1. LOGIC AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD
A paper submitted and presented as fulfillment of assignment for Philosophy
The lecturer: H. Agus Ahmad Su’aidi, MA.
Presented by:
Agus Zainuri (11211019)
Idris Bahtiar (11211020)
INTERNATIONAL CLASS
STATE INSTITUTE FOR ISLAMIC STUDIES OF
SALATIGA
2012

2. A. What is logic?
1. A preliminary definition
The term "logic" came from the Greek word logos, which is sometimes
translated as "sentence", "discourse", "reason", "rule", and "ratio". Of course,
these translations are not enough to help us understand the more specialized
meaning of "logic" as it is used today.
So what is logic? Briefly speaking, we might define logic as the study
of the principles of correct reasoning. This is a rough definition, because how
logic should be properly defined is actually quite a controversial matter.
However, for the purpose of this tour, we thought it would be useful to give
you at least some rough idea as to the subject matter that you will be studying.
So this is what we shall try to do on this page.
2. Logic is not the psychology of reasoning
One thing you should note about this definition is that logic is
concerned with the principles of correct reasoning. Studying the correct
principles of reasoning is not the same as studying the psychology of
reasoning. Logic is the former discipline, and it tells us how we ought to
reason if we want to reason correctly. Whether people actually follow these
rules of correct reasoning is an empirical matter, something that is not the
concern of logic.
The psychology of reasoning, on the other hand, is an empirical
science. It tells us about the actual reasoning habits of people, including their
mistakes. A psychologist studying reasoning might be interested in how
people's ability to reason varies with age. But such empirical facts are of no
concern to the logician.
3. The principles of logic
So what are these principles of reasoning that are part of logic? There
are many such principles, but the main (not the only) thing that we study in
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3. logic are principles governing the validity of arguments - whether certain
conclusions follow from some given assumptions. For example, consider the
following three arguments:
If Tom is a philosopher, then Tom is poor.
Tom is a philosopher.
Therefore, Tom is poor.
If K>10, then K>2.
K>10.
Therefore, K>2.
If Tarragona is in Europe, then Tarragona is not in China.
Tarragona is in Europe.
Therefore, Tarragona is not in China.
These three arguments here are obviously good arguments in the sense
that their conclusions follow from the assumptions. If the assumptions of the
argument are true, the conclusion of the argument must also be true. A
logician will tell us that they are all cases of a particular form of argument
known as "modus ponens" 1
B. WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC METHOD?
The method of science is free from the limitations and willfulness of
the alternative methods for settling doubt which we there rejected. Scientific
1
http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/logic/whatislogic.php
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4. method, we declared, is the most assured technique man has yet devised for
controlling the flux of things and establishing stable beliefs.2
Let us in this chapter bring together the more important threads of our
discussions.
1. Facts and Scientific Method3
a. Consequently, scientific method aims to discover what the facts truly
are, and the use of the method must be guided by the discovered facts.
But, as we have repeatedly pointed out, what the facts are cannot be
discovered without reflection.
b. Every inquiry arises from some felt problem, so that no inquiry can
even get under way unless some selection or sifting of the subject
matter has taken place.
c. The ability to formulate problems whose solution may also help solve
other problems is a rare gift, requiring extraordinary genius.
d. The "facts" for which every inquiry reaches out are propositions for
whose truth there is considerable evidence. Consequently what the
"facts" are must be determined by inquiry, and cannot be determined
antecedently to inquiry.
2. Hypotheses and Scientific Method4
a. Hypotheses are suggested to an inquirer by something in the subject
matter under investigation, and by his previous knowledge of other
subject matters.
b. Hypotheses are required at, every stage of ~an~ inquiry, It must not be
forgotten that what are called general principles or laws(which may
2
MORRIS R. COHEN and ERNEST NAGEL, Introduction to logic and scientific method. NEW
YORK AND BURLINGAME: 1934, 391.
3
Ibid, 392
4
Ibid.
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5. have been confirmed in a previous inquiry) can be applied to a present,
still unterminated inquiry only with some risk.
c. Hypotheses can be regarded as suggestions of possible connections
between actual facts or imagined ones.
d. The number of hypotheses which may occur to an inquirer is without
limit, and is a function of the character of his imagination.
e. It is convenient to have on hand in storage, so to speak different
hypotheses whose consequences have been carefully explored.
f. The deductive elaboration of hypotheses is not the sole task of
scientific method.
g. No hypothesis which states a general proposition can be demonstrated
as absolutely true. We have seen that all inquiry which deals with
matters of fact employs probable inference.
3. Evidence and Scientific Method5
a. Science is not satisfied with psychological certitude, for the mere
intensity with which a belief is held is no guarantee of its truth.
b. No single proposition dealing with matters of fact is beyond every
significant doubt. No proposition is so well supported by evidence that
other evidence may not increase or decrease its probability.
c. Science is thus always ready to abandon a theory when the facts so
demand. But the facts must really demand it. It is not unusual for a
theory to be modified so that it may be retained in substance even
though "facts" contradicted an earlier formulation of it.
d. The verification of theories is only approximate. Verification simply
shows that, within the margin of experimental error, the experiment is
compatible with the verified hypothesis.
5
Ibid, 394
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6. 4. System in the Ideal of Science6
The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interconnection of
facts. Isolated propositions do not constitute a science. Such propositions
serve merely as an opportunity to find the logical connection between them
and other propositions.
“Common sense” is content with a miscellaneous collection of
information. As a consequence, the propositions it asserts are frequently
vague, the range of their application is unknown, and their mutual
compatibility is generally very questionable. The advantages of discovering
a system among facts is therefore obvious. A condition for achieving a
system is the introduction of accuracy in the assertions made. The limit
within which propositions are true is then clearly defined. Moreover,
inconsistencies between propositions asserted become eliminated gradually
because propositions which are part of a system must support and correct
one another. The extent and accuracy of our information is thus increased.
In fact, scientific method differs from other methods in the accuracy and
number of facts it studies.
5. Empirical
Science is based purely around observation and measurement, and
the vast majority of research involves some type of practical
experimentation.
This can be anything, from measuring the Doppler Shift of a distant
galaxy to handing out questionnaires in a shopping center. This may sound
obvious, but this distinction stems back to the time of the Ancient Greek
Philosophers.
6
Ibid, 395
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7. Cutting a long story short, Plato believed that all knowledge could be
reasoned; Aristotle that knowledge relied upon empirical observation and
measurement.
This does bring up one interesting anomaly. Strictly speaking, the
great physicists, such as Einstein and Stephen Hawking, are not scientists.
They generate sweeping and elegant theories and mathematical models to
describe the universe and the very nature of time, but measure nothing.
In reality, they are mathematicians, occupying their own particular
niche, and they should properly be referred to as theoreticians.
Still, they are still commonly referred to as scientists and do touch
upon the scientific method in that any theory they have can be destroyed by
a single scrap of empirical evidence.7
7
http://explorable.com/what-is-the-scientific-method.html
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8. CONCLUTION
Logic is a domain of philosophy concerned with rational criteria that applies
to argumentation. Logic includes a study of argumentation within natural language,
consistent reasoning, valid argumentation, and errors in reasoning. It is divided into
two main domains: Formal and informal logic.
The scientific method, as defined by various scientists and philosophers, has a
fairly rigorous structure that should be followed.
In reality, apart from a few strictly defined physical sciences, most scientific
disciplines have to bend and adapt these rules, especially sciences involving the
unpredictability of natural organisms and humans.
In many ways, it is not always important to know the exact scientific method,
to the letter, but any scientist should have a good understanding of the underlying
principles.
In many ways, if you are going to bend and adapt the rules, you need to
understand the rules in the first place.
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9. BIBLIOGRAPHY
MORRIS R. COHEN and ERNEST NAGEL. (1934). Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method.
EARCOTJRT, BRACE & WORLD, INC,.
http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/logic/whatislogic.php
http://explorable.com/what-is-the-scientific-method.html
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