Alternative
Work Arrangements
*
© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
in section 117 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without
express permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Request
for further information should be addressed to the Permissions
Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The purchaser may make
back-up copies for his/her use only and not for distribution or
resale. The Publisher assumes no responsibility for errors,

8. omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or
from the use of the information herein.
Copyright Notice
10
Motivating Others
Encouraging Great Results and Outstanding Contributions
Learning Objectives
After Studying This Chapter, Students Should Be Able To
· Define the concept of motivation
· Understand how to motivate personnel for positive outcomes
· Appreciate the concept of need as a psychological tool
· Explain the three theories of motivation
· Motivate through process, external forces, and job design
· Comprehend the use of alternative work arrangements as
motivational tools
Chapter Summary
The term motivation is used in management theory to describe
forces within individuals that account for the level, direction,
and persistence of effort they expend at work. Managers as
leaders of teams of people must know how to motivate workers
to produce at a level of excellence. To accomplish this, they
must also appreciate how individual needs are important in
terms of individual attitudes and behavior. Three motivational
theories are provided as tools for the manager.
Hierarchy of Needs

9. The Maslow hierarchy of needs theory is one of the more well-
known concepts. It is based on two principles:
1. Deficit holds that a satisfied need is not a motivator of
behavior.
2. Progressive holds that needs must be met as one moves from
level to level.
Two-Factor Theory
The Hertzberg two-factor theory addresses workplace turn-on,
turn-off factors as motivators. These include such workplace
elements as:
· Working conditions.
· Interpersonal relations.
· Organizational policies and administration.
· Quality of technical supervision.
· Compensation.
These factors are tempered by additional elements such as
recognition, achievement, opportunity for advancement, a sense
of responsibility, and feelings of personal growth.
Acquired Needs Theory
Many managers will find the David McClelland theory of
acquired needs more to the point of individual employee
motivation because it addresses the factors that everyone wants
from a job:
· Need for achievement of desire to do something better.
· Need for power or the desire to control.
· Need for affiliation or desire to maintain friendly
relationships.
McClelland believes that successful managers will appreciate
these factors within themselves and also within their staff.
Process Theories
Given that the American workplace is increasingly diverse,
these theories are further aided by so-called process theories
which seek to explain why people function as a team:
The equity theory presumes that people react to any situation

10. that displays an inequity and thus are motivated to act until
some form of equity is restored. Their reaction is to seek change
in the workplace input, the rewards received, in comparison
levels, and in the situation.
The expectancy theory assumes people will act when they want
to and not before. Usually this is a direct function of these
beliefs:
· Expectancy or hard work is its own reward.
· Instrumentality or good performance brings good rewards.
· Valence or the perceived value of doing something good is
enough.
The goal-setting theory very simply sets goals and objectives by
which a performance can be measured. The process involves:
· Giving clear direction to staff.
· Clarifying expected performance.
· Defining a frame of reference for getting the job done.
· Setting a foundation for self-behavior.
The concept of management by objectives (MBO) is a good
example of this theory in practice.
The reinforcement theory is an extension of the belief that
repetition sets up an “operant conditioning” (learning by
reinforcement) state. Four forms of reinforcement apply:
· Positive reinforcement or reward for doing it right.
· Negative reinforcement or avoidance of unpleasant
consequences.
· Punishment or an unpleasant consequence.
· Extinction or removal of a pleasant consequence.
Motivation through Job Design
The actual job function plays a major part in motivating an
employee. Does the position have merit and play a significant
role in the overall operation of the organization? Each job, each

11. role must have a sense of satisfaction associated with its
performance. In this regard, the practice of job rotation,
enlargement, or enrichment can help keep the role of the
position valuable and rewarding.
Richard Hackman describes five key job characteristics as
essential in his core characteristics model which include:
1. Skill variation.
2. Task identification.
3. Task importance.
4. Autonomy for the employee.
5. Feedback from the job performance.
Recently, the workplace concept has responded to include a
variety of new approaches to job satisfaction such that the
worker achieves a balance of work life and personal life. These
include:
· A compressed or shortened work week.
· Flexible work hours to accommodate personal life demands.
· Job sharing as a form of work expediency.
· Telecommuting or cyberspace work.
· Independent contracting.
· Part-time work.
Key Terms
Compressed workweek
Any work schedule that allows a full-time job to be completed
in less than the standard five days of eight-hour shifts.
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Rewarding behavior each time a desired behavior occurs.
Core characteristics model
Richard Hackman’s motivation theory with five core job
characteristics, skill variety, task identity, task, significance,
autonomy, and feedback from the job itself.

12. Deficit principle
In Maslow’s needs theories, only an unsatisfied need—one for
which a deficit exists—can be a motivator of behavior.
Equity theory
Motivation theory in which people who believe that they have
been inequitably treated in comparison to others will try to
eliminate the discomfort and restore a sense of equity to the
situation.
Expectancy
In expectancy theory, a person’s belief that working hard will
result in a desired level of task performance being achieved.
Expectancy theory
Victor Vroom’s motivation theory based on an individual’s
willingness to work hard at tasks important to the organization.
Extinction
In operant conditioning, anything that decreases the frequency
of or eliminates an undesirable behavior by making the removal
of a pleasant consequence contingent on its occurrence.
Flexible working hours
Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the
pattern of their daily work hours, also called flexitime or
flextime.
Goal-setting theory
Edwin Locke’s theory that clear, desirable performance targets
(goals) can motivate.
Hygiene factors
In two-factor theory, things relating more to the work setting.

13. Independent contracting
Specific health care–related tasks or projects are assigned to
outsiders rather than full-time workers.
Instrumentality
In expectancy theory, a person’s belief that successful
performance will be followed by rewards and other potential
outcomes.
Intermittent reinforcement schedule
Rewarding behavior only periodically.
Job design
The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific
work tasks to individuals and groups.
Job enlargement
The process of increasing task variety by combining two or
more tasks that were previously assigned to separate workers.
Job enrichment
The process of building more opportunities for satisfaction into
a job by expanding not just job scope but also job depth.
Job performance
The quantity and quality of tasks accomplished by an individual
or group at work.
Job rotation
The process of increasing task variety by periodically shifting
workers between jobs involving different task assignments.
Job sharing
One full-time job is split between two or more people.
Job simplification

14. The process of streamlining work procedures so that people
work in well-defined and highly specialized tasks.
Law of contingent reinforcement
In operant conditioning, for a reward to have maximum
reinforcing value, it must be delivered only if the desirable
behavior is exhibited.
Law of effect
In behavior reinforcement theory, behavior that results in a
pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated; behavior that results
in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.
Law of immediate reinforcement
In operant conditioning, the more immediate the delivery of a
reward after the occurrence of a desirable behavior, the greater
the reinforcing value of the reward.
Motivation
Forces within individuals that account for the level, direction,
and persistence of effort they expend at work.
Need for achievement
In acquired needs theory, the desire to do something better or
more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.
Need for affiliation
In acquired needs theory, the desire to establish and maintain
friendly and warm relations with other people.
Need for power
In acquired needs theory, the desire to control other people, to
influence their behavior, or to be responsible for them.
Needs
Unfulfilled physiological or psychological desires of an

15. individual.
Negative reinforcement
In operant conditioning, anything that increases the frequency
of or strengthens desirable behavior by making the avoidance of
an unpleasant consequence contingent upon its occurrence.
Operant conditioning
B. F. Skinner’s concept of learning by reinforcement.
Perceived negative inequity
In equity theory, a condition people who perceive negative
inequity tend to reduce their work efforts to compensate for
missing rewards.
Permatemps
Long-term temporary workers who supplement the full-time
workforce.
Positive reinforcement
In operant conditioning, anything that strengthens or increases
the frequency of desirable behavior by making a pleasant
consequence contingent on its occurrence.
Process theory
Motivational theory focuses on how people actually make
choices to work hard or not, based on their individual
preferences, the available rewards, and possible work outcomes.
Progression principle
In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, a need at one level does not
become activated until the next lower level need is already
satisfied.
Punishment
In operant conditioning, anything that decreases the frequency

16. of or eliminates an undesirable behavior by making an
unpleasant consequence contingent on its occurrence.
Reinforcement theory
Motivational theory that explains human behavior as a result of
one’s external environment.
Satisfier factors
In two-factor theory, things relating to the nature of a job itself.
Shaping
The process of creating a new behavior by the positive
reinforcement of successive approximations to it.
Telecommuting
A work arrangement that allows at least a portion of scheduled
work hours to be completed outside of the office, facilitated by
various forms of electronic communication and computer-
mediated linkages to clients, patients, and a central office;
sometimes called flexiplace or cyber-commuting.
Two-factor theory
Frederick Hertzberg’s motivation theory that focuses on the
nature of the job itself and the work setting.
Valence
In expectancy theory, the value a person assigns to the possible
rewards and other work-related outcomes
PAGE