Social Stratification and Types of Societies

Some societies have customs or rules that give certain
social groups greater access to economic resources and
prestige. If the rules specifying such differential access
are not based on ability, age, or sex, anthropologists would
say that society is socially stratified. Some societies may
limit access only to prestige or status positions; others
may limit access to both economic resources and status
positions. Thus THREE TYPES OF SOCIETIES can be
distinguished:
3

Egalitarian Societies
Egalitarian societies have
no social groups with
greater access either to
economic resources or to
prestige; they are
unstratified
Rank Societies
Rank Societies do not
have unequal access to
economic resources, but
they do not have social
groups with unequal
access to prestige. Rank
societeis, then are
partially stratified.
Class/Caste societies
Class/Caste societies
have unequal access to
both economic resources
and prestige; they are
more completely stratified
4
Table 1 summarizes these three types of societies

TABLE 1: Stratification in Three Types of Societies
5
Some social groups have greater access to:
Type of Society Economic Resources Prestige
Egalitarian No No
Rank No Yes
Class/Caste Yes Yes

◆ Can be found not only among hunter-gatherers, but
among horticulturalists and pastoralists
◆ Does not mean that all people within such societies
at her same
◆ There will always be differences among individuals
in age and sex and in such abilities or traits as
hunting skill, perception, health, creativity, physical
prowess, attractiveness, and intelligence
7

“
“There are many positions of prestige in
any given age-sex grade as there are
persons capable of dilling them” 1
8
Morton H. Fried
1 Morton H. Fred. The Evolution of Political Society New York: Random House, 1967, p33

For instance, if a person can achieve status by
fashioning fine spears and every person in the
society fashions such spears, then every person
acquires status as a spearmaker. If status is also
acquired by carving bones into artifacts and only
three people are considered expert carvers of bones,
then, only those three achieve status as carvers.
9
In an egalitarian society, the number of prestigious positions is adjusted to fit the number of
qualified candidates. We would say, therefore, that such a society is not socially stratified.
www.mutualart.com

Even in an egalitarian society, differential
prestige exists. But although some persons
may be better hunters or more skilled artists
than others, there is still equal access to status
positions for people of the same ability. Any
prestige gained by achievement of status as a
great hunter, for instance, is neither
transferable nor inheritable. Because a man is a
great hunter, it is not assumed that his sons
are also great hunters.
10
The egalitarian society keeps inequality at a minimal level
Status and Prestige
www.scitechdaily.com

Any differences in prestige that do exist are not related to
economic differences. Egalitarian groups depend heavily on
sharing, which ensures equall access to economic resources
despite differences in acquired prestige. For instance, in
some egalitarian communities, some members achieve
status through hunting. But even before the hun begins, how
the animal will be divided and distributed among the
members of the band has already been decided according to
custom. The culture works to separate the status achieved
by members-recognition as great hunters-from actual
possession of the wealth, which in this case would be the
slain animal
11
Status and Prestige
www.theguardian.com

Societies with age-sets – that is, groups of males
differentiated by age-can also be classified as
egalitarian. As each new age-set is established
among the young, each older group moves up a
notch, gaining more prestige and additional rights,
such as the right to marry, the right to go on raids,
the right to be councilmen or ritual leaders. The
inequalities by age at any one time are apparent,
but each age-set is automatically promoted so that
all rights, duties, and privileges ate available
equally to all men during their lifetimes.
12
http://darwinian-medicine.com/do-hunter-gatherers

◆ Generally practice agriculture or herding, but not all
agricultural or pastoral societies ranked
◆ The position of the chief is at least partially
hereditary-usually the eldest son succeeded to the
position of chief, and different kinship groups were
differentially ranked according to their genealogical
distance from the chiefly line
14

Chiefs are often redistributors. Redistribution
of food by the chief often symbolizes that the
wealth is communally held. Although the chief
the chief may be desigated “owner” of the
land, people always retain the right to use the
land. In some Polynesian societies, for
instance, the chief was designated “manager”
of the labor of others. He saw to it that the
people did not neglect their fields or fail to
give food to be redistributed to the
community
15
http://scribal.com/the-origins-of-polynesia

SWAZI of South Africa
Hilda Kuper reports that the Swazi are a
horticultural people who invest their chief
with “ownership” of the land.2 The Staples of
their diet are maize and millet, produced
cooperatively by men and women. Farming
thus supplies the staple foods of Swazi,
although herding is more prestigious
occupation. Nevertheless, only 10 percent of
Swazi land is given over to cultivation; cattle
grazing claims 75 percent.
16
http://assets.itinnews.org/s3fs-
public/styles/responsive_medium/public/images/20
1301081314390787.jpg?itok=PSS2G_NW
Examples
2 Hilda Kuper, A South African Kingdom: The Swazi. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963

All Swazis, however, regardless of rank do the same kinds of work, live in the
same kinds of houses, and eat the same foods. The superior rank of the chief is
evident by many cows in his possession and by his right to organize work
parties. Sharing is principal way goods are distributed, and the chief shares (or
redistributes) more than others. A man who accumulates too many cattle is in
danger of public retaliation unless he shares them or lets others use them. If he
does not, he may be accused of witchcraft and his cattle may be killed and
eaten. This custom serves as a cultural means of preventing the accumulation
of wealth. Labor too is shared; for example, a work party from a particular age-
set might be called upon to help a family undertaking a construction job.
17

◆ There is unequal access of prestige and also
characterized by unequal access to economic
resources
◆ Not every type of person of the same sex or age has
the same chance to obtain land, animals, money, or
economic benefits
19

A class is a category of
persons who have about the
same opportunity to obtain
economic resources and
prestige.
21
3 W.Lloyd Warmer and Paul S. Lunt. The Social Life of a Modern Community. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941
4 Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd. Midddletown., New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1937

Towns in America have been described as having as few as
two, and as many as eleven social classes, but generally
from four to six classes are recognized in Warner and Lunt’s
“Yankee City,” 99 percent of the city’s 17.000 inhabitants
were studied and classified over a period of several years.
Warner and Lunt concluded that six groups emerged
strongly enough to be called classes. They are summarized
by characteristic traits in Table 2
22

23
Percentage of
Income
5%Percentage
of Population
Social Classes and characteristics traits
45% for top 20%
of the population
1.4% Upper upper
“Old Family”, usually possessing wealth, but sometimes poor, active
in charities, Episcopal or Congregational church, exclusive clubs,
endogamous
1.6 Lower upper Newly rich; imitate the U-U class and long to marry into that class
10.2 Upper middle
Professional men or storeowners; active in civic affairs; respectable;
long to be accepted by the groups above them, but almost never are
28.1 Lower middle
White collar worker; respectable homeowners, schoolteachers;
looked down upon by all above them. Some members of recently
integrated groups, such as Irish, Italians, French-Canadians, are this
group
32.6 Upper lower “poor but honest worker’, most of their income spent on food and rent
5% for bottom
20% of the
population
25.6 Lower lower
Thought by other classes to be lazy, shiftless, sexually proficient, and
promiscuous. In reality, they are simply poor
Summarize from W. Lloyd Warner and Paul S, Lunt. The Social Life of a Modern Community (New Haven : Yale University Press. 1941) p88

The way members of the highest and lowest classes perceive each other has also
been observed and recorded. Table 3 summarizes such perceptions as they were
revealed in a study of a town in the American South.
24
By upper-upper class By lower-lower class
“Old aristocracy” U-U
“Aristocracy,” but not “old” L-U “Society” or the “folks with money”
“Nice, respectable people” U-M
“Good people” but “nobody” L-M “Way-high-ups” but not “Society”
“Po’ whites” U-L “Snobs trying to push up”
L-L “People just as good as anybody”
TABLE 3: Perceptions of Social Classes

The people at the top grouped the bottom two classes
together and the people at the bottom grouped the top three
class together. This grouping suggests that the greater the
social distance between classes, the more likely is that a
group will lump together other groups farthest away in the
hierarchy. Groups tend, however, to distinguish between
other groups just above or just below themselves
25

A person’s identification with his or
her social class begins quite early in
life. The residence area chosen by our
parents, our church, school, school
curriculum, clubs, sports, college,
marriage partner, and occupation are
all influential in socializing us into a
particular class group.
26

Although social class in America is not fully determined by
birth, there us a high probability that most people will stay
within the class into which they were born and marry within
that class. Identification with a particular group and the roles of
that group begins in early childhood.
27

In contrast, the seven-year-old
daughter of a welthy businessman
may be assigned the role of
debutante-in-training. Her duties
could include learning to ride, to
play tennis, to play the piano, and
to conduct herself properly at
concerts and teas. Among her
priveleges would respect from the
servants of the house, a large
variety of choice foods, a room or a
suite of her own, private tutors.
28
Example

Class boundaries, though vague, have been
established by customs and tradition;
sometimes they have been reinforced by the
enactment of laws. Many of our laws deal with
protection of property and thus tend to favour
the upper and upper middle classes. The poor in
contrast, seem to be perennial losers in our
legal systems. The Crimes the poor are most
likely to commit are dealt with quite harshly in
our judicial system; and poor people rarely have
money to secure effective legal counsel.
29

◆ An individual’s position is society is completely
ascribed or determined at birth
◆ Upward mobility is prohibited either by law or
custom or both, and marriage is restricted to
members of one’s own caste
◆ Caste is a closed class
31

325 John Ruskin. “Of Kings’ Treasure.” In John D. Rosenberg, ed. The Genius of John Ruskin: Selections from His Writing. New York: George Braziller, 1963. pp. 296-314

33 6 See Oscar Lewis with the assistance of Victor Barnouw, Village Life in Northen India. Urbana; University of Illimois Press, 1958

Who is to do the hard and dirty work for the
rest of society is clearly established: a large
group of untouchables forms the bottom of
the hierarchy. Among the untouchables are
sub-castes such as the Camars, or
leatherworkers, and the Bhangis, who are
sweepers. At the top of the hierarchy,
performing the pleasant and clean work of
priests, are the Brahmans. Between the two
extremes are literally thousands of castes
and subcastes. Each caste is tradionally
associated with an occupation.
34 http://indiafacts.org/book-summary-western-foundations-of-the-caste-system-i

In a typical village the potter makes clay drinking cups
and larger water vessels for the entire village population.
In return, the principal landowner gives him a house site
and supplies him twice yearly with grain. Some other
castes owe the potter their services: the barber cuts his
hair, the sweeper carries away his rubbish, the washer
washes his clothes, the Brahman performs his children’s
weddings. The barber serves every caste in the village
except the untouchables; he, in turn, is served by half of
the others. He has inherited the families he works for
along with his father’s occupation. He also receives a
house site from the principal landowner, at each harvest,
all the grain he can lift. All castes help at harvest and the
weddings for additional payment, which sometimes
includes a money payment
35
Example
http://indiafacts.org/book-summary-western-foundations-of-the-caste-system-i

This description is, in fact, an idealized picture of the caste
system of India. In reality, the system operates to the
advantage of the principal landowning caste-sometimes
the Brahmans and sometimes other castes. Also, it is not
carried on without some resentment; signs of hostility are
shown toward the ruling caste by the untouchables and
other lower castes. The resentment does not appear to be
against the caste system as such; instead, the lower
castes exhibit bitterness at their own low status and strive
for greater equality. For instance, one of the Camars’
traditional services is to remove dead cattle; in return,
they can have the meat to eat and the hide to tan for their
leatherworking. Since handling dead animals and eating
beef are both regarded as unclean acts, the Camars of one
village refused to continue this service. Thus, they lost a
source of free hides and food in a vain attempt to escape
unclean status.36
http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Tired-of-burying-dead-
cows,-Dalits-go-on-strike-in-Gujarat-38746.html

Perpetuation of the caste system is ensured
by the power of those in the upper castes,
who derive three main advantages from their
position:
◆ Economic gain
◆ Gain in prestige
◆ Sexual gain
37

Economic gain
38
◆ Most immediately apparent .
◆ An ample supply of cheap labor and free services is
maintained by the threat of sanctions.
◆ Lower caste members may have their use of a house
site withdrawn;
◆ they may be refused access to the village well or
◆ to common grazing land for animals; or
◆ they maybe expelled from the village

The emergence of class society
41

42
Anthropologists are not certain why social stratification
developed. Nevertheless, they are reasonably sure that
higher level of stratification emerged relatively recently in
human history. Archaeological sites until about 7.500 year
ago do not show any evidence of inequality. Houses do not
appear to vary much in size and content. And burials
seem to be more or less the same, suggesting that their
occupants were treated more or less the same in life

43
The stratification is a relatively recent development is
also suggested by the fact that certain cultural features
associated with stratification also developed recently. For
example, most societies that are primarily dependent
upon agriculture or herding have social classes7.
7 Data from Robert B. Textor, comp., A Cross-Cultural Summary. New Haven: HRAF Press, 1967.

44
Other recently developed cultural features associated
with class stratification include fixed settlement,
political integration beyond the community level, the use
of money as a medium of exchange, and the presence of
at least some full-time specialization.8
8 Data from Robert B. Textor, comp., A Cross-Cultural Summary. New Haven: HRAF Press, 1967.

The Spread of Class Society
45

46
Despite of the fact that most class societies have an
enormous amount of inequality of opportunity, people
from more egalitarian societies tend to be attracted to
them. But there is probably also a “pull” factor- the
attractiveness of the rewards that are possible in more
stratified situations. The again, perhaps some of the
attractiveness of stratification comes from the awareness
that when more egalitarian societies have fought with
stratified societies have won out.

47
After all, stratified societies are literally
more powerful, with large and dense
populations that can support the
exercise of great military force. So
perhaps one additional reason for the
reason of class society around the world
is that stratification is associated with
more security, even though access to
rewards is very unequal.

1. Whereas sociologists contend that social stratification is universal because individual
inequalities exist in all societies, anthropologists argue that egalitarian societies do
exists, in the sense that there are societies in which access to economic resources and to
prestige and higher status is equally available to all in a particular age-sex category.
.
48
2. The presence or absence of customs or rules that give certain groups unequal access to
economic resources and prestige can be used to distinguish three types of societies.
Egalitarian societies have no unequal access either to economic resources or to prestige;
they are unstratified. Rank societies do not have unequal access to economic resources, but
they do not have unequal access to prestige. Rank societies, then are partially stratified.
Class/caste societies have unequal access to both economic resources and to prestige. They
are more completely stratified.
.

3. However economic stratification came into existence, it ahs come to dominate the globe.
Economically stratified societies range from somewhat open class systems to caste
systems, which are extremely rigid, since caste membership is ascribed and fixed
permanently at birth.
49
4. Social stratification appears to have emerged relatively recently in human history. This
conclusion is based on archeological evidence and on the facet that a number of other
cultural features associated with stratification developed relatively recently.

Amber and Amber . Anthropology
Morton H. Fred. The Evolution of Political Society New York: Random House, 1967, p33
Hilda Kuper, A South African Kingdom: The Swazi. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963
W.Lloyd Warmer and Paul S. Lunt. The Social Life of a Modern Community. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941
Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd. Midddletown., New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1937
Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd. Midddletown., New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1937
John Ruskin. “Of Kings’ Treasure.” In John D. Rosenberg, ed. The Genius of John Ruskin: Selections from His Writing.
New York: George Braziller, 1963. pp. 296-314
Oscar Lewis with the assistance of Victor Barnouw, Village Life in Northen India. Urbana; University of Illimois Press,
1958
Robert B. Textor, comp., A Cross-Cultural Summary. New Haven: HRAF Press, 1967
BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Any questions?
You can find me at janette.basco@deped.gov.ph
51

Social Stratification and Types of Societies

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