The Public Sphere By Jurgen Habermas Essay

The Public Sphere By Jurgen Habermas Essay
In 1962, Jurgen Habermas published his theory of the public sphere as a way to ensure a functioning
democratic society. His theory operates under the assumption that it is possible for people to engage
in discourse while bracketing status differentials and to deliberate as if they were social equals.
However, Habermas' idea of the public sphere was greatly rooted in the history of bourgeois society
specifically. Thus, the assumption that all citizens would have equal access to engage in discourse in
the public sphere today is unlikely. In North America now, the population size is larger, the diverse
interests have grown and the political and social powers have more influence over each other than
ever before. Beginning with a discussion of Habermas' work, The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia
Article, and Nancy Fraser's, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of
Actually Existing Democracy", I shall use examples from feminist, indigenous and environmental
movements in North America to illustrate the problems with Habermas' assumption. This essay
argues that no single individual can temporarily ignore their gender, history or private interests when
deliberating in the bourgeois public sphere making it impossible for individuals to engage in public
discussions as if they were social equals.
First, it is necessary to define what a bourgeois public sphere is. When I mention public sphere
throughout this essay I am referring to Habermas' definition. Habermas
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The Human Condition By Hannah Arendt
Hannah Arendt's most influential work The Human Condition was published in 1958. It makes
distinctions between labor, work and action, between power, violence and strength and between
property and wealth. It is surprising that more than 55 years later the originality and novelty of this
book is still present. Arendt compels the reader to open their eyes and to look at the world and
human affairs in new ways and with a completely different perspective. In her prologue she
professes that she wants us to do "nothing more than to think what we are doing." The Human
Condition is associated with Arendt's work on totalitarianism. The Human Condition and her work
on totalitarianism work together to highlight the contemporary human predicament. Arendt's interest
in human affairs was due to her encounter with Nazis which led to her interest and participation in
political activities. Hannah Arendt developed her philosophy of education during her time in the
United States. Her philosophy is shaped by the political turmoil that played out in public schools at
that time. Arendt was influenced by many philosophers. "One sees Jasper's influence in The Human
Condition in which Arendt developed this idea of action: public, political behavior based on
communication" (Snelgrove, 4). Hannah Arendt was struck by Cal Marx's picture of individuality
which was devoted to production and consumption. For Arendt this is a revealing representation of
modern society in which economic concerns have come

Essay on Influence and Contribution of BuzzFeed in the...
During the digital age, the internet becomes more and more popular. Conversely, the circulation and
the advertising revenues of newspapers are vanishing duo to the emergence of internet and audience
migration. When most of the news organizations are struggling in digital age, there is a new form of
news media growing up on the web that is BuzzFeed. This essay will firstly point out the analysis of
this news source and then discuss the influence and contribution of BuzzFeed in the public sphere.
BuzzFeed is a rapidly growing social news and entertaining website, which founded in 2006 by
Jonah Peretti (BuzzFeed, n.d.). The majority of audiences are about 20 to 30 year old and also large
portion of readers are in 30s to 40s (Moore, 2013). In ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For substantive content, BuzzFeed offer in–depth coverage in some issues (BuzzFeed, n.d.). In other
words, the hard news which is similar to the traditional news coverage is covered in BuzzFeed.
Unlike other traditional media companies' revenue model, BuzzFeed provides advertorial or social
advertising, but not banner ads. Advertorial is advertising which format is similar to editorial
(Moore, 2013). BuzzFeed creative team will work with the advertisers to make advertising sharable
and attract the readers' attention to read through the ads rather than skim through the ads (Moore,
2013). As matter of fact, Peretti (as cited in Hagey, 2012) makes sure that BuzzFeed refuses
traditional banner ads and he believes advertorial is better form of advertising because readers a
more willing to pay attention on this rather than the banner ads. Furthermore, readers may even
share the ads on the internet to even broader audience. Indeed, about 40% additional advertising
views were gotten from the sharing because people are more interest in what friends recommended
to them (Hagey, 2012). It is also the principle why stories in BuzzFeed can spread out as fast as
'viral'. In 2013, almost all of the revenues of BuzzFeed are generated by social advertising (Moore,
2013) and according to Peretti (2013), BuzzFeed is now making profit thought the investment has
not been recovered.
As a result, as mentioned above, it showed that BuzzFeed is a successful new media

Could The Internet Be The Public Sphere
From the variety of hot topics that are covered by news, we can see that influence of the public
opinion from the Internet cannot not be underestimated, but the scholars have a different view
against 'Could the Internet be the public sphere'. In this essay, commenting function in Yahoo News
articles will be used to evaluate its performance of opinions expressions with Habermas' normative
standard for public sphere, and to discuss the limitation of Habermas' deliberative approach of the
public sphere within the Internet. In Yahoo News , there is a function for users commenting on news
articles. At the bottom of every news article page, users can use the form to comment on the news,
and read other users' comment of the thread, and interact ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
However, these discussions mostly are limited within a bunch of users, who read articles from
Yahoo page, forming an isolated deliberative group, this strengthen the fragmentation and
polarization of the opinions. (Sunstein, 2001, p. 65), to some extend, this also tells why rational
deliberation cannot fully promise the democracy on the Internet. Rasmussen (2008,p.9) also pointed
out that, debate often need to share moral values, but it is hard in an increasingly differentiate
Internet world. Internet users from around the world have different cultural backgrounds and values,
it is difficult to adhere a set of standardized requirements and propose a single solution for the same
problem. In summary , we can find Habermas's deliberative mode does not apply to multi– value
society or virtual network space, as it put too much emphasis on communicative rationality and
consensus. Take the view from the actual operation of the network, due to site ownership, network
management system, executive power, the consumer ability to communicate and their use of habits
and many other issues are raised, such as: the vicious competition among interest groups, online
political colonization, hasty and irresponsible online speech, these seems unable to support the
network considered as deliberative public sphere. However, if it is to examine diverse themes, styles
and participation, the use of Internet is

The Public Sphere By Habermas
In his essay, The Public Sphere, Habermas examines the concept of "The Public Sphere" in
historical–sociological perspective, particularly in the eighteenth century. Habermas analyzes the
difference between what is a private realm and what is a public realm between the society and the
state. According to him, the public sphere operates as a mediator between the people and the state.
He defines the public sphere as a product of democracy, and that the public sphere consists of
private individual assembled.
The concept of public sphere appeared during the eighteenth century, specifically he discusses the
history of the public sphere at the end of monarchy era. During this period, the feudal authorities
had broken apart and the third estate was no longer hold the highest power in the realm of the state.
This separation created two elements in the state; the private and the public. What are the main
functions of the public sphere in the modern society and the state? And what are the consequences
of the public sphere? To what extent does the public sphere disintegrate? These are the main
questions that Habermas addressed in his essay.
Habermas begins his essay by discussing the general concept of "the public sphere" and the history
of the public sphere during the sovereign era in the Europe, in order to give greater understanding in
his essay. He uses the bourgeois society as the main focus in his essay. Habermas points out that the
public sphere established a democratic society

A Review of Nancy Faser's Rethinking the Public Sphere
Priyanca Vaishnav, Satish Poduval, Media and the Public Domain 13th February 2007 Report:
Rethinking The Public Sphere by Nancy Fraser Rethinking The Public Sphere is a response to
Habermas' 1973 essay, later published in English as The Public Sphere in 1989. Habermas states his
concept of the public sphere as both historical, and normative. It is historical both in the sense of era
and region– 20th century Western Europe. He dismantles the distinctions between the public and
private domain. According to Habermas, man should be autonomous from the state and the civil
society, but he feels that public–ness is degenerating due to the advent of the mass media. Mass
media gives higher priority to profitability ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Laissez–faire capitalism disturbs equilibrium and some level of state intervention and regulation on
economy and redistribution essential. Privatization hinders free discussion in public sphere. The
informal discursive sphere is independent of the government or the state and functions as a thorough
critic. The separation provides the weaker publics with an opportunity to play an active part in
decision making and not just presenting a position. The bourgeois conception seems speculative of
this discursive authority. She defends that the effect of public opinion is greater if it can affect
decisions made by the state. But, the notion of "We" instead of "I" does not necessarily reinforce the
dominant opinion regarding a subject and subjugate the subaltern public. It might be pertinent to use
the "we" to make the shared aims prominent. It evokes a shared social identity. But she also
expresses serious doubts about whether such a separation should be carried too far, as this can cause
powerlessness to the state in legislative and administrative matters, which require its dominance
even in a democratic and egalitarian social structure. Thus, Nancy Fraser stresses on a need of a
more post–bourgeois approach as against Habermas' bourgeois conception of The Public

Public Life Characterize American Culture
How does the discourse of public life characterize American culture? To understand the discourse of
public life, it is necessary to contextualize the aspects of American culture regarding the concerned
citizen, politics, and religion, since those ideas are at the heart of American In secular societies,
thousands of citizens find themselves disengaged from the discourse of public life through activism
in their communities. However, those concerned citizens that participate experience the idea of the
heroic enterprise because their actions are not seen "as the routine fulfillment of the duties of
citizenship" (Bellah 2008: 181), but as a preservation of self–interest. These individuals are
concerned about the threats to their communities and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ultimately, it is the struggle between individualism and the public good, and with the current state of
political affairs, our individualistic self–interests triumph the idea of public good. For example, as a
society we recognize the need to individuals' rights. However, we have a difficult time when groups
of people claim their rights. The political culture of individualism functions within the framework of
invisible complexities, and, as a result, discourages people from engaging in political actions.
Within individualistic view of politics, the sources of conflicts are difficult to trace. The politics of
interest are disconnected from the sources if interests, meaning there is no transparency. Likewise, if
we can't comprehend these complexities, whom do we turn to for explanations? As Bellah argues,
experts are there to guide us through those invisible complexities. For example, how can we, as a
collective group of people, reclaim government? There are three primary ways to reclaim
government, however, to achieve desired goals; people need to participate in the sphere of collective
action. As a society, we need to accept professional socialization of calling and reject the premises
of professional aspirations for success, power, and status. What gives professionals the key is that
the expertise they provide is their calling to serve the public, which is why we need to reform
professionals to serve all interests. In the United States, social movements have quite an interesting
influence over the dominant two–party systems. Both parties preach and serve their self–interests,
nonetheless they acknowledge the demands of social movements, which is why, unlike in other
countries, in the United States, social movements have greatly impacted the political decisions.
Social movements hold

Public Sphere
Jürgen Habermas' "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere" discusses his analysis on
publicity. The article is a historical–sociological account of the rise, change and breakdown of the
public sphere. Even though publicity originated in the 18th century, it is still prevalent in today's
society. Throughout the article, Habermas discusses the vastness of the public sphere. Habermas
states that the public sphere is a sphere in which private people join together to form a public.
Several important concepts, arguments and themes are discussed throughout the article, the chief
ones being the distinction between private and public, structural transformation and contemporary
politics. One of the main questions that Habermas poses is whether ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The relationship between the two elements is vigorous and intricate. In his analysis, Habermas
traces public and private back to Ancient Greece and then onwards to the Middle Ages, where
separation existed, and present day. After the development of the economy and the modern state,
public and private adopted their present form. The term public refers to public authority of the state,
while private refers to the family, society and the economy. Institutions and laws are the elements
that differentiate the two from each other. In modern society, there is a loss of discrepancy between
public and private. Instead, there is one societal multipart that exists, similar to that of the one that
existed in the Middle Ages. Habermas evaluates that the public sphere in its traditional system no
longer exists in today's society.
The main concept of Habermas' piece is structural transformation. Structural transformation is the
progression by which the public sphere moves from being the core of the rational–critical debate to
a degraded form of its prior self. Habermas concludes that the transformation occurred due to
changes in social, political and economic structures of society. The primary structural change was
the division between public and

Patriarchy And The Separation Of Public And Private Sphere
Women continue to be impacted by patriarchy and the separation of public and private sphere that
occurred in (enter date here). They face discrimination in their home from their association with
domestic labour. The social construction of gendered division of labour benefits men while
oppressing women. The purpose of this paper is to explore how the association of women with the
private sphere is created to oppresses and undervalue women. This paper agues that patriarchy
reproduces the oppression of women through the gendered division of labour. This sub–issues this
paper discusses are: (1) patriarchy and the reproduction of gendered division of labour, and (2) the
association of women with domestic labour. Patriarchy is a system and a structure of power that
creates privileges for men while oppressing women. It is a social system that we participate, both
consciously and unconsciously. It is embedded in major institutions, such as schools, workplaces,
homes, and media. The operating system also allows for individual man to victimize and commit
violence against individual woman (Neuenfeldt, 2015). In the home, patriarchy allows for husbands
to have dominance over his wife. The oppression that women face at home becomes a mediating
factor in women's performance outside the home (Omvedt, 1986). The concept of patriarchy comes
from the [something] Era, where the church had significant power in dictating the thoughts and
actions of its people. The church perpetuated the idea

Media In Contemporary Society
The media plays an essential role in contemporary society. Media is presented all around us, from
what we read in magazines, to the articles we read on the internet. Additionally, the 'public sphere', a
theory created by Jurgen Habermas, is an area in which citizens come together to discuss ideas
relating to social and political problems, and through this, influence political action. Jurgen
Habermas (1984) defines the public sphere as 'a realm of our social life in which something
approaching public opinion can be formed. Access is guaranteed to all citizens.' Access to all people
is beneficial because it allows people who previously did not have a say, talk about political
concerns and social issues, which when putting them to debate, may benefit them for the future. 'The
public sphere 'takes place' when 'citizens, exercising the rights of assembly and association, gather
as public bodies to discuss issues of the day, specifically those of political concern' (Peter Dahlgren,
p.7). Furthermore, he also claims a decline in the public sphere due to mass media. The public
sphere is different to the media because it allows for communication and debate, whereas the media
does not. It's a two–way system.
Habermas was born in 1929, a very chaotic time as this was time was the growth in fascism. All
left–wing writers had to leave Germany in the 1930s, as their views reflected a Marxist
interpretation of society. Throughout this essay will be focusing on the interests role within the

The Public Sphere And The Representation Of The Green...
Literature review
Considering analyzing of the Iranian public sphere and the representation of the Green Movement
on Instagram, this study will review some provided resources in this field. However, there is not an
article or book in which author directly connects the concept of the public sphere and green
movement and discusses the effects of social media, yet there are few sources that state different
angels of this topic separately. Thereby, this chapter includes sources with the focus on the green
movement and social media as well as those applied the public sphere theory in the analysis process.
Many texts on the topic of green movement work on social movement theories to analyze the case,
however, few sources refer to the importance ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
But due to lack of historical argument, the role of social media and an importance of the Green
Movement has largely underestimated.
This study claims that if people in 2009 used their cellphone or other social media such as Facebook
or Twitter, today they are seeking for other realms of discussion and a day before 2009 were using
blogs to declare their messages to the regime. Then if we see this movement as an ongoing
democratic process which has been entrenched by newspapers, social media, blogs or SMS, then it's
quite difficult to label a movement as a failed or unsuccessful one.
The green Movement in Iran
One of the key sources is "The Green Movement in Iran", which has written by Ali Dabashi (2011).
He has a historical view towards the topic and in the preface of his book, he refers to the green
movement as a civic movement rather than a revolutionary act. He also explained how the Green
Movement exists and grows over the course of time through different chapters of book. Dabashi
used a chronological method in which mentions to different approaches and events. He also
compares the Green Movement with Islamic revolution in 1979. Although he mentioned the key role
of social media, yet he did not provide methodological and analytical approaches to support his
view. Dabashi's points raises the issue that social media has a great effect on the Green Movement
uprising regardless of

Essay On The Cave
In Plato, Republic, Book VII, the core of the book revolves around justice and its implications from
both an individual and collective perspective. Plato does not have Socrates argue that justice
requires getting everyone out of the cave because in actuality, there are two parts to justice and the
cave: the truth and the false. According to Plato, people often live in illusion. Illusions appeal to
sensible people and their senses, whereas reality does not function with reason alone, it includes a
combination of ideas and the truth (Plato 405). Therefore, the need to have everyone leave the cave
is not present because each individual is there for a different reason which may not call for leaving
the cave.
Plato argues that when analyzing the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is problematic as it limits one's perceptions. Plato alludes to the wise, and how they begin to
discover new things, to unveil new knowledge (Plato 508 d). For example, as knowledge becomes
an essential part of our lives, we begin to tell the others living within the constraints of the cave that
there is a world, a life, overflowing with knowledge outside of the cave. The other's in this case
would hold onto the knowledge they have within the cave, creating their

Public Sphere And Soundbite Analysis
In chapter three (page 105) McKee highlighted that the public sphere contains too much 'spectacle'.
"From a modern perspective, it seems that the public sphere promotes a 'short attention span' in
consumers. Ideas aren't explored in detail or at length, they're packaged as thirty second grabs".
McKee also talks about us human beings, suffering from a curse of 'soundbites' (Slayden and
Whillock 1999). The terms 'short attention span' and 'soundbite' are the two most popular terms in
our discussions about the public sphere. This evidently show us that the appearance is more
important to us than anything else and how much more we concentrate on how the media approach
everything that is surrounding us, rather than having our personal opinions.

Impact Of The Internet On Public Sphere Essay
Despite its critics and some shortcomings early highlighted (Benson, 2009), the Habermas' idea (and
an ideal, too) of a public sphere in which all individuals and opinions should have the opportunity to
democratically be engaged in community is an oft–cited framework in order to better understand
media, democracy, and pluralism (Antony & Thomas, 2010; García–Canclini, 1992; Jurgen
Habermas, 1964; Stein, 2006). In Habermas' words, a "well–functioning public sphere" implies an
"open communication structures that permit and promote discussions oriented to self–
understanding" (Jürgen Habermas, 1994: 128). Press and newspapers were the traditional landscape
in which to deploy deliberation in the so–called public sphere. Indeed, in traditional printed media,
readers' comments have a delimited space and length through the editorial pages that used to
explicitly contain the community discussion, which had been also discussed in both Latin American
and Chilean contexts (Santa–Cruz, 2011). However, regarding the new technologies, the impact of
the Internet in news production, and the shift in the role of audiences and content producers,
"audiences are no longer restricted by largely elitist and inaccessible media systems" (Antony &
Thomas, 2010: 1283). In fact, technological developments such as the so–called Web 2.0 challenge
and complicate the vertical and one–way flow of information that characterizes traditional mediums,
such printed newspapers and broadcasting. So, recent

The Domestic Arena Of The Public Sphere
From the Domestic Arena to the Public Sphere
Before the 1920s, under the colonial rules of Japan, the Korean male intellectuals claimed women's
equal rights because they realized the necessity for the new role of women for the nation building
and strengthening. To put it differently, the male nationalists designed and developed the ideal roles
of women. As a result, although women were given equal rights, a woman's role remained in the
domestic arena as a "good wife, wise mother."
In the 1920s, when intellectual New Women began to engage in creating gender discourse, they
enhanced women's roles in social relationship and power structure. Namely, New Women aimed to
create new women's roles as members of the family, the society, and the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Specifically, in "the Self–Awakening of Women" in 1920, Kim states, "woman's life should be equal
to man's life, and the goal of woman's life should be equal to that of man" (31). It means women
should be respected as the independent subjects in the public sphere as men, and women's roles
could be expanded in terms of their own criteria. In the statement, Kim's aspiration further asserts
women have autonomy to construct their own roles in the public sphere without any restriction.
Similarly, in "What Does Freedom Mean for Women" in 1925, Yi states that women should strive
"to become a decent worker for society, to become a good companion for one's family" (37).
Notably, Yi shows her ideal roles of women to be recognized as not only members of the family, but
also workers for society, and the contributors to the colonized nation. Thus, Yi Chŏnghŭi's aspiration
also targets the expansion of the women's role. In addition, in "An Observation on the Status of
Women" in 1926, Im claims it is women's responsibility to "call for women's liberation on their
own" and to "improve the lower–than–zero status of women" for "true happiness in human society"
(38, 39). In her argument, Im implies the new ideal role of women should contain their civil duties.
It means women could be defined as citizens in the public sphere, and they should

The Structural Transformation Of The Public Sphere...
Literature Review Jurgen Habermas can be seen as one of the founders of the term and details the
idea of refeudalization in their novel "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere" in which
he writes how the bourgeois public sphere eroded because of economic and structural changes. The
boundaries between state and society blurred, leading to "a kind of refeudalization of society."
(Habermas, 1989). Essentially state and society became involved in each other's spheres and large
non–governmental organizations replaced the old institutions of the public sphere. Furthermore,
where the public sphere takes on a feudal aspect is the process of politicians and organizations
representing themselves before the voters. (Habermas, 1989). These ideas are then further explained
in more contemporary contexts by Alain Supiot writing that primarily of the refeudalization of law
but also "ignorance of the organization of powers underpinning the government by laws is taking us
back to government by men, that is, to feudal ways of hybridizing the public and the private."
(Supiot, 2013). Then further clarifying that Western feudalism today is the dependency between
people "having a legal character" where there are status differences and the dependent party may be
granted possession, but it is "burdened by the obligations to the benefit of the grantor." (Supiot,
2013). Supiot does however put forward the idea that refeudalization of law does not mean a return
to the middle ages but

Grandmother Zumaya Essay
negate the assimilationist progress script imposed upon ethnic groups" (28). In other words, the
representation of a fluid gender conscious demonstrates the chicanoismo ideology of a new
ethnically blended identity to a gender blended identity which contests the attachment of roles on
both a gender conscious, an ethnic conscious and the majority world culture.
The Mexican–American community supports the subservient female role in society portraying them
as docile, reliant and obedient to their male accompaniment. The domestic household utility of
Mexican–American woman is symbolized in a variety of household objects including attire that
capitulate their gender representation. For example, as a child, Ermila recognizes her grandmother
and female compassion by her apron, an article of clothing symbolizing servitude. When she spots
her without the apron, she can hardly recognize her without the symbolic article of clothing. In turn,
Grandmother Zumaya has her moments with conflict against the patriarchal Gesellschaft with her
husband, in her free indirect discourse she recognizes the reorganization of the marriage pact as a
private ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The small humiliations, thousands of them, were contained within the four walls of their well–kept
home,. . .But Grandfather redrew the line and tossed aside fragile civility they had" (133).
Thus, there is a blending of the private and public spheres with the mechanisms of the Gesellschaft
infiltrating the domestic household. However, unlike Ermila, Grandmother Zumaya is far too
entrenched by her upbringing and time stay in the older generational Mexican–American patriarchal
society to break herself away from it, and her conflict against it never reaches farther from the front
doorstep of her household. Her immediate regression back to confines of the patriarchy,
symbolically illustrated through putting her fists away in her apron, the socially imposed apparel of

The Public Sphere By Nancy Fraser
Nancy Fraser's article speaks as both critical analysis and a modern day interpretation Jürgen
Habermas' concept of the public sphere. Through the application of a revisionist historical lens,
Fraser both highlights the limits of the original concept of a single public sphere, and introduces
interpretations of it as applied to modern day social issues. Through these critiques, Fraser is
successful in forwarding the theory of the public sphere as an indispensible element to the
application of critical theory. Drawing on examples in late capitalist societies, Fraser illustrates an
alternate proposal of co–existing multiple public spheres as a more accurate representation of this
theory in practice.
Fraser informs the reader that Habermas' concept of the public sphere served as a regulating force in
the promotion of both democracy, and as a guideline for separation between public and private
areas. This sphere was comprised of politically minded and motivated individuals existing outside of
the realms of government, business and association; with a mandate for debate of matters of public
or common interest; excluding those interests deemed private. Its intention was to serve as
arbitrators between the public and the state. (58) Critics and revisionist historians however state
Habermas' account was an idealized version unrepresentative of the public it claimed to speak for.
Fraser contends the logic of the single public sphere's guiding principles, going so far as suggesting

Construction Of The Public Sphere
Gerard Hauser critiques Habermas' construction of the public sphere, pointing out many of its
weaknesses. Hauser does concede that Habermas' ideas about the public sphere are meant to focus
solely on the bourgeois public sphere and not include all public spheres; however, Habermas' critics
have approached his model as universal, so it needs to be examined, contextually, as an approach to
universally understanding public spheres (47–48).
Because Hauser's approach to the public sphere is more dynamic than Habermas', by that I mean
that it purposefully engages multiple public spheres– their individual autonomy as well as their
influence on other public spheres– differences between the two rationales are presented. Hauser
points to six crucial differences, where he feels that Habermas missed the mark at understanding the
transformation of the public sphere. Hauser is concerned with how discourse "realistically" happens
within the public sphere, whereas, he argues, Habermas' argument is contingent on the existence of
"ideal speech" (46).
Hauser's first problem with Habermas' theory of the public sphere is that in order for Habermas'
ideas to work, they need to be the only public sphere, that is, a universal public sphere. This is not
accurate of how discourse functions. Many discourse communities or public spheres function on
their own and have influence on each other. To suggest that there is only one public sphere forces
others to conform to that one universal

Social Media Public Sphere
Through the emergence of the Internet, the last 20 years have seen a transformation in the way the
society communicates with one another. There is no doubt that the Internet has changed the way the
world interacts with one another on a democratic scale. Can it be said that with the emergence of the
Internet, a new public sphere has been created? If so, is this new public sphere capable of
embodying the theory that Habermas constructed? Petros Iosifidis article "The Public Sphere, Social
Networks and Public Service Media" (2011) examines reasons that hinder social networks from
becoming a seamless public sphere, and why Public Service Broadcasting should change over to
Public Service Media.
Social Networks
Summary
Iosifidis starts the article by discussing in detail his first topic– social networks as a new public
sphere. His main argument is that while social media spaces create new public spheres of both
"democratizing and empowering functions" (2011), the Internet is also capable of both informing
individuals and manipulating them. He argues that the public sphere is still a strong analytical
instrument in today's societies, as it "helps us help us make sense of the relationship between the
media and democracy (civic engagement)" (2011). Iosifidis brings up several interesting and
debatable reasons why social media is mostly overstated and represents hopefulness in the ability to
be a public sphere. His six reasons are: open participation of social media may turn

A Review of Nancy Faser's Rethinking the Public Sphere
Priyanca Vaishnav, Satish Poduval, Media and the Public Domain 13th February 2007 Report:
Rethinking The Public Sphere by Nancy Fraser Rethinking The Public Sphere is a response to
Habermas' 1973 essay, later published in English as The Public Sphere in 1989. Habermas states his
concept of the public sphere as both historical, and normative. It is historical both in the sense of era
and region– 20th century Western Europe. He dismantles the distinctions between the public and
private domain. According to Habermas, man should be autonomous from the state and the civil
society, but he feels that public–ness is degenerating due to the advent of the mass media. Mass
media gives higher priority to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fraser criticizes this hierarchical, masculinist point of view, by stating that in a granular society, the
subordinates are further marginalized and the stakes of the dominant groups of decision–making
increase. A society with unequal power will cultivate unequal cultures, values, and lifestyles. So
social inequalities must be minimalized instead of being ignored. She speaks of "rough equalities"
that render more useful than equality in absolute terms. Her next attack is against Habermas'
assumption that instead of having several publics, only one discursive public should exist. To her
such a singularity means to snatch the prerogative of an individual's opinion of him. According to
Freud's definition of defense mechanism, most of us like to associate with the more powerful or
dominant identity, as to hide our own lack of influence. Citizens in such an arena would be forced
against voicing their opinions or suggestions. She encourages segregated groups from the point of
view of subaltern counter–publics as well, stating examples of women's revolutions. She points out,
that multiplicity will widen the horizons as well as the audience for a variety in discourse, which,
she points out, is the primary purpose of discourse. An objective, neutral culture cannot exist. It
would demand a uniform approach and dictate norms for

Online Research : The Microblogging And Public Sphere
1. Research Topic and Question
The topic of this Online Research is about the Microblogging and Public Sphere. Microblogging is a
new type of online social platform appeared in recent year. An example of such case is Weibo in
China, which was released in October, 2006 and now it is an ideal tool of public communication
among the Chinese netizens (Mou, 2014). Ma (2013) mentioned that, different from the traditional
social networking, such as Facebook, in which users are more likely to link back to their real life.
This means Microblogging makes its users focus more on things they are interested in which might
be less connected to their daily life. Besides, according to a statistics, the proportion of Weibo users
occupied more than 50% of the total internet population (CNNIC, 2013, cited in Mou, 2014).
Therefore, it is worth to discuss the consequences brought by Microblogging for its users to
disseminate the information in public sphere. In this case, one research question can be 'Do people
can improve their political participation through scanning and commenting on Weibo'. This question
aims to explore the effects of Microblogging, especially Weibo, that whether such platform can let
people discuss about politics more freely in order to generate positive influences.
2. Research Method
The method has been chosen for this Online Research is interview bases on online radio/video
software, such as Skype. This is because the research is consists of several open–ended questions.

Juvenile Delinquency And The Public Sphere
Bibliography (10 references) for the Critical Review Paper
Bradley, K. (2012). Juvenile delinquency and the public sphere: exploring local and national
discourse in England, c . 1940–69. Social History, 37(1), pp.19–35.
This article explores juvenile delinquency and the public sphere by looking at local and national
discourse in England from the 1940 to 1969. Bradley, in discussing juvenile delinquency and the
public sphere argues that the fears of 'juvenile delinquency' should be treated as a historical
phenomenon. The article touches upon Pearson's book, with Bradley arguing that anxieties about the
behaviour of the poorest young have a powerful presence in the British public sphere, and goes on
further to explore the relationship between ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Goldson explores the question of whether images of contemporary youth gangs, violence and crime
are distorted and exaggerated by the media's presentation to present a generation of youth in crisis.
In exploring this, Goldson draws upon the work of other authors on female violence (Susan A.
Batchelor; Tara Young), the history of youth (Geoffrey Pearson), youth gangs and late Victorian
society (Andrew Davies) and youth territorial behaviour and violence. This source is useful as it
formulates a discussion around what Pearson discusses in his book to quite some extent, making a
great source to begin to grasp some understanding of Pearson's argument by intertwining it with
other arguments laid out by other authors on the

Reflective Essay On The Humanist Community
Nobody's word is final
As a member of the Canberra Humanist society, I felt a spark this year when I heard that some of the
members had been investing energy into a program called the Humanist Chaplaincy. This service
provides ethical and moral support from a non–religious perspective in institutions such as hospitals
and universities, employing the most important tool available–– the art of listening. While the title
'humanist chaplain' sounds like a contradiction in terms to some ears, others have not overlooked its
potential and significance. There is not only the positive function this role can serve in the
community, but the scope for other community work that would only be limited by our imagination.
If Aristotle thought 'it is the mark of an educated mind to entertain a thought without accepting it', I
think it is the mark of an open mind, to entertain a thought without rejecting it. I know from
experience how powerful the art of imagination can be. As an incredibly fortunate specimen, I
somehow found myself capable of reaching beyond the confines of my narrowly defined identity
and noticing a seed of intellectual enlightenment grow after decades of darkness. If that seed can
grow at 30 years of age, with literally no prior interest in the Sciences, History, Art, Philosophy,
introspection and discourse–– then it can happen to anyone, any time.
As far I can tell, there is no need to set boundaries when exploring meaningful ways to extend the
Humanist community

Privatizing the Public Sphere Essays
Privatizing the Public Sphere
The privatization and fragmentation of space in post–industrial urban America is a widespread
social problem. As society becomes even more globalized as a result of technological advances, the
rampant spread of a privatized public realm is ever–increasing. Public space is needed as a center in
which to bring people together to share a common place. It is within public spaces that public life
unfolds and without public spaces such as parks, streets, and buildings, the mixing of classes will
become increasingly uncommon. Society is made up of two sectors: the private and public, and it is
essential that both remain separate entities. However, through the use of fear tactics especially the
threat of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
All of these factors work cohesively with one another by instilling a sense of fear into the lives of
everyday citizens. Society is becoming more and more policed through the use of surveillance
cameras on public walkways, gated communities, but especially, through systematic approaches
used to create the feeling that public spheres are unsafe and something to be feared. Corporations
are taking over the urban landscape. In previous years, many upper and middle class families fled to
the suburbs to escape the everyday hustle of city life. However, in recent years, city living has
become glamorized and thus the movement back into the city has increased. Once blighted inner–
city neighborhoods are being taken over and revitalized by corporate leaders in hopes to redesign
and yuppify these areas. As more money is put into the area, the higher the market value goes up
and as a result, many local residents can no longer afford to live there. While these residents are
pushed out, a more 'desirable' group of residents move in and thus, take over. This process, known
as gentrification, is occurring in many cities all across the nation. In the past, displaced residents
could possibly move to another area that was not undergoing this process. However, as we are
seeing in Chicago, it is nearing impossibility to move to an area within the city that will not

John Dewey's Excerpts From The Public And Its Problems
In "Excerpts from the Public and its Problems" (1927) by John Dewey, discusses several ideas about
the public, public problems, community, inquiry as a method, limitation of experts, and roles of the
public in a democracy. Throughout the excerpt, the reader learns that Dewey's main focus is how to
enhance the issue of the public through his methods of inquiry. First, the author mentions how
individuals become a public with the capacity to discuss issues and judge their choices, meaning
what should be regulated by the public is based on time, place, and conditions, and if not limited
properly they could cause consequences. He then discusses public versus private concerns and
consequences in the concept of social control. The problem of managing

The Public Sphere Of The Canadian Public
Since the beginning of the digital era, technological advancements have dramatically increased the
capability of media and decreased the barriers that one may experience to participate in said
communication. Although these advances have created several opportunities for the majority of the
Canadian public to participate in communications, there are still several obstacles faced by minority
groups: making participation difficult or impossible. In order to counter these barriers, the Canadian
government has been taking steps to provide all Canadians with national access to communications
services, catering to the needs of a few to benefit many. This is because in taking steps to provide
the communication services to all Canadians increases the ability of all citizens to participate in the
public sphere the internet creates. Moreover, increasing the communication services availability
strengthens the ethnic identity of minority peoples in Canada, reinforcing the ideal of Canada being
a Cultural Mosaic. Lastly, creating possibilities for these ethnic and cultural minorities to represent
themselves in the media nationally allows for positive perceptions of these groups to be developed.
Although members of the cultural majority may disagree, the actions taken by the Canadian
government to provide communications services to all Canadians is a good thing as it benefits the
entire country.
The public sphere is as a figurative place where people are able to gather in order to

Corporal Punishment with Respect to the Private and Public...
1 Introduction
Corporal punishment is the unlawful intentional act of causing harm by physically inflicting
punishment on the body of an offender or severely criticising the offender. There is a distinction in
common–law between corporal punishment in the public sphere and in the private sphere.
Corporal punishment on children in the private sphere is administered by parents. It is legally
accepted in South Africa, provided that the requirements are met.
The public sphere's position is much different in the sense that the government along with all
schools have no authority to physically discipline school children anymore. Authority to exercise
corporal punishment often leads to abuse of power, child abuse and feelings of superiority. All ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Rex v Janke & Janke ('Janke') clarifies the rights parents have when corporally punishing their
children with the intention of teaching them a valuable lesson. The requirements for this defence are
for it to be moderate and reasonable. The reasonable requirement refers to the child having to
wrongfully do something or threaten to do so. The moderate requirement states that the punishment
must be in proportion to the age, build, health and gender of the child. Corporal punishment by
parental authority can only succeed as a defence if it meets these requirements, as well as having the
intention to discipline or educate the child.
3 1 Arguments against parent's right of chastisement
The harm inflicted on a child when punishing him/her, violates the human rights of the child, which
states that every child should be protected from abuse or degradation in section 28(d) of the
Constitution. Another point of inconsistency the legalisation of corporal punishment in the private
sphere, is set out in section 39(3) of the Constitution that states: "The Bill of rights does not deny the
existence of any other rights or freedoms that are recognised or conferred by common law,
customary law or legislation, to the extent that they are consistent with the Bill". The current
position of the private sphere is not in correspondence with the public sphere, even though they both
deal with corporal punishment. Confusion could be raised as

Impact of Internet and Media on Modern Youth
Cultures of Consumption
Working Paper Series
Children online – consumers or citizens?
Professor Sonia Livingstone
London School of Economics and Political Science
Nothing in this paper may be cited, quoted or summarised or reproduced without permission of the
author.
Abstract
In the E–Society project entitled UK Children Go Online (www.children–go–online.net), we are
combining qualitative and quantitative methods to explore the involvement of 9–19 year olds in
today's heavily mediated consumer culture, focusing on the opportunities and risks that the internet
represents for young people. The enthusiasm with which this age group regards the internet ('we are
the internet generation', they proclaim proudly), suggests a striking ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Newspaper headlines regale us with claims that children are gaining access to what only adults are
supposed to know, that commercial institutions are gaining control over education, culture and
knowledge, that governments are extending their surveillance into our most private thoughts and
practices, that global players are squeezing out local cultures and individual creativity, and so forth.
On the other hand, although attracting less attention, the optimists also predict some grand futuristic
consequences of the introduction of new media. The socially excluded may find new routes to
participation. Knowledge is being democratised. Consumers get to create rather than passively
receive content selected for them. Restrictive or discriminatory frameworks – of gender, race or
disability – can be superseded. Local cultures can contribute to a global cosmopolitanism.
Consumer versus citizen
One key boundary is that between citizen and consumer: this intersects with many debates regarding
the role of the changing media environment in the privatisation or commercialisation of public space

or, conversely, in the extension of the public – outside – world into the domestic. Popularly, citizens
are active, engaged, informed, participatory and perhaps even resistant, while consumers are treated
as commodities, markets, being managed and passive. This paper examines these changes, and these
debates, in relation to children, young

Information flows around the world
Marshall McLuhan, a Canadian philosopher of communication theory, developed the concept of the
term 'Global Village' in two of his earliest books–The Gutenberg Galaxy, in 1962, and
Understanding Media: The Extension of Man, in 1964.
He defined global village as a small village where electronic media made it possible, and how the
information flows from parts of the world at the same time (Mcluhan, 1964).
No matter how far or near of anything happen around the globe, people can see and hear of what
have been occurred immediately, with just matter of seconds. Electronic media, Mcluhan said, made
people aware of and respond to issues happened around the globe as if it happen in the same village
people are living in. "Today, after more ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to Fraser, Nance (1992, p. 110), "Public Sphere is a theater in modern societies in which
political participation is enacted through the medium of talk". Participatory democracy is a core
concept of the public sphere. It is where people come to together to form a public opinion, and that
it affects to political action.
The only legitimate governments are governments that have its laws and policies shifted by the
public opinion of the public sphere (Benhabib, 1992). "Democratic governance rests on the capacity
of and opportunity for citizens to engage in enlightened debate" (Hauser, 1998, p.83).
In addition, both concepts of the public sphere and the global village have put a concentration and
demonstrate the importance of the use of the media.
According to Habermas (1962), the public sphere was set up and happened in many locations such
as coffee shops, salons, somewhere in society where individuals could assemble and talk of public
matters. With the emergence of the bourgeois public sphere, there is a publishing enterprise,
newspaper, where the formed public opinions of people are bridged to government and other
societies. Newspaper has been a main tool to use in the public sphere.
Later on, According to Habermas (1962), with the emergence of the capitalist system, people more
concern with their consumption rather than the political action. So, media has become an arena for
commercialization and advertising. In addition, the development of the

The Between Politics, Media, And The Public Sphere
From a historical perception, Matthias Karmasin, Gabriele Melischek, Josef Seethaler and Romy
Wöhlert (2013) believe it is evident that communication has led and still leads to war (ix). From the
written and unwritten rituals of mutual respect and disrespect to the definition of legitimate violence
and manipulation of the culture of war, mass media has dramatically influenced social, political, and
economic societies (Karmasin et al, 2013) In their collection of works submitted by members of the
European Communication Research and Education Association (ECREA), Karmasin et al. (2013)
follow the thesis that there is a duality between the changes in warfare and the possibilities of
communicating events (ix). The book is broken into three parts: the first focuses on propaganda and
acceptance of war; part two explores the changing relationship between politics, media, and the
public sphere; and the last portion of the book covers the 'postmodern' war and modern journalism.
However, the book begins with an overview of war, the media and the public sphere.
Philip Seib (2013) examines war and the media in a way that stimulates thinking about how war's
place within the public sphere is influenced by media, and how the definition of news media has
expanded (3). The main driving point behind Sieb's introduction is that the media has retreated from
its proper place within the public sphere, which is to monitor discourse and encourage a broad array
of voices to participate in debate

The Public Sphere Within Theatre
The Public Sphere within theatre was a concept that was first delineated by philosopher Jurgen
Habermas in his book titled The structural transformation of the public sphere, in which he refers to
the right that all citizens hold, the right to participate and engage into discussions on public matters
of interest and public issues. Habermas writes: "the audience does not constitute a space for
spectators and listeners but a space for speakers and addresses who engage in debate." (Habermas in
Balme 2012). The Public sphere has now become a space, a stage, for performers, speakers and
protesters to have a voice rather than for the preliminary use of entertainment for the audience,
spectators and listeners.
On reading Christopher B. Balme's The theatrical public sphere, the concept of theatre's role in the
Public Sphere is explored. Balme traces the origins ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Academic and artistic interest in something is usually a sure sign that matters are unclear,
conceptual boundaries are blurred and that old certainties are anything but that. There is also little
doubt that the major challenges we face: the media revolution, globalization and migration, climate
change, the erosion of public finances and services (to name just a few) – have all in some way a
bearing on the public sphere, the realm where issues are debated and where citizens are free to enter
and engage in discourse. As the public sphere is primarily a discursive arena located outside and
between state bureaucracies on the one hand and economics and business on the other, it occupies a
crucial role in the functioning of so–called free societies. The question to be explored here is what
role theatre and performance in practice play in this realm and how performance and theatre theory
can contribute to the debates." (Balme

The Public Spheres Of British Victorian Society Essay
The public spheres of British Victorian society was a markedly masculine jurisdiction, obviously
lacking in a feminine presence. Traditionally the public spheres of the society were considered a
man's domain and women were sequestered into the home, women of the public were thus
considered of ill repute. The modern stay at home woman was considered an extension of her
husband's wealth, and her being in the home that of how well off the man had become. The rise of
the department stores lead to an increase of women into what was considered a masculine space and
as transportation means became more readily available to them the roles of women within the public
sphere also changed. These marked changes and shifts in gender role can be seen with the admit
protest against their presence London's West End, and the portrayal od exulted "angels" gracing the
shops with their presence creating a "chaste" space. These and many other examples in Erika Diane
Rappaport's Shopping for Pleasure: Women in the Making of London's West End illustrate how
women entering the public sphere altered their gender roles with Victorian English Society.
The preconceived gender roles before 19th century England allowed the privilege of public space
reserved for men, with women usually being in the home. The rising industrial age had led to many
changes especially with the women being employed in factories in large cities where droves of
young people had flooded in to find work. From this influx came the

The Impact Of Modern Public Sphere On The Middle East
During the 19th century the Middle East found themselves with a problem of establishing an
identity or nationalism. Through defensive developmentalism the Middle East had sought to counter
the imperialistic approach of the West, yet still begin to modernize their land. The world was
developing rapidly and the Middle East wanted to ensure that they did not fall behind. However, the
approach backfired and the Middle East found themselves struggling to establish their own modern
identity and falling victim to becoming more like the Europeans. Many new ideas and new
movements developed through Middle Easterners, some wanted to modernize and began to fuse
European and Arabic tradition, while others wanted to re–establish Islamic tradition. Most
detrimental to these new ideas and movements was the emergence of the modern public sphere. The
modern public sphere flowed into all aspects of these new movements and had many effects on the
Middle East. In essence, this idea of modernization would combine with the imperialism of
European thoughts, as well as components of the industrial revolution and would lay the foundation
for the fusing of the Europeans with Islamic traditions.
When the Ottoman government decided to institute the Ottoman Law Code of 1858, they did more
than enable people to more land. It was an action that would create a new social class in the Middle
East. With this new law, people begun to acquire new land. Although, over time large land estates
would be bought

The Yellow Wallpaper And Professions For Women
Women And Domesticity
Domestic work and other types of work that is typically associated with women has always been
undervalued and overlooked. Many types of work fall under the umbrella of domestic labor, such as:
cooking, cleaning, mending, child care, running errands, managing the household, and much more.
This type of work is highly undervalued and often ignored. Many of the works that we have looked
at in this section highlight how many women felt about the domestic sphere that they were placed in.
In this essay I will discuss this point using points from "The Yellow Wallpaper" and "Professions
For Women". Both women commented on the domestic sphere for women and what that meant for
them. The Yellow Wallpaper highlights the "separate spheres" ideaology, an ideaology that states
that men and women belong in different spheres of society. A woman 's place in in the home, where
she can carry out her duties as a wife and mother in private while a man 's sphere is the one of the
public domain. In "The Yellow Wallpaper" a woman is diagnosed with "nervous depression" after
the birth of her baby and put on a "rest cure". She spends the entirity of the story in a bedroom of a
house her husbad had rented out for their summer vacation. Being locked in her bedroom causes her
to have a mental breakdown. Gilman had written "The Yellow Wallpaper" to describe her own
experience with depression and the rest cure, prescribed by a renowned psychatrist at the time, who
prescribed most

Habermas Theory Of The Public Sphere
Having examined and defined mass media and the contemporary democracy it is important however
to consider Habermas' theory of the public sphere.
Habermas defines the public sphere as "a realm of our social life in which something approaching
public opinion can be formed." "Access is guaranteed to all citizens" (1974, p.49). It is Habermas
theory that the public sphere helps to facilitate the rational communication of public affairs
independently from the government and state.
Similar to the paragraphs on the mass media and contemporary democracies Habermas himself
backs up the point of the mass media negatively affecting the democracy.
He argues that commercialised media in the new public sphere have turned the public sphere into a
place where advertising is prioritised (Habermas, Lennox and Lennox 1974). A point that backs this
theory up is the way the mass media influences television in a political way, as it is deteriorating the
public sphere (Hart,1994). This opinion is key in the context of explaining the public sphere theory
as it helps to highlight a key point in the modern democracy.
Harts opinion highlights one of the main tools of influence within the mass media, news
organisations influence the audiences view point through what they broadcast on their television
channels.
(Quoted in Papacharissi, 2010, p.232) Habermas (2004) suggests that "main stream media content
have colonized the public sphere and compromised rational and democratic public discourse." This

Cupcake Suite Cupcakery, An Example Of An Existing...
Loten and Neddleman (2011) researched Cupcake Suite Cupcakery, an example of an existing
business that used crowdfunding. The bakery influenced people to donate money by rewarding them
with sweet treats. "Cupcake Suite Cupcakery, a New York start–up wholesale bakery founded by
three cookbook authors, last fall raised almost $9,000 in part through a crowd–funding platform to
help offset the cost for a planned new location. Any contributor who provided at least $25 got a
half–dozen whoopie pies" (para 5). This bakery experienced a successful crowdfunding campaign to
fund their expansion. The bakery influenced contributors by offering whoopie pies as a gift for
donating money. Mollick and Nanda (2015) discovered that people in general are more likely than
professionals to fund projects that offer multiple levels of rewards, contribute updates, and display
pictures and video. People in general and professionals are influenced to fund entrepreneurial
projects in different ways. "Our second finding is that despite the broad congruence in evaluation,
we see a systematic pattern in terms of the disagreement. Of the projects where there is no
agreement, the crowd is much more likely to have funded a project that the judge did not like than
the reverse. Approximately 75% of the projects where there is a disagreement are ones where the
crowd funded a project but the expert would not have funded it. We also see a clear pattern in terms
of the characteristics of projects that are liked

Public Sphere Within The Private Space
The concept of the mediatisation of space has allowed for an understanding of the intertwining of
the public and the private spheres. This experience of the public sphere is seen through the infusion
of symbols and representations within media forms, thus showing us the impact of changes that the
media has catalysed in our individual everyday life. The public sphere within the private space can
be seen in mediums such as Twitter, in which the representation of words and hashtags have shifted
the societal experience. Thus, this idea of mediatisation of space allows for an understanding of the
value and experience of the public in individual lives with the assistance of signs, symbols and
representations. The mediatisation of space is a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example, the bedroom and messaging apps are both considered privatised space, though one is
physical and the other virtual. Similarly, the park and news websites are both public space, as they
are accessible by the general community, though they differ in scale and degree of publicness. These
ideas of space are inextricably intertwined with the concept of mobility–the shifting between
locations–and time–both linear and non–linear (Green 2002, p. 282). The idea of mediatisation is
slightly harder to explain, however, as it is a concept which is an "incomplete and still unfolding
historical project" (Livingstone 2009, p. 6). It should be also highlighted and noted that the concept
differs from that of the term mediation. Mediation emphasises the complexity of the social space
and the diversity of transformations which arise (Couldry 2008, p. 3), exploring the impact that
media has upon the contemporary society as a whole. Thus, it focuses on examining the fundamental
influence of media on the community. Comparatively, mediatisation, as asserted by Hepp, Hjarvard
and Lundby (2015), endeavours to build a theoretical framework that will allow an examination into
the role of media in transforming social and cultural interaction, and shift communicative methods.
The theory also emphasises on the role of media and how its logics impact culture and society. Thus,
whilst mediation

Public Sphere As A Place Open
I define a public sphere as a place open to all people, where important topics can be discussed,
opinions can be heard, and organization of action can take place. Over the last several years the
social media phenomenon has led to expansion of the public sphere, with Twitter and Facebook
becoming key components of the contemporary public sphere. These expansions of the public
sphere still have several advantages but due to barriers, algorithms, and government intervention,
the social media public sphere is shrinking. In this essay I will be focusing on two online public
spheres, Twitter and Facebook, as journalism has been increasingly moving online (Hayes, 2013).
To begin I will clarify why I believe the contemporary public sphere is entirely online. Every person
in this world belongs to several groups, as groups can be based on anything; religion, family, class,
status, age, gender, occupation race, interest, or geographic location. As stated by Bernays, these
groups teach us to "accept a standardized code of social conduct to which we conform most of the
time." Groups shape our opinions on what we see as important (Bernays, 1928). Due to homophily,
which states that we spend most time with like–minded people, many of the people we have strong–
ties with have the same opinions as us because they fall into the same groups (Steenson, 2014).
Public spheres are spaces that allow people to come together to identify and discuss societal
problems and impact political

The Public Sphere By Jurgen Habermas Essay

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