Fi-Wi Technology: Fiber Wireless Network Architecture

Fi-Wi Technology
Fi–Wi TECHNOLOGY
(Fiber Wireless Network Architecture)
Gande Kiran Kumar,
IT Department,
MallaReddy Inst of Eng& Tech(MRIET) ,
Maisammaguda, Secunderabad. kirangande92@gmail.com 8099225308.
,Gajula Vijay Kumar ,
IT Department,
MallaReddy Inst of Eng& Tech(MRIET) Maisammaguda, Secunderabad
Shivavijay06@gmail.com
8125746522.
Abstract– The ultimate goal of Fiber Wireless (FI–WI) networks is to convergence of various optical and wireless technologies under a single
infrastructure in order to take advantage of their complementary features and therefore providing a network capable of supporting bandwidth hungry
emerging applications for both fixed and mobile clients. The Fi–Wi architecture is based on radio ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This means that traffic generated from users communicating only in the wireless network does not have to be propagated towards the optical network
as happens with RoF technology. Thus, distributed MAC protocols, e.g. IEEE 802.11b, avoid the fiber's extra propagation delays that degrade their
performance. This feature removes a possible limitation regarding the length of the deployed fiber while it adds a degree of resiliency to the system
since local wireless traffic can be served even when connectivity with the optical segment is lost.
[pic]
OPTICAL ACCESS NETWORKS A growing number of providers worldwide are adopting optical technologies in the access network and towards the
client's premises (Fiber–to–the–Home or FTTH) due to optical fiber's ability to provide huge amounts of bandwidth in longer distances than copper,
immunity to electromagnetic interference and inherent security. Fiber generally should be installed underground for safety reasons and therefore its

deployment is an expensive procedure. This is mitigated by deploying a tree like network topology where a part of it is being shared by many
clients. Each client is connected via a dedicated fiber to a Remote Node (RN) which in turn is connected via a single fiber to a CO. In general two
technologies can be used for this implementation
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Optical Fiber Lab Report
Introduction
An optical fiber (or optical fiber) is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a breadth somewhat thicker than that of a
human hair. Optical fibers are utilized regularly as a way to transmit light between the two closures of the fiber and find wide utilization in fiber–optic
communication, where they allow transmission over longer separations and at higher bandwidths (information rates) than wire links. Fibers are
utilized rather than metal wires in light of the fact that signals go along them with lesser measures of loss; moreover, fibers are likewise resistant to
electromagnetic impedance, an issue which metal wires experience the ill effects of excessively. Fibers are additionally utilized for ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
2)Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Light transmission through optical strands is unaffected by other electromagnetic radiation adjacent. The optical fiber is electrically non–conductive, so
it doesn't go act as a receiving wire to get electromagnetic signs. Data going inside the optical fiber is invulnerable to electromagnetic interferences,
even electromagnetic pulses produced by atomic gadgets.
3)Low attenuation loss over long distance
Attenuation misfortune can be as low as 0.2 dB/km in optical fiber cables, permitting transmission over long distances without the requirement for
repeaters.
4)Electrical insulator
Optical filaments don't lead power, anticipating issues with ground circles and conduction of lightning. Optical filaments can be hung on shafts close
by high voltage force links.
5)Material cost and theft prevention
Traditional cable frameworks utilize a lot of copper. In a few places, this copper is an target for robbery because of its worth on the scrap

The Design Of A Fiber Optic Communication System
Design of a 400Gbps WDM system over 3000Km Balasaravanan Govindarajan(bxg160830), Shubham Agarwal, Nishanth Department of Electrical
Engineering The University of Texas at Dallas. Abstract: This paper discusses the design of a fiber optic communication system which is used to
support a date rate of about 400Gbps over a length of around 3000Km using a laser power source around to 1550nm. The design includes both the
internal and external modulation. Introduction: Fiber optic communication is the process where there's an information transmitted from one place to
another by pulses of light with the help of an... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The operating voltage of the laser can be determined by using the equation hv=E1–E2 Where h–Planck's constant v– Operating voltage E1–conduction
band gap energy E2–valence band gap energy The receiver helps in converting the optical energy into electrical energy using the effect of
photoelectric. A photodiode is generally the main component of a receiver. The components used in the receiver are: 1.Photodiode 2.Amplifiers.
3.Low pass filters The front end: Simulates a photodiode and preamplifier. The frequency response is specified by the filter transfer function. The
equivalent input noise of the amplifier can be added to the Thermal Noise of the photodiode. These three helps us in forming the front end of the
receiver. The back end of the receiver consists of: 1.Amplifier 2.Low pass filter 3.Inverter The back –end: Simulates the main amplifier and the channel
filter of the receiver. The transfer function of the channel filter is specified in the Filtered module. Photodiode: The photodiode present at the receiver
helps in converting the incident photons into electrons. Generally, the two most used photodiodes are the –Pin Photodiode –Avalanche Photodiode In a
PIN Photodiode, electron hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of photons. The Avalanche Photodiode is very similar to the PIN diode, but
the reverse bias voltage applied to this diode is very high. The

The Use of Fiber Optics in Communications Essay
The Use of Fiber Optics in Communications The field of communications is one in which the technologies are changing on an almost daily basis.
Numerous different technologies have been pursued over the past few years; each designed to essentially accomplish several basic purposes in terms of
community service. Three of the most actively pursued application include interactive distance learning, video conferencing, and entertainment. While
it is the first two, video conferencing and interactive distance learning, which would serve to the best advantage in terms of education and business; it
is the last, entertainment which has the most appeal to the largest number of people. The application of various communications applications in... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Light enters one end of the fiber from a light bulb, laser, or some other source, and travels essentially unimpeded all the way to the length of the fiber
where it is intercepted by a photosensitive detector such as an electronic device or even the human eye. The distance of travel varies according to the
use to anywhere from just a few inches to over one–hundred and fifty miles. Fiber optic cable can transmit large amounts of information over
one–hundred and fifty miles almost instantaneously. "While it takes five hours to transmit the contents of an encyclopedia over copper wires, the entire
work can be transmitted in less than a minute over fiber optics" (Yawn PG). Single Mode/Multi–Mode Fibers referred to as single mode are most often
used for the longer distance transmissions. Multi mode fibers are used in applications requiring less distance. They are less expensive than single–mode
fibers and accept light from a larger variety of sources and from different angles. Single–mode fibers are smaller in diameter than are multi–mode and
are particular both about the type of light they will accept and the angle at which it can be introduced. They typically accept light only when it is
directly input to the axis of the fiber. This ability requires special light sources such as lasers and

What Are The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Lifi
Li–Finally: a consortium of optics and networking
Paul Prince.R
B.E.Electronics and Communication
Loyola–ICAM College of Engineering and Technology
Chennai, India paulprince_r@live.com Monisha.R
B.E.Electronics and Communication Loyola–ICAM College of Engineering and Technology
Chennai, India monis1794@yahoo.co.in Abstract–As of 31st December 2013, according to 'Internet world stats' there are 2,802,478,934 internet users
globally, and this number is ever growing. Even though the number of users keep increasing, the RF (Radio Frequency) bandwidth is scarce resulting
in a progressive decrease in the data rate. On the other hand, visible light spectrum is much wider (~10,000 times) opening the door to a higher data
rate. Taking this ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
FTTB (Fiber to the building) or FTTH (Fiber to the house) can be employed to ensure very high data rate without any bottleneck.
In the existing li–fi systems, data transmission is via white light and in uncontrolled environment. This results in higher attenuation and scattering loss
limiting the range of transmission.
The existing setup make use of the full spectrum of the visible light for data transmission. But the components having shorter wavelength undergo
scattering easily. Hence we also propose a system wherein only the spectrum having longer wavelength are used for data transmission in addition to the
generally used white light for ambiance.
Propagation of light through an optical fiber is based on the principle of total internal reflection. Due to rough and irregular surfaces both at the physical
and molecular level, light rays are scattered in different directions.
Standard single mode fibers used in telecommunication have a loss of 0.17db/km at 1550 nm due to scattering of light

Optical Ofdm For Passive Optical Network
1.Introduction
2.Optical OFDM for Passive optical networks
The high–speed broadband penetration and ongoing growth of the Internet traffic among customers have been the key reasons that are driving the rapid
emergence and deployment of optical access networks as a basic bearer network that supports hybrids services for multiple customers while bearing
huge capacity. Passive optical network is the most interesting solution for the optical access network to cope with the increasing bandwidth demand
and to meet the cost effectiveness. PON can be used for Point to point (P2P) or Point to multi–point (P2MP) configurations. The P2P structure builds a
dedicated fiber from a CO to each subscriber which constitutes an ultimate solution to provide much–needed bandwidth to each ONU. In P2MP
topologies, the feeder fiber is shared between various customers and terminates at a central office in an Optical Line Terminal. Passive splitters put
between the OLT and the ONU are used to split the connection to multiple end points, thus enormously reduces the maintaining cost. Two key
technologies are used in passive optical network: the first one known as TDM–PON uses Time Division Multiplexing to multiplex traffic from/to
multiple ONUs onto the upstream/downstream wavelength. It requires complex scheduling algorithms and framing technology to support a variety of
services. The second is Wavelength division multiplexing passive optical network "WDM PON". This technology comes to extend the

Simulation And Analysis Of 10 Gbps Optical Communication...
Simulation and analysis of 10 GBPS optical communication system using different pulses Apurv Anand1, VIkash Kumar2 , Ekta Negi3 Deepak Kumar
Ray4
1,2,3 Dept. of EnTC , Bharti VIdyapeeth deemed university , College of Engineering Pune , Maharashtra–411043 , India
4 Assistant Professor , Bharti Vidyapeeth deemed university , College of engineering Pune , Maharashtra–411043 , India
ABSTRACT : – In this paper we simulatd an optical transmission system in optical fiber using different pulses .The optical fiber system used in
telecommunication system has small size or dimension, low loss and low interference from outside environment. Optical fiber are of various
configurations , we are using fiber bragg grating as the dispersion compensator in the fiber optic cable . We are using FBG in the simulation as because
it offers more bandwidth .Optisystem software is used to analyse the optical transmission system . In the simulation of the communication system
appropriate values of the input power , fiber cable length and attenuation coefficient is taken around the cable section and the output pwer , noise figure
, gain is found out at the receiver. The transmitter frequency and cut off frequency of the receiver is made constant .
Keywords: – Optical communication System, FBG , Optisystem software , parameters I. INTRODUCTION
Any transmission system consists of three basic components , that are fiber

Advantages And Modes Of Effective Devices
modes to generate LP11 modes (LP11a+LP11b) and even all three modes (LP01+LP11a+LP11b)over few–mode fiber (FMF)The transmission system
with mode multiplexing are a very crucial problem. The mode selective devices proposed in divided into two major categories: free–space based
(FSB) and fiber based(FB).Free space components are bulky in size ex liquid–crystal–on–silicon (LCOS) spatial light modulator (SLM). But fiber
based mode selective device have compact and easiness of integration. .Firstly proposed 107–Gb/s coherent optical OFDM (CO–OFDM) transmission
over a 4.5–km two–mode fiber using LP01 and LP11 modes. Secondly proposed 58.8–Gb/s CO–OFDM transmission using dual modes where the
mode separation is achieved via 4Г— 4 electronic MIMO... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Transfer of energy from one ideal mode to another during propagation only due to mode coupling. It has been observed that practically strong couple
modes having equal or nearly equal propagation constant but weakly coupled modes having a highly unequal propagation constant. The separation
between two modes results in modal dispersion increasing capacity through mode division multiplexing (MDM). SMF ( single–mode fiber helps in the
wave movement in two polarization conditions. Polarization–mode dispersion (PMD) and polarization–dependent loss (PDL) have long been described
by field coupling models. It has been observed that strongly coupled modal group delay or gain depend only no. of modes and variance of
accumulated delay or gain and can be derived from the eigenvalue distributions of certain random variables[7].
SDM (space division multiplexing) has been putforth by Savory. SDM is extremely challenging technology, of requiring developments in all areas of
Photonics Technology. The optical communication systems are being upgraded every day .There is a rapid development taking place in this field at
the global level in the space division multiplexing. Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) is conceptually simple, SDM is extremely challeng
technologically, requiring the development of new fibers, amplifiers, multiplexers, digital signal processing circuits, and other components. The
multiplexing means the utilization of channel by the

Fiber Optic Network For Overall Broadband Systems Essay
Abstract:
Fiber optic frameworks are essential telecom foundation for overall broadband systems. Wide transmission capacity signal transmission with low
postpone is a key prerequisite in present day applications. Optical strands give tremendous and amazing transmission data transfer capacity with
immaterial inactivity, and are presently the transmission medium of decision for long separation and high information rate transmission in telecom
systems. This paper gives an outline of fiber optic correspondence frameworks including their key innovations, furthermore talks about their innovative
pattern towards the following generation. Index Terms Bandwidth, Broadband, Fiber optics, Latency, Telecommunication. Introduction:
The significant main force behind the far reaching utilization of fiber optics communication is the high and quickly expanding customer and business
interest for more telecom limit and web administrations, with fiber optic innovation equipped for giving the obliged data limit (bigger than both remote
associations and copper link). Advances in technology have empowered more information to be passed on through a solitary optical fiber over long
separations. The transmission limit in optical communication systems are fundamentally enhanced utilizing wavelength division multiplexing.
An alluring highlight for future optical systems is the capacity to process data totally in the optical area with the end goal of intensification,
multiplexing, de–multiplexing,

Essay Fiber Optics
Fiber Optics
What are Fiber Optics?
Fiber optics are thin transparent fibers of glass or plastic enclosed by a material of a lower index of refraction and that transmit light throughout their
length by internal reflections. Real fiber optic cables are made out of very pure glass, glass so pure that if it were miles thick, light would still be able
to pass through. The fiber optic strand, although thin in diameter, is stretched to miles in length. Therefore only the purest of glass would be efficient
and useful for sending light signals. The glass of these fiber optic cables is drawn into a very thin strand (as thin as human hair), then it is coated in
two layers of plastic. By coating the glass in plastic (this is called the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Single Mode cable is a single strand of glass fiber, while multimode cable is made of multiple strands of glass fibers. Each fiber in multimode cable is
capable of carrying a different signal independent from those on the other fibers in the cable bundle.
Light pulses beam into the fiber's core with an LED (light–emitting diode), or laser and these signals are sent over miles and miles. However, the signal
over time will begin to weaken. In order o maintain the signal over great distances, there are repeater stations at about every 40 to 60 miles that
retransmit these light signalsto ensure the signal reaches its destination.
Because light is being used, large amounts of data can be sent at an extremely rapid speed(at the speed of light). Modern day fiber systems can
transmit billions of bits per second with a single laser. This can be achieved by the the laser can turn on and off billions of times per second, which
would allow for such a high transmission rate. In addition to high rate of transmission, the newest systems increase the number of signals that can be
transmitted into each fiber by utiliizing multiple lasers with different colors. The increased data–carrying ability and cost–savings potential that fiber
optics possesses over copper wire cable has already changed the communications and holds many promises for the future of information technology.
Milestones in Fiber

International Research And Development At The High...
International research and development are being conducted to come across the high capacity demand in transport network, mostly for 100 G Ethernet
and beyond. The two main subjects that need to be identified to raise the data rate to 100 Gb/s per wavelength are.
пѓ Bandwidth expansion
One direct method for increasing the capacity of a system is to raise the transmission bandwidth per wavelength either optically or electronically. In
optical communication, there are two broadly used techniques for increasing the capacity of the transmission. The first technique is to spread–out the
bandwidth by adding numerous optical carriers. This technique has already been slow and deployed and it is known as Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (WDM). Wavelength Division Multiplexing can benefit to extend the transmission bandwidth by adding various transceivers for the
current optical fiber links deprived of the need to install other fiber links. WDM is considered as one of the most cost effective methods to raise the
optical fiber link quantity. The second technique is to extend the electronic bandwidth per wavelength relying on the CMOS technology.
However, the present digital to analog converters (DAC)/ (ADC) can only support upto 6 GHz bandwidth. It became a challenge to realize 100 Gb/s
transmission in a cost effective manner. But, recently DAC/ADC realized more than 30 GS/s with more than a 20 GHz analog bandwidth. This can
support a 100 Gb/s transmission.
пѓ Enhancing the spectral

Network Media Types
Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to: Describe the primary types and uses of twisted–pair cables Describe the primary types and uses of
coaxial cables Describe the primary types and uses of п¬Ѓber–optic cables Describe the primary types and uses of wireless media Compare and
contrast the primary types and uses of different media CHAPTER 8 Network Media Types Network media is the actual path over which an electrical
signal travels as it moves from one component to another. This chapter describes the common types of network media, including twisted–pair cable,
coaxial cable, п¬Ѓber–optic cable, and wireless. Twisted–Pair Cable Twisted–pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Figure 8–3 Shielded Twisted–Pair Cable 110 Chapter 8: Network Media Types Although STP prevents interference better than UTP, it is more
expensive and difп¬Ѓcult to install. In addition, the metallic shielding must be grounded at both ends. If it is improperly grounded, the shield acts like
an antenna and picks up unwanted signals. Because of its cost and difп¬Ѓculty with termination, STP is rarely used in Ethernet networks. STP is
primarily used in Europe. The following summarizes the features of STP cable: Speed and throughput–10 to 100 Mbps Average cost per
node–Moderately expensive Media and connector size–Medium to large Maximum cable length–100 m (short) When comparing UTP and STP, keep
the following points in mind: The speed of both types of cable is usually satisfactory for local–area distances. These are the least–expensive media for
data communication. UTP is less expensive than STP. Because most buildings are already wired with UTP, many transmission standards are adapted
to use it, to avoid costly rewiring with an alternative cable type. Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that
surrounds a single inner wire made of two conducting elements. One of these elements, located in the center of the cable, is a copper conductor.
Surrounding the copper conductor is a layer of п¬‚exible insulation. Over this insulating

Different Types And Modes Of Mode Selective Devices
LP11 modes (LP11a+LP11b) and even all three modes (LP01+LP11a+LP11b)over few
–mode fiber (FMF)The transmission system with mode
multiplexing are a very crucial problem. The mode selective devices proposed in divided into two major categories: free–space based (FSB) and fiber
based(FB).Free space components are bulky in size ex liquid–crystal–on–silicon (Lcos) spatial light modulator (SLM). But fiber based mode selective
device have compact and easiness of integration. .Firstly proposed 107–Gb/s coherent optical OFDM (CO–OFDM) transmission over a 4.5–km
two–mode fiber using LP01 and LP11 modes. Secondly proposed 58.8–Gb/s CO–OFDM transmission using dual modes where the mode separation is
achieved via 4Г— 4 electronic MIMO processing [10].... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Transfer of energy from one ideal mode to another during propagation only due to mode coupling. It has been observed that practically strong couple
modes having equal or nearly equal propagation constant but weakly coupled modes having a highly unequal propagation constant. The separation
between two modes results in modal dispersion increasing capacity through mode division multiplexing (MDM). SMF ( single–mode fiber helps in the
wave movement in two polarization conditions. Polarization–mode dispersion (PMD) and polarization–dependent loss (PDL) have long been described
by field coupling models. It has been observed that strongly coupled modal group delay or gain depend only no. of modes and variance of
accumulated delay or gain and can be derived from the eigenvalue distributions of certain random variables[12].
SDM (space division multiplexing) has been putforth by Savory. SDM is extremely challenging technology, of requiring developments in all areas of
Photonics Technology. The optical communication systems are being upgraded every day .There is a rapid development taking place in this field at
the global level in the space division multiplexing. Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) is conceptually simple, SDM is extremelychalleng
technologically, requiring the development of new fibers, amplifiers, multiplexers, digital signal processing circuits, and other components. The
multiplexing means the utilization of channel by the division of the space. It is

Essay On Sonnet Network
SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) is first developed and deployed on North America. It transfers multiple digital bit streams and it is
standardized multiplexing protocol. It works at physical layer (layer 1) that supports the high transmission rates (155 Mbps to 10 Gbps) needed in
metro applications. SONET network speeds currently range from OC–1 (51.84 Mbps) to OC–192 (9953.28 Mbps). SONET serves as a backbone
transport for other technologies such as ATM andEthernet. Optical fiber signal Service providers have offered SONET services for some time. SONET
networks benefits include high–speed network services that meet voice–transport requirements as well as survivability and availability needs. Also, it
allows precise rapid failover ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
SONET is a one kind of multiplexing way for different signals. Sometime, SONET describe a technology which is useful to carry signals in different
capacities through flexible and optical hierarchy.
Make an integrated summary (~350 Words) of SDH (12 points)
Answer: SDH (synchronous digital hierarchy) is developed later (means SONET developed first) and deployed on rest of the world except North
America. Today, SDH and SONET are used widely and SDH is greater worldwide market penetration than SONET. SONET and SDH have same
qualities as, they communicate through circuit mode from different sources. SDH signals transmitted via satellite paths or sometimes via radio link
and its transmitted quickly when mobile network is on. The SDH standard uses the synchronous transport module (STM) frame format. It transfers
multiple digital bit streams and it is standardized multiplexing protocol. It works at physical layer. With a few exceptions, we can say that SDH can
be a superset of SONET. The ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) was clarified The SDH standard and is formalized as ITU
(International Telecommunications Union) standards G.707, G.783, G.784, and G.803. It is one of the TDM (Time division multiplexing)
technologies. TDM employs a single wavelength across a fiber. Data is divided into channels so that multiple channels can travel across a single fiber.
The time is taken by the STM–1 frame for

Fibre Optics : Materials And Materials
Fibre Optics Materials http://www.madehow.com/Volume
–1/Optical–Fiber.html Invented by Alexander Brambell, a fibre optic cable is a single,
hairline piece of cable mainly made from silicone dioxide and other tiny amounts of chemicals are usually added. Liquid silicon tetrachloride in a
gaseous stream of oxygen is the most important and commonly used source of silicon in the vapour deposition method which is very commonly
used. Other chemicals are sometimes used to produce outer shells and core fibres. Firstly, to make a optical fibre, in the surface of a hollow
substrate rod, layers of silicon dioxide are deposited by using Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition where a stream of pure oxygen and a range of
different chemicals are combined and applied to the rod. A glassy soot, several layers thick is formed when the gas contacts the hot surface of the
rod. Other heating methods are used to drive out the moisture and bubbles trapped in the glassy soot layers in the rod These specific fibres are
chosen to replace metal wires because the transmission, speed and capacity of the communication systems are a lot higher and makes the process of
converting information into light a lot quicker through the fibre optic cables. Many optical fibres are bound together around a central steel cable or a
strong plastic carrier for support. The core of the fibre optic cable is covered with aluminium, kevlar and polyethylene (the cladding) as a form of

Fiber Optic Strain Sensor Project Report
FIBER OPTIC STRAIN SENSOR
PROJECT REPORT SWAPNA RAAVI
104946905
Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 3
1. Conventional strain sensors.................................................................................................. 3
1.1Foil Strain Gage ....................................................................................................... 3
1.2Accelerometer ................................................................................5
2. Optical Fiber Communications ........................................................................................... 6
2.1 History and development of Optical Fiber ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
conclusion..............................................................................................16
Introduction
"Technology takes a new leap every day. New designs and components will require high resolutions for monitoring health and structural characteristics
and also to test their performance. The quality of new devices directly implies on the level which we can measure their performance. Conventional
techniques which have been lasting for so long will not provide the high resolutions needed for new and advancing designs for the measurements of
different quantities, mainly strain. Some of the conventional methods like Classic foil strain gauges and accelerometers have been trusted and used for
several years to measure the strains on various buildings, air planes, human body, and many others, which end up failing during harsh conditions. Fiber
optic strain sensors will not fail whereas the conventional strain sensors might fail during some conditions. Fiber optic strain sensors have high
resolution and are immune to electromagnetic interference and can survive high temperatures, and bad weather conditions. Also, the fiber optic strain
sensor has 25 times better gauge factor than that of the conventional sensors. There are two types of fiber optic strain sensors whose mechanical and
optical properties changes when there is an

The Design Of Qam Modulated High Speed Coherent Optical...
The Design of QAM Modulated High Speed Coherent Optical OFDM System
Kalpesh Borade1, Swati Kadlag1
1Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Symbiosis International University, Pune 412115,
Maharashtra, India kalpeshborade.r@gmail.com, swatik@sitpune.edu.in
Abstract. Coherent Optical–Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (CO–OFDM) technique is extensively reconnoitered for next generation
optical communication system emerges attractive pathway towards future implementation of 1 Tb/s Ethernet systems. This paper proposed the design
of 100 Gb/s CO–OFDM system based on the dual polarization of signal. The performance of 100 Gb/s CO–OFDM system using Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM) format transmitted over 576 km optical link using standard SMF is evaluated. The performance of the system in terms of
signal–to–noise ratio (SNR), bit error rate (BER), laser linewidth, chromatic dispersion and receiving constellation diagram to accomplish excellent
system. Eventually, dual polarization based CO–OFDM system has high spectral efficiency as compared to conventional CO–OFDM and invokes
enhance track for the high–speed optical communication system.
Keyword: Optical OFDM, Coherent detection, Chromatic dispersion, QAM, DCF. Introduction
Now a day, in telecommunication field lot of antagonism between telecom service providers to provide good quality of broadband services with high
speed. In recent year broadband communication

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Fiber Optic Cable
A fiber optic cable is a network cable that contains strands of glass fibers within an insulated casing. There are designed for very high–performance
data networking, long distance and telecommunications. Compare with wired cables, fiber optic cables give higher bandwidth and can transmit data
over longer distances. Fiber optic cables support world's internet, telephone systems and cable television. Fiber optic cables transmit signals using
pulses of light generated by light–emitting diodes (LEDs) or tiny lasers. The cable consists of one or more strands of glass, each only slightly thicker
than a human hair. The center of each strand is called the core. The core provides the pathway for light to travel and core is enclosed by a layer of
glass known as cladding that... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fusion splicing needs a constant power supply and some special tools. 3. There are some situations where fusion splicing is not practical or can said
it is impossible. Therefor an alternative we have to use mechanical splicing. 4. It is a time–consuming process and It can't be used for temporary
connections. 5. The fusion splicers need periodic maintenance which involves regular cleaning, occasional replacement and electrode alignment.
6.Fusion splicing is mainly used with single mode fiber unlike mechanical splicing which works for single mode fiber as well as multi–mode fiber.
Apparatus required Fusion Splicer A fiber optic fusion splicer is a device that uses an electric arc to melt two optical fibers together at their end
faces, to form a one long fiber. The resulting joint, or fusion splice, permanently joins the two glass fibers end to end. Therefore, optical light signals
will transmit from one fiber into the other with very little loss. Fiber Cleaver Fiber cleaver that scribes and breaks (cleaves) the fibers to be spliced
exactly, because the quality of the splice will depend on the quality of the cleave. Most splicing machines associate with a recommended cleaver. Fiber

Network Networks : Fiber Optic Networks
Just like most other types of technology, cabling and communication are advancing faster than ever before. One of the most promising advances in
this area is fiber optic cabling. Fiber optic refers to the technology and the medium associated with the transfer of information as light impulses along
a plastic or glass fiber. With the demand for faster communication and network speeds fiber optic is quickly becoming the leading choice in most
developed countries. Fiber optic wire is capable of carrying much more information than a conventional copper wire can and electromagnetic
interference is much less of an issue with fiber. One single glass fiber can carry the equivalent of one–hundred television channels or one hundred
thousand phone... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The people who thought that audio, video, and other forms of data could be transmitted by light through cables, were scientists that came much later.
Modern day Fiber optics was developed by Bell labs and Corning in the late 1960s. The glass fibers used in more modern day fiber–optic systems are
based on ultrapure fused silica. Fiber that is made from ordinary glass is so dirty that impurities reduce signal intensity by a factor of one million in
only about 16 ft of fiber cable. These impurities need to be removed before useful long–haul fibers can be made. Most of these advances occurred in
the late 20th century and by 1977 glass–purifying and other fiber–optic manufacturing techniques had also come a very long way. But even perfect and
pure glass is not completely transparent. It weakens light in two different ways. One, which occurs at shorter distances is a scattering caused by
unavoidable density changes throughout the fiber. In other words, when the light changes mediums, the resulting change in density causes interference.
The other is a longer wavelength absorption by atomic vibrations. Even with these two small disadvantages, fiber Fiber–optic technology has been
taken advantage of in many areas. Many intercity routes were in operation by 1985, and a handful of transoceanic routes had been set up by 1990. In
the mid–90 's, worldwide connections were possible through the Internet. Fiber optics have very quickly become the

Fiber Sensors For Bio Sensing
Fiber–optic Sensors for Bio–sensing: Fiber Optic Sensor for bio–sensing is a device that is used for the detection of the analyte. This analyte has a
function to join physicochemical detectors and the components that are biological. A sensitive biological element includes cell receptors, organelles,
enzymes, tissues, antibodies, microorganisms and nucleic acids. This element that is sensitive biological is a kind of bio–mimetic or a biological
material which binds with the analyte during the study. There is another way to create biological sensitive elements and that is biological engineering
through which the biologically sensitive elements can be created. When biological element and other signal interact with each other it produces
another signal which is called transducer. These transducers can easily quantify and even these transducers can also easily measure. This device is
Fiber Optic Sensor for bio–sensing reader interacts with the signal processors or it associates with electronics which gives the result in a way that is
user–friendly and the user can easily read it on the display. Sometimes this is the most costly device in the device of Fiber Optic Sensor for
bio–sensing. There is another possibility that this can give display which is user–friendly and which contains the sensitive element and the transducers.
These readers are normally designed in a way that is customized and they are very suitable for the unlike Fiber Optic Sensor for bio–sensing working

Fiber Optic Communication Systems And Introduction
пЂ
Fiber Optic Communication Systems and Introduction to SONET/SDH (December 2014) Pravalika Nagulapally, (012600326)
Abstract– This paper explains about the Evolution of fiber optic networks in Communications. It describes in detail about the Optics communication
model and also detailed MATLAB work on calculating the parameters that are required to setup a optical link. It also emphasizes on different bands
employed in Communication systems. The section three of the paper describes briefly regarding Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) and
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH). The SONET networks topology and their hierarchy is also described in this paper. The data rates of Sonet/Sdh
and the optical market highlights are described at ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fiber optic communications systems are light wave systems that employ optical fibers for information transmission.
Fig. BL vs Year
A commonly used figure of merit for communication systems is the bit rate distance product. (BL), where B is the bit rate and L is the repeater
spacing. Figure shows that the BL product has increased with technical advances.
II.OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Modernfiber–optic communication systems generally include an optical transmitter to convert an
electrical signal into an optical signal to send into the optical fiber, a cable containing bundles of multiple optical fibers that is routed through
underground conduits and buildings, multiple kinds of amplifiers, and an optical receiver to recover the signal as an electrical signal. The information
transmitted is typically digital information generated by computers, telephone systems, and cable television companies.
Figure shows a generic block diagram of an optical communication system. It consists of a transmitter, a communication channel and a receiver. Optical
communication systems can be classified into two broad categories.
Fig:Optical Communication System
Guided: Guided lightwave systems: The optical emitted by the light source remains confined.
Unguided: The optical beam emitted spreads out in space.
A.Transmitters:
The most commonly used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such as light–emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes. The difference

Digital Technology Case Study
CAREER GOAL: To contribute the knowledge of Trending Technology in Protection and Control systems of Power Substations with electric utilities
by designing and implementing a more reliable digital Automation scheme to overcome the existing Analog relays in our substations and Line bays in
the Grid system. In other to achieve a maximum Protection and Control of HV Transmission lines and Power Substations after Power and Control
Cables laying and Terminations and Interfacing of the Control and the Protection panels to the outdoor switchyard equipment through the marshalling
Kiosk or Junction Boxes, the following processes have to be in place also for an effective system Viz: Configuration of the Relays, Configuration of
the BCU's,... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
BACKGROUND: The power system, built on century–old technology and approaches, was designed to deliver electricity from large, remote power
plants across significant distances to the cities and towns where electricity is used. For that reason, there is great need for an effective Protection and
Control of the System to complete the chain of Generation, Transmission and Distribution to the users. FIG 1:1 ELEMENTS OF POWER SYSTEM
INTERCONNECT MODULE METHODOLOGY: We shall use the devices; PCS
–9881 and PCS–9882 Ethernet switch, RCS–9698G/H
Communication Gateway, RCS–9700 automation system, RCS–9785 GPS Synchronization Clock and RCS–9794A/B Protocol Converter and the
Automation Architecture module to achieve the maximum Protection and Control of he Substation and the 2x132kV HV Transmission lines from the
Bay extension to the Substation. PCS–9881 and PCS–9882 Ethernet switch PCS–9881 and PCS–9882 Ethernet switch is intended for interconnection
of 10/100/1000M adaptive Ethernet devices using twisted wire/Fiber optical connection in substation automation system. It adopts industrial level
components and chips to ensure the reliable and high–speed data exchange, which makes it a compensation of insufficient application of commercial
switch in a substation automation system. PCS–9881 and PCS–9882 are fully compatible with IEC 61850 and GOOSE communication in a digital
substation automation system with distributed

Advanced Technology Technologies : Technical Report
Advanced Networking Technologies Technical Report Optical Fiber Networks Abstract: Introduction: http://www.fiber
–optics.info/history In 1870, a
person called John Tyndall demonstrated and experiment in which the water from one container flows to the another container where the water is on
top container flows into the container which is at the bottom, then john projected a light beam on to the top container, he observed that the light
followed a "zigzag" path in the curved water flow. Form that experiment he realized that light can also be transmitted. This is the first discovery of light
transmitting in a path. Figure 1– John Tyndall's Experiment Then after in 1880, William Wheeling called this light transmission as "piping light" and
patented it. But the idea failed because of using the mirrored pipes through plumbing. Then Alexander Graham Bell developed a photo phone which is
an optical voice transmission system. Free space light is used to transmit the human voice up to 200meters. Mirrors are placed on to the diaphragm
towards the mouth piece of the photo phone. And the parabolic reflector is placed at the other end with a light sensitive resistor. As a person spokes
into the photo phone, creates a vibration in diaphragm with the different intensities of light onto the selenium resistor. The intensity of light passed
through the telephone receiver converts light back into speech. Bell believed that this discovery is better for telephone because it does not require

Application Of Free Space Optics
Introduction
Free Space Optics is an advance technology used to transmit data from one point to another using light a medium. This technology has emerged in
1960's and has been advanced day by day. This has become the advanced and mostly used because of the data rates and the bandwidths provided by this
type of communication. This is now mostly used for connecting different LANs and also used in satellite communication. There are many wireless
technologies like Bluetooth, infrared and many others but this technology has the capability of replacing all those technologies. This FSO
communication is mostly used because of its security reasons.
Fiber optical link communication has been the best kind of transmission in this era however this FSO communication additionally supplanted this fiber
optic communication in numerous territories. As this is a remote innovation, it has the favorable circumstances when contrasted with wired advances.
As we have an advancement of innovations like RF Wireless transmission over the wireless transmissions, electrical sign transmission over copper and
coaxial links, light transmission over optical fiber links and now this Free Space Optics technology has advanced. This optical system has the capacity
of convey the voice, feature and information over light flags. As the technology included in optical fiber is comparative yet in that kind of
communication, optical strands are utilized and the methodology of Total Internal Reflection (TIR) is

Fiber Optic Technology Essay
From the beginning, efficiency and speed in the telecommunications industry has advanced at a fast pace owing to fiber optic technology. In 1979,
AT&T filled the telecommunications industry with revolutionary ideas by developing a mode for data transmission using a light, called fiber optic
cable. This mode produced a bandwidth of 44.736 Mbps and could multiplex 672 trunk circuits on one fiber alone (Cole, M. 2000). However, this
development was merely the start of a huge extension to telecommunications, something that would transform the industry constantly.
Although AT&T brought in fiber optic technology in 1979, they weren't the first company to think of such a creative idea. The conception of
interchanging data by making use of light ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The laser was small in size than a grain of sand, but the application of fiber optics in telephony was made possible. In 1987, an additional
accomplishment in the fiber optics industry was fulfilled; this accomplishment was the erbium–doped fiber amplifier, which admitted numerous
channels of light to coexist on a single circuit. This fiber amplifier rendered sufficient channels for single fiber cable to manage 80 million telephone
calls at the same time (Greatest Achievements, 2000).
Nowadays, fiber optic technology carries data by distributing light pulses along slim strands of plastic or glass fiber by means of a laser or light
emitting diode (LED). Strands of fiber are comprised of three major components: the core, cladding, and buffer coating. The contained by part of the
fiber is called the core. A fiber's core is the pathway where the light passes through. Encompassing the core is optical matter called cladding. Cladding
recurrently reflects light pulses stimulating the pulses to pass through easily by way of the fiber core. The buffer coating functions as a covering for
the cladding and the core by shielding it from external elements, for example, moisture (Fotec, 1996).
The glass fibers that constitute the core of the fiber strands employed in contemporary fiber optic systems are generally established on pure sand. Fiber
created from regular glass utilized in windows is polluted that impurities

Fiber Optical Probes Of Fiber Sensors
FIBER OPTIC SENSORS
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a brief introduction on the basics and applications in fiber optic sensors. This innovation is one of the quickest
developing advances in the cutting edge science. Various investigates have been directed in past decades utilizing fiber optic sensors with diverse
strategies. Power, stage, and wavelength based fiber optic sensors are the most generally utilized sensor sorts. In this paper, a review of fiber optic
sensors and their applications are exhibited. Different sorts of fiber optic sensors and their applications are discussed.
INTRODUCTION: The aim of this paper is to review the most significant developments and applications of fiber–optical probes for. Late advances in
fiber ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fiber optic sensor engineering has been a critical client of innovation related with the optoelectronic and fiber optic correspondence industry. A
considerable lot of the parts connected with these sorts of businesses were created for fiber optic sensor applications. Fiber optic sensors are great for
checking natural changes and they have numerous favorable circumstances.
OPTICAL FIBER BASICS:
Optical fiber consists of three parts named the core, he cladding and the coating or buffer. The basic structure is shown in figure–1. The center is a
round and hollow pole of dielectric material and is made of glass. Light will proliferate through center of the fiber. The cladding is made of
dielectric material with a file of refraction and is made of glass or plastic. The file of refraction of the cladding material is short of what that of the
center material. The covering or cushion is a layer of material used to secure an optical fiber from physical harm and is made of plastic. The covering
is versatile and averts scraped spots.
Fig–1 Basic structure of optical fiber
Optical strands are partitioned into two gatherings named as single mode and multimode. For arrangement of list of refraction, we separate between
step record and inclination file. Step record strands have a consistent list profile over the entire cross segment. Slope file filaments have a nonlinear,
rotationally symmetric record profile, which tumbles off from the focal point of the fiber

Nt1310 Essay example
Define the following terms:
1. Horizontal Cable : A type of inside cable designed for horizontal use in non–plenum areas. While horizontal cable must be fire retardant, the National
Electrical Code (NEC) specifications are not as demanding as those governing the use of plenum cable or riser cable. See also NEC, plenum, plenum
cable, and riser cable.
2. Backbone Cable : Backbone cabling is the inter–building and intra–building cable connections in structured cabling between entrance facilities,
equipment rooms and telecommunications closets. Backbone cabling consists of the transmission media, main and intermediate cross–connects and
terminations at these locations. This system is mostly used in data centers.
3. Patch ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
9. Crimpers: A tool used to crimp, to join two pieces of metal
10. Fish Tape : a flat tempered spring–steel tape or wire used in pulling electric wire and cables (as into conduit runs) –called also snake wire
11. Continuity Tester: is an item of electrical test equipment used to determine if an electrical path can be established between two points;[1] that is if
an electrical circuit can be made. The circuit under test is completely de–energized prior to connecting the apparatus
12. Category 5e/6 Cable : cabling is used as a cabling infrastructure for 10BASE–T (Ethernet), full duplex 100BASE–TX (Fast Ethernet) and
1000BASE–T (Gigabit Ethernet, or GbE) networks. The Cat 5e standard provides performance of up to 100 MHz and can be used up to a maximum
length of 100 meters.
13. Binder Groups: A group of wire pairs bound together, usually by some sort of color–coded plastic tape or thread. In a large twisted pair cable, there
may be many pairs combined into binder groups of 25 pairs for ease of connectivity management. Each pair within a binder group is uniquely
color–coded for further ease of management. See also cable and wire.
14. Hybrid/Composite Cable : composite cable A communications cable having both optical and metallic signal–carrying components. Note 1: A cable

having optical fiber(s) and a metallic component, e.g., a metallic

Abstract 2d Photonic Crystal ( Pc ) Based Power Splitter
Abstract–2D photonic crystal (PC) based power splitter with 60В° bend corners is designed and analyzed. The splitting efficiency at its bends has been
improved by encapsulating rectangular defect, thereby increasing the power transmission of about 98.1%. A simple antiresonant reflecting optical
waveguide (ARROW–B) is a polarization insensitive wave guiding, which utilizes antiresonance reflection and provides better coupling when
compared with conventional wave guiding. We performed three–dimensional finite–difference time–domain (3–D FDTD) simulation to calculate the
power transmission of Y–splitter with ARROW–B which is about 93.3%. The PC thus designed can provides good sharp–bend ability and power–split
ability.
Index Terms–Power ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Light propagation in photonic crystal waveguide (PCW) is possible in terms of artificially induced defect region [3], However, by incorporating
defects in the waveguide, certain wavelengths belong to the band gap can propagate strictly within the defects. The defects can be in the form of line
defects to achieve photonic crystal waveguides or point defects producing optical cavities. We have presented an efficient power splitter, which divides
the propagating optical power equally between the two branching line defects.
Whereas, an important crisis in power splitter is that how light get efficiently transmitted via the bend corners. For that various methods have been
proposed i. Providing row of pores with smaller diameter ii. Coupled cavity design and iii. Three pore–rows wide defect [2]. Although these techniques
can significantly increase the splitting efficiency, complicated time–consuming computation is needed, consequently an alternate method is proposed
to improve the power split ability by incorporating rectangular capsule shaped defect at its bends [4]. These defects with higher refractive index
contrast provide better reflection as compared to that of other methods mentioned. Besides the main source of propagation losses in 2D PCW has been
believed to be the guided modes position above the light line, since modes above the light line can easily

Theoretical Calculation And Results Analysis Essay
3.2 Theoretical calculation and results analysis
Firstly, we established a trench–assisted optical fiber model to verify the ability of the trench structure to reduce the bending loss. The specific
parameters of the model are listed below: the radius of fiber a is 4.1Ојm, the thickness of inner clad b is 4.13Ојm, the trench width c is 11.3Ојm, the
difference of trench refractive index в€†n_trench is–0.0048, the refractive index of fiber core nco is 1.45, the refractive index of clad ncl is 1.445, the
curvature radius of fiber is 5cm, the wavelength is 1550nm.
Putting above values in the given formula: О±_macro=10/lnвЃЎ10 ((ПЂV^8)/(16ПЃR_c W^3 ))^(1/2) expвЃЎ(–(4R_c в€†W^3)/(3П
ЃV^2 ))
[в€«_0^в€
ћв–’гЂ–(1–f) F_0 RDRгЂ—]^2/(в€«_0^в€
ћв–’гЂ–F_0^2 RdRгЂ— )
Where
V=k_0 ПЃв€
љ(n_max^2–n_min^2 ),
W=ПЃв€
љ(ОІ^2–(k_0 n_min )^2 ),
в€†=(n_max^2
–n_min^2)/(2n_co^2 ), f=(n(r)^2–n_min^2)/(n_max^2–n_min^2 )
The results of calculation are showed below:
Bending loss of the fiber О±=0.0092dB/loop, the equivalent step index fiber cladding refractive index n_e=1.4444, bending loss of it О±_e=0.0829dB
/loop.
This example shows that in the same transmission condition, the auxiliary trench structure can greatly reduce the bending loss of the optical fiber. After
calculating bend loss optical fiber trench assisted by an equivalent step fiber method, we will discuss the impact of parameters of each trench structure
on the optical fiber transmission performance in detail.
The model we studied has been showed in figure 14, and the default

High Speed Data Transmission Of Multi Mode Fibers Using...
High Speed Data Transmission of Multi–mode fibers using Orbital Angular Momentum
Abstract:
The design and fabrication of an optical fiber to support OAM modes for high speed data transmission. Generally OAM modes carry different charge
and phase change, so the fiber has to be designed and fabricated in such a way that fiber support different OAM modes A compact low crosstalk multi
ring fiber transmitting multiple orbital angular momentum is presented.Multi ring fiber consists of 7 rings each supporting 22 modes with 18 OAM
modes which can be used for high density space division multiplexing. The multi ring structure has a tight light confinement and has a large refractive
index difference between OAM modes, thus having a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
OAM carrying light beams have azimuthal phase dependence given by exp (ilЙё),'l' denotes the topological charge or the number of 2ПЂ phase
jumps. The sign of l represents the clockwise or counter–clockwise rotation of the wave front OAM beams can be used as information carriers for
spatial mode division multiplexing because of their different charge numbers so that the OAM beams are orthogonal to each other. Hence OAM beams
can be used as information carriers for multiplexing techniques providing high capacity than the existing multiplexing techniques. Rapid and
exponential increases in data communications are continuing to drive the complexity of our computing, networking and sensing systems. Recently
OAM has gained much interest in transmission efficiency and spectral efficiency in optical fiber communications with the ability of carrying
independent data streams on orthogonal spatial modes. The key factor in the optical fiber communications using OAM is to design and fabrication of
the fiber so as to support the the different modes of OAM.while the free space systems can theoretically use an unlimited number of OAM modes.
However achieving the full potential of OAM multiplexing requires an efficient and rotation invariant multiplexer and demultiplexer which can be
interfaced with single–mode optical components. Fiber based OAM generation and

Essay On Fiber Communication System
There are certain inherent flaws with the optical transmission system like inter–symbol interference and noise. This distortion is introduced by the
narrow bandwidth and some distortions due to the media through the optical signals travel. The linear transversal filter is used to reduce symbol
interference. The system designed to remove unknown distortion is called an adaptive equalizer. The corrective measure is to identify the distortion
and adjust accordingly with the objective to remove it. The equalizer can be the supervised or unsupervised type. In the TV or radio Transmission,
blind equalizers are used. The literature survey of analysis of mean square error and space division multiplexing technique and other system removing
the ISI... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The equalizer converges to higher MSE. The noise PSD directed method iterated over 3000 km transmission on all six modes and it tends to
convergence at same MSE to get the standard –10 dB normalized MSE (NMSE).The noise PSD directed algorithms require 47 blocks and the
conventional algorithm needs 48 blocks [6]. Sean OВЁArД±k et.al have proposed Long–haul mode–division multiplexing (MDM) for adaptive
multi–input–multi–output (MIMO) equalization to reduce for modal crosstalk and modal dispersion. To minimize computational complexity, use
MIMO frequency–domain equalization (FDE).Polarization division multiplexing (PDM) system use single mode fiber but its transmission effected by
noise, fiber nonlinearity and dispersion. In multi–mode fiber (MMF) with multi–input–multi–output (MIMO) transmission Increasing per–fiber capacity
can be achieved more readily by increasing spatial dimensionality the total number of dimensions available for multiplexing, including spatial and
polarization degrees of freedom denoted by D. In first case two polarization modes of single mode fiber using D=2. This is made possible by
equalization techniques goes on going up with the upward drift of D and higher group delay. In second case systems using modedivision
multiplexing (MDM) in MMFs (D>2) receiver, computational complexity increases because of an increase in D and because of the large group delay
(GD) spread

Fiber Optics
Fiber optics is a cable that is quickly replacing out–dated copper wires. Fiber optics is based on a concept known as total internal reflection. It can
transmit video, sound, or data in either analog or digital form . Compared to copper wires it can transmit thousands of times more data (slide 2) .
Some of its general uses are telecommunications, computing, and medicine. The very first "fiber" was made in 1870 by the British
physicist John Tyndal. In this experiment that he showed to the Royal Society he placed a powerful waterproof lamp inside a tank of water, which
had closed pipes coming out the sides. When he opened up the pipes so water could flow, to the amazement of the crowd, the light totally internally
reflected inside... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If you want a short–range network without monstrous bandwidth needs, you can save money and get the multimode. On the other hand, if you
want a large network with a large bandwidth, you will need to fork out the money for the singlemode. Fiber optic cable is constructed
with an industry standard with respect to that the cladding on all cable, whether single or multimode, must be 125 mm. (slide 8) This is done so
the same tools can be used for both types of cables. Fiber cables are also bunched, much like their copper counterparts are. Individual cables are called
simplex, double cables are called duplex, and four cables wrapped together are quadplex. Wires with more than four cables are also available. Some of
the possible ones are groups of twelve, thirty–six, and forty–eight. Another important aspect of fiber optics is attenuation, which is decrease
in power from one point to another. (Slide 9) Attenuation is measured in dB/km and a 3.0 dB/km loss corresponds to about a 50% loss in 1 km.
One of the major advantages of fiber over copper is lower attenuation. Copper wires need repeaters about every three miles, but fiber can go without a
repeater for sixty miles. There are two types of attenuation: intrinsic and extrinsic. One of the two types of intrinsic attenuation is scattering,
which makes up about 96% of the intrinsic. This is caused by Rayleigh scattering in which light rays collide with atoms in the cable and

Optical Communication : A Form Of Telecommunication System
Optical communication is a form of telecommunication system in which light is used as the mode of transmission. An optical communication system
consists of transmitter, receiver and channel. The transmitter basically works as an encoder, it encodes the message as an optical signal, the channel
helps the signal to propagate and the receiver will work to decode the optical signal and get the message. [1]
If we roll back early we will find that people used different types of body languages and sign languages which can be termed as non–technological
optical communication. Whereas technological optical communication has examples like flags, smoke signal, line, beacon fire. The Heliograph
technology is used to send signal codes with the help of mirror and sunlight. If the mirror is moved, the reflected sunlight also changes its direction.
Thus the receiver becomes aware of the signal. This technology is used in Morse codes used by the Navy ships.[2] Mariners prefer flares if there is
an emergency where the use of lighthouses and navigation lights is also common in case of navigational hazards. To ensure safety aircrafts use
landing lights when they land. To communicate with the planes which have critical problems like radio failure, the airport control tower uses Aldis
lamp. In modern days free space optical communication has a vast range of applications and uses.
1.2 Types of Optical Communication
There are two types of optical communication. They are,
Optical fiber

Applications For Restorative Applications Are Single...
INTRODUCTION:
OFS for restorative applications are single–point, measuring vital parameters, for example, pressure or temperature. In all OFS applications, the
optical fiber is a thin glass fiber that is generally secured mechanically with a polymer covering (or even a metal covering in compelling cases) and
regularly embedded in a link intended to be suitable for focused applications. Optical Fibers are immune to electromagnetic interference , nontoxic ,
chemically inert and internally safe .
ADVANTAGES:
Fiber optics overcome various drawbacks caused by the electrical devices in estimating the physical and the chemical parameters. [1]
Geometrical adaptability : For example, miniaturization , adaptability, and delicacy, which permit simple insertion in catheters and needles, and
henceforth exceptionally limited estimations inside blood and tissues;
Suitable material : glass or plastic, which is study, non–poisonous and biocompatible, and can be utilized for consistent estimations;
Inborn security for the patient: guaranteed by optical fiber di–electricity and by the low light power utilized for detecting purpose. SENSORS IN
BIOMEDICAL FIELD:
Sensors are the instruments that detect the biological, physical and chemical processes and report this data. Human body is a different combinations of
muscles, organs, bones and joints. Each part undergoes various dynamic changes in pressure or temperature due to physiological changes during
illness. Various sensors have

Optical Fiber Sensors Essay
Optical fiber sensors are very important devices to detect and monitor ionizing radiation in nuclear based technologies such as industrial radiography,
nuclear medicine, spacecraft and satellite instrumentation, and also in nuclear power facilities. Reliability of other conventional radiation detectors in
space and terrestrial application is much affected by electromagnetic interference and exposure to fire and explosion potential hazards. However the
functionality of optical fiber at extremely high dose radiation still a challenge where radiation induced attenuation can be increased for permanent
damage of the sensor. There is a need to develop a new sensing material with small dimension and low mass such as single mode silica optical... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2013). There is a need to replace 3H–based sensor to detect neutron in context of nuclear nonproliferation(Runkle 2011) and silica optical fiber with
better resistant to radiation damage (Xue et al. 2012) is the other very close a safe cheaper possible neutron sensor to be considered. In addition, its
other characteristic of having low attenuation losses provides a wide bandwidth for long–distance wireless communication so that the exposure of
radiation to workers can be avoided during radiation detection and monitoring operation.
Ionizing radiation such as x–ray, gamma, alpha, beta and neutron radiations, are not only harmful to human health(Azzam et al. 2012) and
environment(Mothersill&Seymour 2014), but also can damage the electronic devices(Wang et al. 2014). The source of these ionizing radiations are
from radioactive materials, x–ray tubes, particle accelerators such as ion beams, nuclear weapons and reactors, cosmic rays from space and from
natural rocks and minerals. Exposure of extremely high energy electromagnetic radiation such as x–ray can lead to failure in silicon sensors(Klanner et
al. 2013). The increasing radiation induced attenuation can lead to permanent damage of optical fiber(KovaДЌeviД‡ et al. 2013). So there is a need to
develop better sensors with good radiation resistance such as Ge doped optical fiber sensors in radiant environment.
SiO2 and plastic type optical fiber are two types of material used in any research and development of

Essay on Optical Fiber Corp Case Analysis
Case Analysis:
Optical Fiber Corporation
Introduction
Optical Fiber Corporation (OFC) is a financially successful, albeit relatively small manufacturer of multimode optical fibers. The company was
founded in 1990. The founders were able to enter the market largely on the basis of acquiring patent licenses from larger optical fiber firms. These
licenses restricted competition between the entities and provided OFC with instant access to optical fiber technology. In return, OFC's customer base
is limited by the license agreements and royalties of 7% on sales of licensed products (recently renegotiated to 9%) are paid to the licensors. Despite
these handicaps the firm has grown in size and profitability. OFC makes several types ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
New firms entering the market will be free to produce the products once protected under those patents without having incurred any R and D costs.
These firms will also be free from royalty payments to licensors or any restrictive covenants such as those under which OFC operates.
The industry in general, and OFC in particular, must contend with the purchasing power of its buyers. Optical fiber is converted into optical fiber cable.
In the United States there are twenty companies that perform this function. OFC sells over 70% of their fiber to just three. The loss of any of these
accounts could be devastating for OFC and places them in a weak position when negotiating prices, at least when the products are those which are
readily available from other multimode fiber producers. It is doubtful that switching costs would be high for buyers. Favoring OFC and the optical
fiber market are the projections for increased demand for multimode optical fibers at least through the mid 2000's. Sources of increased demand for
multimode fiber are anticipated to include: cable TV, undersea cables, local area networks (LAN) as well as general data communications growth such
as computer uses.
As noted the single mode optical fiber market is much larger than the multimode market. It too, is expected to see significant growth over the next
several years. Single mode fibers

The Importance Of Optical Communication
Design of Non optical Carrier Single Sideband and wavelength reused DWDM passive optical network with Wired/Wireless Services Incorporating
OFDM
Abstract– In this work, an integrated passive optical network and free space optical communication system based on no–carrier single sideband
modulation is proposed. Optical orthogonal frequency multiplexing is employed with dense wavelength division multiplexing to support 16 channels
over 300 km bidirectional single mode fiber to enhance spectral efficiency and reduce inter–symbol interference. Moreover, wavelength reuse is also
realized to design cost effective optical network units. Results revealed that the proposed framework successfully accomplished the 300 km
symmetrical distance and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Literature of OFDM system provides us that there are significantly three kinds of the OFDM such as direct detection, coherent detection and
heterodyne detection. However, all the aforementioned types can be used in the systems based on the specifications or user demands [7]. To
understand the cost effective system, direct detection and heterodyne reception are ideal beneficiaries [8]. In any case, regardless the utilization of
single photo–detector in reception of OFDM signals and offers the cost effective modulation, it experiences short separation transmissions [9]. Due to
phase matching at the receiver, CO–OFDM is considered as the unmistakable and potential contender for long separation transmissions [10]. Till now,
different methodologies are exhibited to create a dependable OFDM signals incorporating double side band and single side band modulation [11].
Disadvantage in the former modulation such as double side band (DSB) modulation, is the bandwidth inefficiency and limiting effects of power
fading because of dispersion effects [12]. Unexpectedly, single sideband balance offers more noteworthy insusceptibility or resistance to scattering
impacts and procures less data transmission in the optical fiber [13]. Also, it is studied that the optical carrier to signal power ratio (CSPR) is vital
parameter in the frameworks that utilized the single side band adjustment in OFDM. Nonlinearities are because of high power, in the fiber,

A Description Of The Biology Of Bone
4
Chapter 2
Background
2.1 Introduction
Chapter 2 will describe the essential background information needed to understand this
thesis project. A description of the biology of bone will be provided first and its focus
will be limited to femurs and tibiae, since those are the structures we have used
throughout this project. As well, we will briefly describe the analysis techniques that are
currently used to evaluate bones. Furthermore the theory behind the used technique and
instrumentation will be addressed. Previous bone studies using transcutaneous in vivo
Raman spectroscopy will also be described, as well as the differences between them and
the present thesis project.
2.2 Bone Structure and Composition
Bones ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
12 Both the cortical and

trabecular structures provide ions like calcium phosphate, phosphorous, sodium and
magnesium that are basic to maintain the homeostasis of the bone.
Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of bone. Cotical bone is made of osteons (10–500 Вµm). Osteons are composed of concentric lamella (3–7 Вµm) and a
Haversian cannal. A lamella is composed of mineralized collagen fibers, which are made up of collagen fibrils (0.5 Вµm each). A fibril is made up of
collagen molecules and apatite nano–crystals.11
The three major components of bone tissues are: type I collagen, water and dahllite
crystals. 13 Dahllites are plate–shaped carbonated apatite crystals, which have "small but
significant amounts of impurities such as HPO4, Na, Mg, citrate, carbonate, K". 14,15 The
apatite crystal lattice is then responsible for the degree of mineralization in bone tissue.
Type I collagen is the primary matrix component and its molecules are secreted by
Cortical bone
Osteons
Haversian canal
Concentric lamella
Mineralized collagen fibrils
Collagen molecule
Apatite nanocrystals 6osteoblasts, these molecules will then arrange into collagen fibrils and subsequently to
collagen fibers, which are the basis to lamellae.

Type I collagen despite being the primary protein is not the only one present in
bone tissue, which also contains non–collagenous proteins.

Multiplexing Optical Oam Modes Of A Ring Fiber
Multiplexing optical Oam modes in a Ring Fiber The Multiplexing OAM modes in a ring fiber are conceptually, LP Modes of higher order are
composed of two fiber Engine Modes with different propagation constants. These two Modes Departs (Walk off) while propagating along the fiber,
resulting in a highly Distorted Mode profile at the Detection End. In Contrast, when we combine two fiber engine modes properly the OAM Modes
Can be Obtained. Compared with LP modes, OAM modes can better maintain the mode profile after propagating through a certain length of fiber due
to the reason, these two fiber Engine Modes have the same propagation Constant, they will not undergo any intrinsic mode Walk off. Redundant
Radially higher order modes can easily be excited in Multi–Mode step Index fiber, thus raising a strict restriction to the mode coupling. Changes in
Launching Condition like mode Spot size or deviation from the center, Variation of angle, can excite higher order modes in radial direction, resulting in
serious cross–talk. On the Contrary, a properly designed high–index single–ring fiber can support only the radially fundamental modes. It leads to the
potential Reduction of the crosstalk induced during mode excitement. To multiplex multiple OAM modes simultaneously, the number of the Eigen
modes supported by the fiber should be increased by increasing either the core radius or the refractive index difference between the core and cladding.
In this Theory, one dimensional mode

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