COMMUNITY ORGANISATION

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WORKING WITH COMMUNITIES
BY
AMIT KUMAR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CONTEMPORARY AND TRIBAL CUSTOMARY LAW
CENTRAL UNIVIERSITY OF JHARKHAND
Lecture 10
Organizational Theories
Organizational theories which explain the organization and its structure can be broadly
classified as classical, neo-classical or modern.
1. CLASSICAL ORGANIZATION THEORY
1. Scientific Management approach
2. Weber's Bureaucratic approach
3. Administrative theory.
2. NEOCLASSICAL THEORY
3. MODERN ORGANIZATION THEORY
1. Systems approach
2. Socio-technical approach
3. Contingency or Situational approach
1. CLASSICAL ORGANIZATION THEORY
Classical organization theories deal with the formal organization and concepts to increase
management efficiency.
1) Taylor (1947) presented scientific management concepts,
2) Weber (1947) gave the bureaucratic approach, and

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3) Fayol (1949) developed the administrative theory of the organization.
They all contributed significantly to the development of classical organization theory
Taylor's scientific management approach
It is based on the concept of planning of work to achieve efficiency, standardization,
specialization and simplification. Acknowledging that the approach to increased productivity
was through mutual trust between management and workers, Taylor suggested that, to increase
this level of trust,
1. the advantages of productivity improvement should go to workers,
2. physical stress and anxiety should be eliminated as much as possible,
3. capabilities of workers should be developed through training, and
4. the traditional 'boss' concept should be eliminated.
5. Taylor developed the following four principles of scientific management for
improving productivity:
❑ Science, not rule-of-thumb old rules-of-thumb should be supplanted by
a scientific approach to each element of a person's work.
❑ Scientific selection of the worker Organizational members should be
selected based on some analysis, and then trained, taught and developed.
❑ Management and labor cooperation rather than conflict Management
should collaborate with all organizational members so that all work can
be done in conformity with the scientific principles developed.
❑ Scientific training of the worker: Workers should be trained by experts,
using scientific methods.
Weber's bureaucratic approach
Considering the organization as a segment of broader society, Weber (1947) based the concept
of the formal organization on the following principles:
• Structure: In the organization, positions should be arranged in a hierarchy, each with
a particular, established amount of responsibility and authority.
• Specialization: Tasks should be distinguished on a functional basis, and then
separated according to specialization, each having a separate chain of command.
• Predictability and stability: The organization should operate according to a system
of procedures consisting of formal rules and regulations.

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• Rationality: Recruitment and selection of personnel should be impartial.
• Democracy: Responsibility and authority should be recognized by designations and
not by persons.
Weber's theory is infirm on account of dysfunctions (Hicks and Gullett, 1975) such as
rigidity, impersonality, displacement of objectives, limitation of categorization, self-
perpetuation and empire building, cost of controls, and anxiety to improve status.
Administrative theory
The elements of administrative theory (Fayol, 1949) relate to accomplishment of tasks, and
include principles of management or administration, the concept of line and staff,
committees and functions of management.
Principles of Management
14 principles of Management are statements that are based on a fundamental truth. These
principles of management serve as a guideline for decision-making and management actions.
They are drawn up by means of observations and analyses of events that managers encounter
in practice. Henri Fayol was able to synthesize 14 principles of management after years of
study, namely:
1. Division of Work
In practice, employees are specialized in different areas and they have different skills. Different
levels of expertise can be distinguished within the knowledge areas (from generalist to
specialist). Personal and professional developments support this. According to Henri Fayol
specialization promotes efficiency of the workforce and increases productivity. In addition, the
specialization of the workforce increases their accuracy and speed. This management principle
of the 14 principles of management is applicable to both technical and managerial activities.
2. Authority and Responsibility
In order to get things done in an organization, management has the authority to give orders to
the employees. Of course, with this authority comes responsibility. According to Henri Fayol,
the accompanying power or authority gives the management the right to give orders to the
subordinates. The responsibility can be traced back from performance and it is therefore
necessary to make agreements about this. In other words, authority and responsibility go
together and they are two sides of the same coin.
3. Discipline

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This third principle of the 14 principles of management is about obedience. It is often a part of
the core values of a mission and vision in the form of good conduct and respectful interactions.
This management principle is essential and is seen as the oil to make the engine of an
organization run smoothly.
4. Unity of Command
The management principle ‘Unity of command’ means that an individual employee should
receive orders from one manager and that the employee is answerable to that manager. If tasks
and related responsibilities are given to the employee by more than one manager, this may lead
to confusion which may lead to possible conflicts for employees. By using this principle, the
responsibility for mistakes can be established more easily.
5. Unity of Direction
This management principle of the 14 principles of management is all about focus and unity.
All employees deliver the same activities that can be linked to the same objectives. All activities
must be carried out by one group that forms a team. These activities must be described in a
plan of action. The manager is ultimately responsible for this plan and he monitors the progress
of the defined and planned activities. Focus areas are the efforts made by the employees and
coordination.
6. Subordination of Individual Interest
There are always all kinds of interests in an organization. In order to have an organization
function well, Henri Fayol indicated that personal interests are subordinate to the interests of
the organization (ethics). The primary focus is on the organizational objectives and not on those
of the individual. This applies to all levels of the entire organization, including the managers.
7. Remuneration
Motivation and productivity are close to one another as far as the smooth running of an
organization is concerned. This management principle of the 14 principles of management
argues that the remuneration should be sufficient to keep employees motivated and productive.
There are two types of remuneration namely non-monetary (a compliment, more
responsibilities, credits) and monetary (compensation, bonus or other financial compensation).
Ultimately, it is about rewarding the efforts that have been made.
8. The Degree of Centralization
Management and authority for decision-making process must be properly balanced in an
organization. This depends on the volume and size of an organization. Centralization implies
the concentration of decision-making authority at the top management (executive board).
Sharing of authorities for the decision-making process with lower levels (middle and lower

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management), is referred to as decentralization by Henri Fayol. Henri Fayol indicated that an
organization should strive for a good balance in this.
9. Scalar Chain
Hierarchy presents itself in any given organization. This varies from senior management
(Executive board) to the lowest levels in the organization. Henri Fayol ’s “hierarchy”
management principle states that there should be a clear line in the area of authority (from top
to bottom and all managers at all levels). This can be seen as a type of management structure.
Each employee can contact a manager or a superior in an emergency situation without
challenging the hierarchy. Especially, when it concerns reports about calamities to the
immediate managers/superiors.
10. Order
According to this principle of the 14 principles of management, employees in an organization
must have the right resources at their disposal so that they can function properly in an
organization. In addition to social order (responsibility of the managers) the work environment
must be safe, clean and tidy.
11. Equity
The management principle of equity often occurs in the core values of an organization.
According to Henri Fayol, employees must be treated kindly and equally. Employees must be
in the right place in the organization to do things right. Managers should supervise and monitor
this process and they should treat employees fairly and impartially.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel
This management principle of the 14 principles of management represents deployment and
managing of personnel and this should be in balance with the service that is provided from the
organization. Management strives to minimize employee turnover and to have the right staff in
the right place. Focus areas such as frequent change of position and sufficient development
must be managed well.
13. Initiative
Henri Fayol argued that with this management principal employees should be allowed to
express new ideas. This encourages interest and involvement and creates added value for the
company. Employee initiatives are a source of strength for the organization according to Henri
Fayol. This encourages the employees to be involved and interested.
14. Esprit de Corps
The management principle ‘esprit de corps’ of the 14 principles of management stands for
striving for the involvement and unity of the employees. Managers are responsible for the

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development of morale in the workplace; individually and in the area of communication. Esprit
de corps contributes to the development of the culture and creates an atmosphere of mutual
trust and understanding.
The 14 principles of management can be used to manage organizations and are useful tools for
forecasting, planning, process management, organization management, decision-making,
coordination and control.
2. NEOCLASSICAL THEORY
❑ Neoclassical theorists recognized the importance of individual or group behaviour and
emphasized human relations.
❑ the neoclassical approach emphasized social or human relationships among the
operators, researchers and supervisors (Roethlisberger and Dickson, 1943).
❑ It was argued that these considerations were more consequential in determining
productivity than mere changes in working conditions.
❑ Productivity increases were achieved as a result of high morale, which was influenced
by the amount of individual, personal and intimate attention workers received.
❑ The classical approach stressed the formal organization. It was mechanistic and ignored
major aspects of human nature. In contrast, the neoclassical approach introduced an
informal organization structure and emphasized the following principles:
❑ The individual: An individual is not a mechanical tool but a distinct social
being, with aspirations beyond mere fulfilment of a few economic and security
works. Individuals differ from each other in pursuing these desires. Thus, an
individual should be recognized as interacting with social and economic factors.
❑ The work group: The neoclassical approach highlighted the social facets of
work groups or informal organizations that operate within a formal
organization. The concept of 'group' and its synergistic benefits were considered
important.
❑ Participative management: Participative management or decision-making
permits workers to participate in the decision making process. This was a new
form of management to ensure increases in productivity.
❑ Note the difference between Taylor's 'scientific management' - which focuses on work
- and the neoclassical approach - which focuses on workers.

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DCTCL, CUJ RANCHI
3. MODERN ORGANIZATION THEORY
Some of the notable characteristics of the modern approaches to the organization are:
• a systems viewpoint,
• a dynamic process of interaction,
• multi-levelled and multidimensional,
• multi-motivated,
• probabilistic,
• multi-disciplinary,
• descriptive,
• multivariable, and
• adaptive.
Modern understandings of the organization can be broadly classified into:
· The systems approach,
· Socio-technical theory, and
· A contingency or situational approach.
The Systems Approach
The systems approach views organization as a system composed of interconnected - and thus
mutually dependent - sub-systems. These sub-systems can have their own sub-sub-systems. A
system can be perceived as composed of some components, functions and processes (Albrecht,
1983). Thus, the organization consists of the following three basic elements (Bakke, 1959):
(i) Components There are five basic, interdependent parts of the organizing system,
namely:
· The individual,
· The formal and informal organization,
· Patterns of behaviour emerging from role demands of the organization,
· Role comprehension of the individual, and
· The physical environment in which individuals work.
(ii) Linking processes: The different components of an organization are required to
operate in an organized and correlated manner. The interaction between them is
contingent upon the linking processes, which consist of communication, balance and
decision making.

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· Communication is a means for eliciting action, exerting control and effecting
coordination to link decision centres in the system in a composite form.
· Balance is the equilibrium between different parts of the system so that they
keep a harmoniously structured relationship with one another.
· Decision analysis is also considered to be a linking process in the systems
approach. Decisions may be to produce or participate in the system. Decision to
produce depends upon the attitude of the individual and the demands of the
organization. Decision to participate refers to the individual's decisions to
engross themselves in the organization process. That depends on what they get
and what they are expected to do in participative decision making.
(iii) Goals of organization: The goals of an organization may be growth, stability and
interaction. Interaction implies how best the members of an organization can interact
with one another to their mutual advantage.
Socio-technical approach
• It is not just job enlargement and enrichment which is important, but also transforming
technology into a meaningful tool in the hands of the users. The socio-technical systems
approach is based on the premise that every organization consists of the people, the
technical system and the environment (Pasmore, 1988).
• People (the social system) use tools, techniques and knowledge (the technical
system) to produce goods or services valued by consumers or users (who are part
of the organization's external environment). Therefore, an equilibrium among the social
system, the technical system and the environment is necessary to make the organization
more effective.
The contingency or situational approach
• The situational approach (Selznick, 1949; Burns and Stalker, 1961; Woodward, 1965;
Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967) is based on the belief that there cannot be universal
guidelines which are suitable for all situations.
• Organizational systems are inter-related with the environment.
• The contingency approach (Hell Riegel and Slocum, 1973) suggests that different
environments require different organizational relationships for optimum effectiveness,
taking into consideration various social, legal, political, technical and economic factors.

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