Iron-Sulfur World Hypothesis

Iron-Sulfur World Hypothesis
Abstract– All of these hypotheses explain the formation of creatures, earth, the universe and
basically just formation have life. The primordial soup may have been amazing but it most likely
didn't include all have the compounds found in modern living systems/situations. So in all have this,
we all may have different opinions about how the earth was formed but it is what it is. All of the
biomolecules, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and glucose all have an act in these
hypotheses. The same goes for organic compounds.
Primordial Soup Hypothesis: J.B.S Haldane was the scientist that was involved in this hypothesis.
This theory was presented in 1920. The claim made by J.B.S Haldane is that the building blocks of
life originated from molecules which were formatted in the atmosphere with no oxygen. This,
energized from strikes of lightning and the rain from the atmosphere, created the "organic soup".
The very beginning of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Discovered in the mid 1960's. This hypothesis states that the first molecules of life might have been
made from clay, basically. That was also a claim from Alexander himself. An experiment was taken
place by Dan Luo which was, "looking for inexpensive hydrogels that could be used to produce
proteins on a large–scale when they stumbled across the crucial evidence that could help solve one
of the greatest mysteries in biology." They also did experiments using water samples. Reasoning
would be that the main role have DNA is to store information on how other molecules should be
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

The Discovery Of The Dna
Scientist Who Co–Discovered the DNA Says Our Genes Were Brought Here by Aliens
Francis Crick (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004) was an English scientist who was most noted for being a
co–discoverer of the structure of the DNA molecule in 1953 alongside James D. Watson.
Francis Crick Watson and Maurice Wilkins were jointly awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize for
Physiology for Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids
and its significance for information transfer in living material."
He was clearly a brilliant scientist who unfortunately, like many other brilliant minds who came up
with theories that challenged the accepted frameworks at the time, wasn't given much 'press.'
In his book published in 1982, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
After all, theories like this aren't just born out of nowhere and this gentleman won the Nobel Prize
for the study of DNA. Thoughts like this should not be taken lightly and evidence should be
examined to see if it's a plausible hypothesis.
Please keep in mind while reading this article that, although we've discovered much, we have yet to
identify the biological functions of large portions of our DNA.
There is so much mystery wrapped in what could possibly hold the answer to life itself and the
origins of the human race.
A few years ago, Chandra Wickramasinghe, the Director of the Buckingham Centre for
Astrobiology at the University of Buckingham in the U.K., published a paper regarding their
supposed findings of the first–ever evidence of extraterrestrial life found in a celestial body.
At the time, Wickramasinghe pointed out to Huffington Post how, in 1962:
"Hoyle and I pioneered the theory of carbon grains in space to replace the old ice grain theory. This
was vehemently resisted by the astronomical community at the outset, but with the dawn of infrared
spectroscopy, the ice grain theory gave way to the carbon dust theory.
"Over a few years, after a great deal of model–fitting, we came to the conclusion that material
similar to biomaterial fitted all the available data in astronomy. We considered the possibility that

microbiology had a universal character, and no observations in astronomy or new information from
biology

Iron-Sulfur World Hypothesis: The Origins Of Life
There are many ways that Researchers across the world have come up with for the reason for life
today. These following examples are some of the most popular today.
Primordial soup hypothesis: Life began about three and a half billion years ago when amino acids
lead to the beginning of life in a body of water. Alexander Oparin in 1924. The chemicals were like
"soup" and mixed together to make proteins. There was an experiment that showed that organic
molecules could be formed from non–organic atoms. Called the Miller–Urey experiment, that
proved that it was possible.
Iron–Sulfur world Hypothesis: Gunter Wachtershauser introduced a theory in 1988 about how the
first organism was created by biomolecules made by a high pressure lava flow. A similar event has
happened and can happen in the right environment.
Deep ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Only after evolution did DNA take over. Proposed by Sir Francis Crick, he determined that RNA
could act as an enzyme and a gene to masterfully create the basis for all life today.
Community Clay Hypothesis: This theory about the origin of life comes from clay creating a perfect
environment for the synthesis of biomolecules. Clay hydrogels are what supported the creation of
complex biomolecules. Dan Luo presented a way for inexpensive hydrogels to be used to produce
proteins. Then he realized he might have discovered more than just a way to synthesize protein, but
how life was synthesized.
Panspermia Hypothesis: Sales Gyon De Montlivant was a major contributing factor to the
development of this hypothesis. He proposed that life came from the moon. While he was proven
wrong, he jumpstarted a theory based on live starting from space materials or other planetary
materials. H.E. Richter also proposed that life came from comets and asteroids so he contributed in
the same sense. Now the theory means that life "seeds" came from another planet and moved to

The Oldest Stars: An Experimental Analysis
The universe is approximately 13.77 billion years old (1). There are two methods which researchers
use to determine the age of the universe: observing the oldest stars; and using the Hubble's constant
(1). Observing stars does not necessarily mean going outside and looking up in the sky at night. By
viewing into a telescope, researchers can look beyond the human eyes to see a more desirable view
of reality in space. Thus, researchers can gather information and determine where the global cluster
of stars is located in the universe. Hubble's constant is an accepted measurement where modern
society has come to accept and use; being a correct or incorrect measurement.
Why do stars have to be in a global cluster? Large amount of stars that stay ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
One of the theories was already explained in the previous section, the Miller and Urey experiment;
and example for primitive soup. Other theories that give us an example of how life started are as
followed: deep sea vent; clay; panspermia; and RNA (9, 10). The deep sea vent describes how some
vents produce high ph and cooler water for a suitable environment to live in (9, 10). The theory with
the clay is that it becomes like a dish to hold amino acids or RNA nucleotide together to form
polymers (9, 10). Panspermia, life from space, is meteorites from outer space that crash into the
earth containing organic molecules (9, 10). Researchers discovered that some RNA were able to
catalyst by them, the RNA were called ribozymes (9, 10). Knowing that some RNA can become an
enzyme and that RNA can self–replicate; errors can occur and new molecule is created, which can
lead to new organisms (10). Although the theories of how earth originated helps give general ideas;
issues also arises. The problem with the deep sea vent and clay is that water is present; preventing
some necessarily chemical reaction to occur for living organisms (9, 10). The effects of protein in
the origin of life plays a huge role, seems to be found in all theories that researchers have

Primordial Soup Hypothesis
The Primordial Soup Hypothesis states that a combination of chemicals in the atmosphere and a
form of energy combined together in a pond or an ocean. The combination made amino acids which
would evolve into the first species on Earth. Alexander Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane compsed this
theory in 1920. It was later tested by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey in the Miller–Urey experiment.
They used a mixture of gases, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen, and formed basic organic
monomers. This experiment gave support for the second point of the hypothesis, that when the
atmosphere is exposed to evergy in many forms it can produce simple organic compounds. Another
hypothesis is the Iron–Sulfer World Hypothesis. This hypothesis was first brought forward by
Gunter Wachtershauser in 1988. His claim was that Earth life originated at deep–sea vents. Gunter
says that the hydrothermal vents are like a reactor for RNA. Hydrothermal vents rely on the
chemical energy that comes from geothermal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The first hypothesis that I wrote about is the Primordal Soap hypothesis. This states that the earliest
life forms were formed in ponds or oceans with the combination of multiple chemicals. The Iron–
Sulfur hypothesis and the Deep Sea Vent hypothesis both go off of the theory that life was formed at
super high temperatures in hydrothermal vaults. Another hypothesis is the RNA World hypothesis.
This states that RNA can be transcriped into DNA and it could act as both enzymes and genes. The
Community Clay hypothesis is a theory that says the original molecules formed their complex
patterns on clay until they started making the patterns themselves. The last hypothesis I did research
on is the Panspermia hypothesis. This theory is about how "seeds" of life are placed all over the
universe and they are taken from one planet to another. These hypothesis' all come together and
show many ideas of how life was first

What Was The Primordial So Up Theory
The Primordial Soup theory tell us that life began in a pond or other body of water because of the
combination of chemicals from the air and other forms of energy to create amino acids; and since
they are the building blocks of protein, they evolved into the first species on the planet Earth.
Soviet Biologist Alexander Oparin first introduced the term Primordial Soup in 1924. This was
Oparin's claim: The early stages of Earth had a chemically reducing atmosphere. The atmosphere,
which was exposed to a lot of different forms, then made or created monomers. These compounds
gathered together in a "soup", like in shorelines, oceanic vents, or ponds.
By transformation, more complicated organic polymers were created. Thus began life. The Miller–
Urey ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The RNA hypothesis, discovered by Carl Woese, Francis Crick, and Leslie Orgel in 1960, stated that
the first forms of life may have only been dependent on RNA to store their own genetic information.
The scientists proposed that early life forms used RNAs in the place of proteins, and this became the
greatest evidence of the RNA World Theory. RNA preceded DNA because it became too unstable.
There were no experiments involved.
The Community Clay Hypothesis proposes that the first forms of life were created inside of clay.
The scientist(s) and year could not be found on the Internet. The theory tells us that clay duplicates
itself because of its stickiness, and therefore could start a recreating mechanism. The hypothesis is a
very weak hypothesis, because of the lack of evidence and irrational ideas. There were no
experiments or reasoning

Tagish Lake Research Paper
Most of us are familiar with the panspermia hypothesis – that life can be "seeded" from asteroid,
comet, and planetoid contents – but to date, no direct evidence has been discovered. So, why should
we consider meteorites to be possible parents? The truth is out there somewhere and these space
rocks contain the essentials, as far down as to amino acids. Until now, what has been recovered has
been regarded as structured. However, the matter of Tagish Lake arose.
In January of 2000, a huge meteoroid exploded in our planet's atmosphere over Northern British
Columbia in Canada, which resulted in falling debris over Tagish Lake, while frozen. This observed
fall was rare, and the meteorites were harvested meticulously, preserved in their frozen state, and
documented. There are two reasons: to preserve the space stone's integrity and to ensure that no
contamination could take place either to the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It involves more than just documenting the date and time of the observed event and where the
fragments were harvested. To be properly conducted, the field must be measured. Each fragment
must be photographed in it's finding position in addition to the depth being measured and other
important steps to properly document the event. Nothing should be left to speculation.
"These first Tagish Lake samples are the nearest we have to an return mission of an asteroid sample
in terms of purity," adds NASA's Godard Space Flight Center's Dr. Michael Callahan in Greenbelt,
MD, a co–author on the paper.
The scientists' Tagish Lake meteorite discovery is rich in carbon – and contains a myriad of organic
matter, which includes amino acids. While amino acids aren't new to meteoritic structure, what was
extraordinary about this discovery was that different pieces had greatly variable amino acid

Made Up Hypothesis
The following report is on the different hypotheses developed on the topic of the Origin of Life. It
will include six of the created hypotheses: Primordial Soup, Iron–Sulfur, Deep Sea Vent, RNA
World, Community Clay, and Panspermia. It will explain who came up with each hypothesis, when
it was created, their claim, evidence supporting their claim, identification of testing–if any–of the
hypothesis, and reasoning for making their hypothesis. All sources used came from the worldwide
web. What may be interesting is that all hypotheses differ with how they believe life started and the
evidence supporting it. But some are closely connected to each other In conclusion, most, or even
all, of these hypotheses may be incorrect on how the world came to be. Having no witnesses present
during the beginning of time, no one is really sure of the actual circumstances of prehistoric Earth.
However, all claims are logical and are convincing hypotheses for the origin of biomolecules. ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They believed that organisms were formed by the molecules found in Earth's "primordial soup".
That chemicals and an energy source had combine to form the first organisms formed in water, a
pond or ocean, which was Earth's "primordial soup." They had concluded to this hypothesis after
realizing the evolution of molecules which contained carbon. The Miller–Urey experiment was how
this hypothesis was tested. By using a mixture of gases, the experiment was able to produce
macromolecules, such as amino acids. Their reason was that oxygen in the atmosphere prevented
reactions to occur so results wouldn't compare to ones billions of years

The Origin Of Species By Charles Darwin
What is evolution? Are we really related to monkeys? What does religion have to say about the
theory of evolution? These are questions that science is still trying to figure out. The simplest
answer for the first question is that evolution is decent with modification. This means that, for
example, the first humans used their wisdom teeth since they would eat hard and rough foods such
as raw meat, nuts, leaves, etc. Now, humans don 't use those teeth anymore because we have softer
foods, and even if it was hard, we have knives to cut it into smaller pieces to make it easier. We have
evolved, changed over time. Now, we have a lot of evidence to prove that this is true. The evidence
that supports evolution nowadays would be DNA testing and fossil records. The main book where
we get out information about evolution is in "Origin of Species' by Charles Darwin. In his book,
Darwin introduced the concept of evolution by natural selection. Natural selection is the process in
which the organisms which are better suited for their environment. According to Darwin, there are
four major points to natural selection. The first point is overproduction, indicating that more
offspring survive, meaning the species would survive longer. Then, there 's genetic variation. The
individual offspring that has the best traits will survive. After that, there 's the struggle to survive,
and then there reproduction. If the best survive and will be able to reproduce, they will pass on their
genetics to

Which Planets Or Moons Are Most Likely To Have Suitable...
The Solar System consist of eight large and small objects known as planets. Earth is one of the
eight. There has been rumours of a ninths planet but is not considered a planet. Planets have been
moving in a nearly circular orbit around the Sun for several years now, but there is only one planet
known to mankind to have life and is habitable for life. It is believed that there is a chance there
could be life on another planet, scientist have been researching and collecting data to prove that life
could be harvist on another planet.
Mars, also known as the Red Planet, is the fourth planet from the Sun. Mars is the only planet in the
Solar System to have abit of similarity to Planet Earth. Although Earth is the only planet in our Solar
System to have conditions to have life in abundance. Planet Earth's position in the Goldilock Zone,
which contains plenty water, an atmosphere rich with oxygen and an average temperature of 15℃,
life flourishes on Earth with these conditions. Seen on Mars is a bright coloured rust, this rust that
Mars is known for is due to iron rich minerals. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Jupiters Moon. Eupora is the sixth closest moon to the faraway planet. Scientist say that it has an
ocean and a thin shelf of ice. it was discovered by Galileo in January 1610. Nasa scientist believe
that one of the moon's closest to Jupiter is believed to be far more likely to be habitable than the
desert covered planet, Mars. Its ocean, thin shelf of ice and the presence of oxidant on Eupora makes
it far more likely to be home to a life form than that of the red

This research paper describes the most common theories about the origin of life and evolution on
earth. All of the theories have originated from the thought of something evolving, for example the
Primordial Soup Hypothesis, which suggests that life was created when an ocean of chemicals from
the atmosphere and a form of energy created amino acids, which then have evolved into the different
species. A chemist named Stanley Miller tested the Primordial Soup Hypothesis by sending an
electrical charge through a flask with a solution that consisted of methane, ammonia, and hydrogen,
this created amino acids. Another example is the Deep Sea Vent Hypothesis, which suggests that
simple metabolic reactions emerged from seafloor hot springs enabling the evolution of non living
organisms to become living. A group of geochemists claim that a simple sulfur–containing ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Oparin and English geneticist, J.B.S. Haldane in 1924. The Primordial Soup Hypothesis suggests
that the origin of life started in a warm pond or ocean as a result of the combinations of chemicals
from the atmosphere and some form of energy to form amino acids, the building blocks of proteins,
which would then evolve into different species. The evidence sparked from a simple idea that the
organisms that had been created, would have to have been heterotrophs and consumed one another
until photosynthesis made an appearance and became autotrophs by mutation. Chemist, Stanley
Miller and Physicist, Harold Urey did an experiment in 1953 to test the Primordial Soup Hypothesis.
Miller sent an electrical charge through a flask with a solution that consisted of methane, ammonia,
and hydrogen, this created amino acids. Amino acids are the most basic structural and functional
component to cellular life, all the evidence that the scientists reveal show the likelihood of natural
organic creations sprouting from the evolution of these simple amino

Primordial Soup Theory
The theory that suggest that in some bodys of water is where life began is primordial soup theory.
Because the chemicals combined from the atmosphere also with the energy to make amino acids
which basically what proteins are built of. After the species would evolve.This theory was presented
in 1920 by a chemist named A.I Oparin and an English Geneticist J.B.S. Haldane. While mixing gas
that they were believed to be there on the first earth: Methane, Ammonia,water, hydrogen, no
oxygen. Chemist Stanley Miller and physicist Harold decided on this experiment to test the
primordial soup theory. After they mixed the gases they sparked the gases to show lightning. What
they found were amino acids. Oparin and Haldane felt that with the blend of gasses in the air and the
strength from lightning strikes, amino acids could suddenly form in the seas. ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Gunter had suggested that a biochemical cycle developed and clustered the first living cell.
Incomnplex mixes will gather on the surface of the pyrite and atoms, for example, CO and natural
acids and sugars will likewise amass at first glance. Along these lines, the framework does not
utilize any cell parts and begins from a compound – pyrite – which was plentiful in ahead of
schedule Earth's oceans11.His Thought of what started life is known as the Iron–Sulfur World
Theory. It sets that hot, pressurized water blended with broke down gasses (counting hydrogen
sulfide, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen cyanide and smelling salts) went out of ancient
vents and over different minerals containing iron, nickel and different metals inside of the stones
around the

primordial soup hypothesis– alexander oparin started the hypothesis in 1924. Believes that life was
started over 3.8 billion to 3.55 billion years ago in a pond or ocean as a result of chemicals combing
from the atmosphere. 2 scientist sealed a mixture of water, ammonia, methane and hydrogen in a
flask they heated it and simulated lightning, after a week the scientist found blocks of protein in the
flask. Protein is a biomolecule that is essential for life.
iron–sulfur world– gunter wachtershauser started it in 1988. proposed that a biochemical cycle grew
and assembled the first living cell. swarms of bacteria rely on hydrothermal vents to thrive on the
bacteria thrive on gases produced by the vents such as methane and use these chemicals to produce
simple organic molecules to support the ecosystem. put ammonia, acetic acids, water, and salt to one
container, and heated CaCO3 and zinc in another container to create carbon monoxide, which
flowed into the first container. what came out was lipids and a drop in pH.
deep sea ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The claim is the same as the evidence, scientists discovered biological communities unexpectedly
living around seafloor hydrothermal vents, far from sunlight and thriving on a chemical soup rich in
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and sulfur, spewing from the geysers.Inspired by these findings, scientists
later proposed that hydrothermal vents provided an ideal environment with all the ingredients
needed for microbial life to emerge on early Earth. researchers went to hydrothermal vent sites
where the chemistry predicted they would find a lot of methane, and others where very little was
predicted to form. they measured 38 hydrothermal fluids from Mid–Atlantic Ridge, Guaymas Basin,
the East Pacific Rise, and the Mid–Cayman A central figure in this hypothesis is a simple sulfur–
containing carbon compound called methane. Scientists suspected methane to have started

Water On Mars: The Fermi Paradox Of Life
WATER ON MARS! This is a common headline that has been found countless times in newspaper
and website articles since Martians and other aliens were first popularized in the media. But why
exactly are we even looking for water on mars? And why are we searching for beings not first
theorized by scientists, but by legend and popular culture? Because life exists or has existed
somewhere in our universe besides Earth. They may not be the green, humanoid Martians that we
have thought up or even something we can see with our current technology, but it exists or did at
one point.
First of all, there are so many stars and planets in our universe, at least some of them must have had
life at one point. As stated in a YouTube video by Kurzgesagt, "There ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Tim Urban asks a similar question in his article about the Fermi Paradox "...there should be at least
1,000 Type III Civilizations in our galaxy alone–and given the power of such a civilization, their
presence would likely be pretty noticeable. And yet, we see nothing, hear nothing, and we're visited
by no one. So where is everybody?" (Urban) This is the Fermi paradox. In short, it is the paradox
that all of this life should exist, everywhere around the universe, yet we have not had one contact
with another civilization in all of recorded human history. These Type III Civilizations he mentions
are part of the Kardashev Scale. This scale helps us group civilizations into three categories. Type I
Civilizations have the ability to use all of the energy on their planet (humans are about a 0.7, it is
estimated we will reach Type 1 in the next couple centuries). Type II Civilizations are able to use all
of the energy from their host star, while Type III Civilizations are able to use all of the energy from
all of the stars in the whole galaxy. It would take such a civilization only 3.75 million years to
colonize the whole Milky Way if done correctly, which is no time in the Earth's 4.5 billion year life.
So if at least 1,000 of these civilizations exist in our galaxy, we would know about it. We would
likely know about only one since it would be able to use all of the energy from our own sun. This
has led many people to think that we are alone in this universe, and we always have been, since if
there is other life or ever was, we should know about it. There are quite a large number of feasible
possibilities which say that there has been life or that there currently is, explaining why we haven't
been

Primordial Soup
In 1924, the Soviet biologist Alexander Oparin proposed a theory of the origin of life, Oparin
believed that during chemical evolution of molecules that have carbon in Primordial Soup. The
theory suggests that life began in a body of water, resulting into the combination of chemicals from
the atmosphere and a form of energy to create amino acids which evolved into all of the species.
Chemist Stanley Miller and physicist Harold Urey conducted an experiment in 1950 to test Oparin's
theory. They mixed gases thought to be present on primitive earth such as: Methane, Ammonia,
Water, and Hydrogen. They then sparked the mixture to represent the lightning, and amino acids
were produced; the building blocks of proteins.
Iron–Sulfur World Hypothesis ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is believed that it may have been a major step in cellular life due to the fact that RNA stores
genetic information like DNA, and catalyzes chemical reactions like an enzyme protein. In 1962 the
molecular biologist Alexander Rich, had given the idea in an article he gave to a volume issued in
honor of physiologist, Albert Szent–Györgyi. This theory is supported by its ability to store,
transmit, and recreate genetic information, just like DNA.
Community Clay Hypothesis
In this hypothesis a scientist by the name of Dan Luo believes that clay hydrogels provide a way for
chemicals to come together and form complex biomolecules. Hydrogel is made up of groups of
polymer chains that suck up large amounts of water. The trapped chemicals react and form
biochemicals like proteins and DNA. "We propose that in early geological history clay hydrogel
provided a confinement function for biomolecules and biochemical reactions," said Luo.
Panspermia

Argumentative Essay On Aliens
There are many mysteries of the vast fascination of the existence of extraterrestrial beings.
Numerous people all around the world believe that the human race has been visited by life forms not
from this earth. For many years now scientist from all around the globe have been studying and
researching crash sites, crop circles, alien abduction victims, etc. Countless people are very naïve or
blind to the fact of extraterrestrial life forms and do not want to believe that we aren't the only ones,
but in this paper there is backed up facts and amazing discoveries that will make those people
believe otherwise. From a recent online article, the "RT News English" states "fossilized algae
recently discovered inside a Sri Lankan meteorite could finally ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The idea of aliens is the skinny green creatures with big heads and huge black eyes. The only reason
people think that is because that's what society has made is to believe. Think way back to the 50's
and 60's era when comic books and the idea of UFO's was popular. The government made society
believe that because they did not want to the public to know about top secret government operations
about these aliens, and the same thing happens even today. An online article from "examiner.com"
says they have had an interview with Richard Hoover, an astrobiologist at NASA. The article states
"Hoover claims that in 2004, the mars rover, opportunity photographed what clearly looks like the
fossilized remains of crinoid, a marine animal that looks like a sea lily. Hoover showed its
colleagues who immediately recognized the object as a crinoid. Page 1. "...Hoover said that less than
four hours after taking the photo, opportunity's rock abrasion tool ground the area where the
possible fossil lay into dust. He asked David McKay, the former chief astrobiologist at the Johnson
Space Center, why this had been done. The response Hoover received was less than satisfactory.
Hoovers experiences while at NASA have convinced him that senior officials are making decisions
that systematically ignore and/or lead to the destruction of fossilized evidence of extraterrestrial life.
Hoovers groundbreaking research and interview shows conclusive proof has been found of micro
bacterial extraterrestrial life, but NASA refuses to publicly acknowledge such a discovery." Page

Were Your Ancestors Martian Essay
Scientist: Humans May Be Descendants of Martians four subheadings
Were your ancestors martians? According to Seth Shostak of the Search For Extraterrestrial Life
Institute (SETI) Martian organisms may have once descended to the Earth from Mars.
In an article for The Huffington Post, Shostak described the logic of his theory, which is based on a
phenomenon called panspermia. Panspermia, the astronomer said, is "the mechanism by which
biology can spread through space without the benefit of expensive space–agency hardware".
PANSPERMIA
More than two thousand years ago, panspermia was postulated by the Greek thinker Anaxagoras.
But its recent history began about a century ago, when the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius
suggested that stars' radiation ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It would only be possible if the primordial protoplasm were protected to space conditions that don't
exactly nurture life.
"After all, space is hardly benign: cosmic rays, extreme temperatures, and prolonged desiccation
will relentlessly corrode any biology that takes too much time en route," wrote Shostak.
And, as it is thought that billions of rocks came to Earth from Mars when the solar system was
young, couldn't life have come to Earth, too? Maybe, and the possibility certainly shouldn't be
totally ruled out when we consider this evidence. If lithopanspermia is possible (which the
astronomer admits is unlikely), "countless worlds could be encrusted with biology", according to the
astronomer.
The astronomer never went beyond speculation, and does not actually claim that Mars is the human
being's original planet. He did, however, mention a possible empirical test for the idea. If
astronomers find evidence of DNA–based life existing on Mars, "then we'll have good reason to
believe that terrestrial biology is an import. We could say that not only men are from Mars; we all
are." Perhaps that famous book will be republished under a different

The Primordial Soup Hypothesis
This essay is a compilation of numerous hypothesis' of how life on Earth began. The six hypotheses'
are: Primordial Soup, Iron Sulfur, Deep Sea Vent, RNA World, Community Clay, Panspermia.
Primordial Soup was suggested by two scientist Alexander Oparin and J.B.S. Iron Sulfur was
proposed by Gunter Wachtershauser. Deep Sea Vent was proposed by scientists Nick Lane and Bill
Martin. RNA World was brought forth by scientists Sidney Altman and Thomas Cech. Community
Clay was discovered by a Greek Philosopher by the name of Anaxagoras. There are six hypothesis'
that I researched each one has a somewhat different approach to how they think life on Earth began.
Primordial Soup Hypothesis The Primordial Soup Hypothesis was proposed by the Russian ... Show
Smith's claim was that the original substance that helped transfer information between cells was a
clay like inorganic substance as opposed to a natural compound.There is not an abundance of well
documented evidence but Smith's reasoning was that clay, according to researchers, was discovered
to be around the same time biomolecules were in their beginning stages. Bart Kahr conducted an
experiment once before on testing the theory of crystals being used as catalyst to create cells.Kahr
and colleagues have designed the first experiment to examine the idea that crystals can act as a
source of interchangeable information, using crystals of potassium hydrogen phthalate. Kahr and his
team discovered that the crystal molecules were not strong enough to transfer

The Origin Of Life : Intelligent Design Vs. Materialistic...
Marquel Gray
Prof. Heather Clark
7/22/13
Eng.111–60A
The origin of life: Intelligent Design vs. materialistic naturalism
The origin of life has been questioned by men for thousands of years. Scientist have studied the
universe extensively and developed various theories to answer questions related to the origin of life.
Questions like, how did life begin? Is the universe the result of chaotic chance or intelligent design?
How did life on earth come to be? These are some of the many questions scientist work hard to
solve, but what does their research tell them? Let's start with the well–recognized theory of
evolution. Evolution, a theory made famous by Charles Darwin; is the process in which an organism
changes over time via adaptation, mutation and gene isolation. According to an article by
evolutionary biologist Richard Lenski (2012), "There exists no other scientific explanation that can
account for all the patterns in nature, only non–scientific explanations that require a miraculous
force, like a creator." Looking at the millions of fossils dated to be thousands, hundreds of
thousands, millions and billions of years old; this theory seems solid. According to an article, by bio
technician Brian Thomas (2011), a discrepancy about a time period known as the Cambrian
explosion; dated to be about 800 million years ago, has been around as early as Charles Darwin. In
this article he presents the evidence that an abundance of species said not to appear until

Zoo Paradox: The Absence Of Extraterrestrial Life
One of many solutions to fermis paradox is the zoo scenario. The zoo hypothesis looks as to the
assumed behavior and existence of extraterrestrial life and the reasons they stop from coming to
Earth and is one of many good explanations for the fermi paradox. The hypothesis is that alien life
avoids communication with Earth, and one of its main reasons is that it does so to allow for natural
evolution and cultural development, avoiding contamination. The hypothesis seeks to explain the
apparent absence of extraterrestrial life despite its accepted possibility and the reasonable
expectation of its existence. Aliens might choose to allow contact once the human species has
passed certain technological, political, or ethical standards. They might withhold contact until
humans force contact upon them, possibly by sending a spacecraft to planets they inhabit. ... Show
An alien society with advanced remote–sensing technologies may conclude that direct contact with
neighbors added risks without an added benefit. Some assumptions for the zoo hypothesis is, first
that a large number of alien cultures exist, and second that these aliens have great reverence for
independent, natural evolution and development. In particular, assuming that intelligence is a
physical process that acts to maximize the diversity of a system's accessible futures, a fundamental
motivation for the zoo hypothesis would be that contact would unintelligently reduce the overall
diversity of paths the universe itself could take. These ideas are perhaps most possible if there is a
universal cultural or legal policy among a wide range of extraterrestrial civilizations needing
isolation with respect to civilizations at Earth–like stages of development. In a universe without
power, random single civilizations with independent principles would make contact. This makes a
crowded universe with clearly defined rules seem more

Primordial-Up Hypothesis Research Paper
The primordial soup hypothesis is a hypothesis that was identified by a Russian chemist named
Oparin and an English genetics, Haldin in the year 1920. The hypothesis explains that life began in a
pond or an ocean from a combination of chemicals from the atmosphere. The two scientists thought
that that the basic building blocks of life came from a simple molecule that was formed in the
atmosphere. Evidence that they used to create this hypothesis was that they observed a molecule that
was energized by lightning and rain from the atmosphere that created organic soup. The reason why
they had to prove their assumption was because the amino acids had to become protein in order for
different gasses in the atmosphere to be contained then those used ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The first person to come up with this theory was Benoit De Maillet around the year 500 B.C. He
stated, "the intentional transfer of life to other planets by intelligent life." Then in 1973, the Nobel
peace prize was given to a British biologist, physicist and neuroscience professor, Francis Crick
proposed the theory of direct panspermia. The claim is that the seed of life is everywhere and life
existed all over the universe. The evidence that was found was a meteorite that landed in Antarctica
had contained structures that were remains of terrestrial Nano

The Primordial Soup Hypothesis: The primordial soup hypotheses states that all life began in ponds
or oceans,which came from a combination of chemicals that make amino acids, which would then
evolve into the species we know today. The scientists who came up with the hypotheses is A.I
Oparin and J.B.S Haldane. The hypotheses was presented in 1924. The claim that these scientists
made in the primordial soup theory was that Earth had a chemically reducing atmosphere, which
was exposed to different kinds of energy and produced organic compounds.These compound were
gathered in big bodies of water.From these waters came complex polymers and then life itself. They
tested this by putting together all the gasses that were thought to be present at that time(methane,
ammonia, water and hydrogen). They then electrified the gasses to signify lightning. The end ...
The hypothesis was first introduced in 1988 by a German scientist named Günter Wächtershäuser.
He claimed that the chemical reactions in the vents could make organic compounds. He
experimented by simulating the different chemical reactions that might occur in a vent. They wanted
to heat iron and nickel sulfides together with carbon monoxide. The result was that a carbon–carbon
bond was made and acetic acid was synthesized.
Deep Sea Vent Hypothesis: This hypothesis stated that chemical reactions in the oceans
hydrothermal vents of the ocean created living cells. This theory was presented in 1977 by scientists
Eoghan Reeves, Jeff Seewald, and Jill McDermott. They have found that biological communities are
thriving in a chemical soup rich in hydrogen, carbon dioxide and sulfur. From these findings they
proposed that hydrothermal vents has all the necessary components that would be necessary for life
to start on Earth. Scientist suspected that a compound called methanethiol was the the thing that
started all

Abiotic Synthesis And The Deep Sea Vent Hypotheses
Although both abiotic synthesis and the deep–sea vent hypotheses argue the environment of a
primordial–Earth was required for the origin of life, the two hypotheses have their differences. In
general, the abiotic synthesis hypothesis describes the process of how organic compounds can be
created from inorganic compounds, while the deep–sea vent hypothesis argues a possible scenario
where life may have originated from inorganic compounds. While the term "primordial soup" has
been used to describe abiotic synthesis, the same term has been used to describe the extreme
environment surrounding hydrothermal vents. In Stanley Miller's experiment, Bada and Lazcano
(2008, p.745) argue, Miller showed abiotic synthesis took place by introducing an electric current to
a circulating mixture of pressurized "CH4, NH3, H20, and H2." However, samples of both types of
hydrothermal vents show different mixtures than that of Miller's experiment. Although the LCHF
lacks CO2, according to William Martin, John Baross, Deborah Kelley, and Michael J. Russell
(2008, p.806) the compound was not used in Miller's experiment, but the vent did release ample
amounts of H2 and CH4, which were used in Miller's experiment. Black smokers, on the other hand,
give off H2, but also release CO2 and H2S (Martin et al., 2008, p.806). The two hypotheses agree
that life on Earth originated around roughly 3.8 billion years ago. Another similarity between the
two hypotheses is both argue the precursors of life are

Is The Primordial Soup Hypothesis?
The Primordial Soup Hypothesis is the theory that says that 3.55 billion to 3.8 billion years ago life
began in ponds or oceans from the combination of chemicals from the atmosphere and some form of
energy. It created amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. This theory was proposed by Russian
chemist A. I. Oparin and English geneticist J.B.S. Haldane in the 1920s. They proposed this
hypothesis independently. The Miller–Urey Experiment in 1953 is the strongest evidence for this
theory. A graduate student and his professor used conditions thought to be present on primitive Earth
to test the hypothesis and saw that amino acids formed in those conditions.
The Iron–Sulfur Hypothesis proposes that mineral catalysts present near deep sea vents promote
chemical reactions that could've possibly promoted the evolution of life and biomolecules. It takes
in carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide and reduces it using electrons from trollite to form
biomolecules. This hypothesis was first proposed by Günter Wächtershäuser, a German patent
lawyer in articles from 1988 to 1992. To test this hypothesis, a group of scientists designed a
simulated hydrothermal vent system and found the formation of elongated pores and the temperature
across the pore favored the accumulation of nucleotides. Hydrothermal vents have also been
observed for lipids. The concentration of nucleotides and lipids makes it more likely that they could
react and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This theory was proposed by a group of scientists in 1977. Experiments have revealed that there's
lots of methanethiol in the deep sea vents. There's tiny holes that separate the warm, alkaline fluid
from the cooler acidic seawater. Together they form a natural charge gradient. This gradient changes
the hydrogen and carbon dioxide to amino acids or

Panspermia And The Demise Of Humanity
The possibility of the world ending is something that is in the back of many people's minds. It is the
ultimate death. It is the end of not only yourself, but the end of humanity as a whole. There are many
ways that this could happen, ranging from Asteroids colliding with our planet, to alien invasion, and
even self annihilation via war. I am focusing on something that is very improbable, but just might
lead to the demise of humanity. Alien invasion. Most people think of alien invasions as a giant war
with another spacefaring, sentient race, however, it can come as a more subtle, possibly even more
deadly way. An alien pandemic has multiple ways of killing our race, from the infection itself, to
self annihilation. The possibility of the world ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is entirely possible for a microorganism to be made up without amino acids, or DNA, and still be
deadly to humans. It can have a different chemical backbone, it can be extremely heat or cold
resistant, resistant to radiation, UV light, and in the case of an intentional invasion, and it could be
made so that all modern treatments are ineffective. The possibility of the world ending due to
spacefaring, or alien bacteria entering our atmosphere and destroying the human race is a great
possibility. Death by pandemic is scary, as is every apocalypse theory. Though Death by a
spacefaring race of bacteria is entirely possible and might lead to humanities demise it is statistically
improbable, and is something that should not be thought of on a daily

What Is The Primordial So Up Hypothesis
Primordial Soup Hypothesis The Primordial Soup Hypothesis states that life began in water (pond,
ocean, ect.). It suggests that chemicals from the Earth's atmosphere combined and this created amino
acids. These amino acids would later evolve into all the species. A. I. Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane
fabricated this theory. The theory was presented in 1924. In 1953 an experiment was conducted
called the "Miller–Urey experiment". The experiment based around placing molecules (of the early
Earth's atmosphere) into a closed system. Gasses and electric shocks were added in the system to
simulate the environment of the early earth. After a week about 15% of the molecules were now
organic and 2% were in the form of amino acids. This evidence supports the theory of Primordial
Soup. Iron–Sulfur World Hypothesis The Iron–Sulfur World hypothesis is the theory that organic
compounds were created from prehistoric vents. The vents propelled hot pressurized water mixed
with various dissolved gasses ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This caused a chain reaction leading to the creation of organic compounds. This theory was
comprised by Gunter Wächtershäuser and first proposed in 1988. The same experiment ("Miller–
Urey experiment") can be used as evidence to support the theory that organic compounds came from
the early earth. Wächtershäuser does not agree with the latter approach about how organic
compounds are formed. He feels it's hard to explain why they would assemble themselves into
living organisms. This is why he supports that the origin of life should be sought after relative to the
early earth's

Murchison Meteorite Research Paper
Since the 1960s, space scientists have suggested that comets, interplanetary dust particles and
meteors brought with them gases and water into the Earth's atmosphere. Comets are made of
interstellar ice and dust. As they pass through the warm inner solar system, part of the frozen
contents of the comet boils away as dust and gas, some of which may get attracted by Earth's gravity
into our atmosphere. In 1996 the US NASA announced that fossilised evidence of ancient life was
found in a meteorite originated in Mars, though the scientists could not prove it.
Analysis of the Murchison meteorite revealed many amino acids, the building blocks of proteins.
The Murchison meteorite provided evidence that organic molecules can be formed outside the

Creationism Versus Panspermia Theory
Creationism versus panspermia is a debate that has been going on for ages, and in my opinion, more
solid evidence has been put forth in support of the panspermia theory. This is why I argue that the
panspermia theory is more legitimate and able to be used to explain the origin of life. The idea of
Panspermia is defined as "the theory that life on the earth originated from microorganisms or
chemical precursors of life present in outer space and able to initiate life on reaching a suitable
environment." One claim that backs the panspermia hypothesis is the rise of life not long after the
"bombardment period" of earth, that occurred somewhere around 4 and 3.8 billion years ago. Amid
this period, scientists are confident that the Earth experienced very forceful meteor showers.
Nonetheless, the earliest evidence for life on Earth proposes that it was in existence around 3.83
billion years ago, coinciding with this "bombardment phase." These perceptions propose that ...
Regardless of the fact that we have the capacity to demonstrate that life on Earth was a consequence
of panspermia, the subject of where and how life started becomes more difficult to explain. So far
our insight into the close solar system recommends that life is exclusive to Earth. Be that as it may,
as science and innovation advance, we will need to adjust views that are currently viewed as facts.
According to the theory of creationism, "the universe and living organisms originate from specific
acts of divine creation, as in the biblical account, rather than by natural processes such as evolution."
Evidence that supports this claim is not scientific. It mainly focuses on the weaknesses of the
panspermia theory, not putting forth solid evidence that proves the theory. Creationism is not science
at all, it is faith. This is why I believe panspermia is the more credible

The Miller-Urey Synthesis Essay: The Origin Of Life
Life has continually perplexed and fascinated individuals since the dawn of mankind. The subject's
complexity is so great even over the course of human existence only a minute fraction of its
mysteries have been unraveled. A phenomenon which has always intrigued scientists is the origin of
life on Earth, and in recent years significant advancements have been made in the understanding of
this enigma. This essay will briefly outline two theories regarding life's origin on Earth to further
comprehend why an explanation for this phenomenon has been so difficult to reach. One of the most
revered investigations of Abiogenesis (life arising from non–living matter) is the Miller–Urey
experiment conducted in 1952. This experiment (as depicted) involved the simulation of primordial
conditions on Earth and testing whether "natural stimulation" such as lighting and heat could have
resulted in the synthesis of simple organic compounds. Several compounds thought to have been
abundant in the atmosphere 3.8 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
asteroids, meteors, etc, life forms on Earth could have developed as a result of unintentional
microorganism contamination. This idea implies that microorganisms can successfully survive in
space, and if subjected randomly to ideal conditions evolution can occur. Evidence for this theory is
also relatively strong as tests done on the Murchison meteorite which fell near Murchison, Australia
in 1969 revealed it contained over 90 different amino acids (among which nineteen are found in
Earth life). Although Panspermia does not directly explain the origin of all life (only its distribution)
the synthesis of microorganisms in space could also be justified. If certain compounds were
subjected to conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiment, ultraviolet light could be
substituted for lightning as a chemical reaction

The Iron-Sulfur-Made Up Hypothesis
There are many different ideas of how life began on Earth, and it seems that people can not agree on
one. Scientists believe that life must have began as early as 3.8 billion years ago, but they still can't
decide on how it started. There are many theories that explain different ways it may have began.
The Primordial Soup Hypothesis was presented by The Russian Chemist A.I. Oparin and English
Geneticist J.B.S. Haldane. They came up with this idea in 1920. In this theory, they thought that the
combination of some chemicals and a source of energy made amino acids, which later evolved into
the first life on Earth. They believed that life started in an ocean or pond. In 1950, Stanley Miller
and Harold Urey did an experiment to test this hypothesis by mixing gases from Earth and sparking
the mixture to represent lightning. The conclusion came to be amino acids. These scientists thought
that this hypothesis could be correct because the current scientific level did not show any problems
with their ideas. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He thought that a metabolic cycle was capable of producing complex compounds. Over time, lipids
would have built up on the pyrite and made an enclosed membrane that may have evolved into the
first cell. Other scientists tested this theory by accumulating amino acids on a pyrite surface. He
believed that Chemoautotrophic organisms were the first organisms on Earth. This theory was
believed because it was supported by evidence as some of the other theories were not supported as

Iron-Sulfur World Hypothesis Essay
There are many hypotheses about the formation of a primitive terrestrial environment. These
hypotheses explain the origin of biomolecules including amino acids, purines, sugars, and many
more. These hypotheses verify the creation of molecules through these various processes.
The Iron–Sulfur world hypothesis proposes the idea that Chemoautotrophic organisms were the first
creations on earth and that they get their energy from the oxidative formation of pyrite.
"Chemotrophs are organisms that obtain energy by the oxidation of electron donors in their
environments." Gunter Wachtershauser is the german scientist who came up with this idea, received
on October 30, 1989. Gunter suggested that the organism must be an intermediate of carbon,
meaning that it is formed by one reaction and taking part in another, involving carbon. The organism
must also be able to acquire electrons and have an irreversible metabolism.
Carl Woese, Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel, in the 1960s, proposed the idea that the single stranded
proteins, RNA, were solely relied on. This theory is called, the RNA world hypothesis. They
believed that an ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...

It proposed the idea that because of the abundance of organic life living near the deep sea vents that
these might be the primitive organisms and biomolecules. There must have been a lot of energy to
drive the metabolisms of these plants, and the amount of pressure near the vents is a good source of
energy.
Eoghan Reeves, Jeff Seewald, and Jill McDermontt were the first to test the hypothesis.
The
three found biological communities living on the seafloor, and a large source of
Methanethiol (found
by hydrothermal vents).This was thought of as the "starter dough" of all life. The experiment
Reeves, Seewald, and McDermontt tested was to
: isolated methanethiol to see if it could create
biomolecules. It did not, but the theory is still considered a

The Genetic Code Essay
In the year of 1920 a theory created by two different scientists was born, Russian Scientist/Chemist
A.I.Oparin and an English Geneticist J.B.S both developed this theory known as ''The Primordial
Soup Theory". This theory basically states that all life 3.8–3.5 billon years ago came from a tiny
puddle filled with amino acids and elements from Earth's atmosphere. An experiment to test this
theory was called Miller–Urey experiment courtesy of scientist Stanley Miller and Harold Urey. In
this experiment the two used electric shocks/charges and were able to birth organic mixtures
(compounds).Oparin and J.B.S both stated that a solution of methane, hydrogen, vapored water, and
ammonia could be conjoined and made into amino acids. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Anyways this RNA world theory claims that RNA is the origin of all living organisms on planet
earth. Even though there is no experiment to back this hypothesis there is however research and
claims in Carl Woese's book by the name of "The Genetic Code". RNA is a protein also known as
ribonucleic acid, both RNA and DNA house tons of our (human beings) genetic codes. Seeing that
the theory says that it might not be the exact origin of life on earth it stilled played a part in
"evolution." Also recent cells and those that came before it were said to have evolved and bonded
with enzyme compound to make a unit. Enzymes bonded with RNA were stated that they made a
"system" which stored and created life and evolved. Community Clay Hypothesis states that
biological (living) organisms have ties to being evolved from clay. Hyrdogel clay (water substance
clay) was believed to have formed over billions of years consisting chemicals that were confined
and begun to produce biological matter of dioxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) and forms of proteins.
These chemicals were said to have had evolved and to have made complicated biological
structures/materials. Sadly there's no evidence in the form of experiment to back this claim up but
further studies are showing that this theory might have some potential in the

Primordial Soup Hypothesis In The 1920's
After researching each of the assigned hypotheses, I do not believe in any of them. I believe in the
Bible and everything in it. It was difficult at first to get over the fact that I had to research and write
a paper on things that I do not believe in. It was hard for me to stay focused on each hypothesis
because of my belief that God created the earth in six days and rested on the seventh day. I truly
believe it did not take any longer than that.
Primordial Soup Hypothesis 1,2
The Soviet Biologist Alexander Oparin created the Primordial Soup Hypothesis in the year 1920s'.
The scientist claimed the origin of biomolecules came from the transformation, during the gradual
chemical evolution of molecules that contain carbon in the Primordial Soup in other words; life
began in a pond or ocean when chemicals combined and evolved into the first species on Earth.
There is no evidence found to prove this theory. Even recently ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In a paper dated December 20, 2012 by Ed Yong, "Lane and Martin argued that hydrogen–saturated
alkaline water meeting acidic oceanic water at underwater vents would produce a natural proton
gradient across thin mineral 'walls' in rocks that are rich in catalytic iron–sulfur minerals. This set–
up could create the right conditions for converting carbon dioxide and hydrogen into organic
carbon–containing molecules, which can then react with each other to form the building blocks of
life such as nucleotides and amino acids." The evidence used to support their theory was that deep–
sea thermal vents have tiny thin–walled pores that generate complex proteins and RNA by
producing a proton gradient. Recently, geologists took tests on the areas around the deep–sea vents
and found them to have helpful information that would help them search into life on other planets.
From what they have found and know about these deep–sea vents they believe that the origin of
biomolecules started at these

This biology essay is going to contain facts about the original cells and how they developed and
how they got to Earth.
The Primordial Soup hypothesis a statement hypothesizing that life could have started in the ocean.
Alexander Oparin and John Haldane came up with the idea, they hypothesized that with the gases in
the atmosphere the energy from lightning strikes could spontaneously form amino acids in the
oceans. Their theory was tested in 1953 by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey. They combined the
atmospheres gases and sent constant lightning strikes through the air. However now there is doubt
that their experiment was liable because there is never actually constant lightning strikes in the real
world. Iron–Sulfur World Hypothesis is a hypothesis ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The cells evolved in the vents and escaped the vent later on. The hydrogen saturated alkaline water
meeting acidic oceanic water this would create the right conditions to convert carbon dioxide and
hydrogen into organic carbon containing molecules which can for the building blocks of life such as
nucleotides and amino acids. The RNA world in the early development of life on the earth genetic
continuity was assured by the replication of RNA, Base–pairing was the key to replication. RNA
stands for ribonucleic acid The RNA world existed before the DNA world and genetically encoded
proteins were not involved as the catalysts, DNA is protein based life. The Community Clay
Hypothesis is a statement brought up by Cairns Smith in 1982. Smith says that just like clay when
you copy layers of DNA it will come out very similar so if there is a defect on the layer of clay it
will translate to the next layer of clay. But there are also other key issues, sometimes the clay will
expand quicker or dry faster than the previous layer making the outcome change slightly. Another
example is small particles can be readily dispersed by the wind and it could change the way the clay

Essay on Popular Theories of the Origns of Life on Earth
Life began in the Ocean
The Big Bang theory is currently the most prevailing theory that explains the formation of Earth
roughly 13 billion years ago. Substantial scientific research and theories are in agreement that when
Earth was born, conditions on Earth was harsh. Due to nuclear fusion, Earth was very hot. One
theory suggest that the heat of Earth evaporates the water which forms clouds and subsequently
leads to rain. As Earth cooled, gravity traps the water collected and oceans started to form. Another
theory suggested that oceans were formed by comet containing frozen H2O colliding with Earth.
Coupled with intense tectonic activity cause by volcanic eruptions, constant bombardment by
meteorite and the absence of a protective ozone ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This theory's idea is similar to the population policy used by the Singapore government. The fastest
way to increase a country's population is through migration as opposed to the reproduction of life by
the citizens itself. One key breakthrough of this theory was a study in year 2000 that concluded from
a rock from Mars found on Earth. The discovery of the rock is evident that the rock from Mars was
able to survive through the journey from Mars to Earth and migration of life seems plausible. The
ability of Tardigrades (Figure 1), more commonly known as "water bears", to survive through space
travel despite being exposed to radiations and being deprived of oxygen further supports this theory.
Figure 1 Tardigrades
The deep–sea vent theory suggests that life began at these underwater volcanoes spewing key
hydrogen–rich molecules. Wachtershauser, an honorary professor of evolutionary biochemistry at
the University of Regensburg in Germany proposed that early Earth oceans and intensive volcanic
activities is the perfect environment for the origin of life. Hydrogen sulfide is the food source for
bacteria and instrumental in the "prebiotic" build–up of peptides. Protein molecules that is vital to
biological functions are made up of hundreds of amino acids. Shorter amino acid chains are called
peptides. The Miller–Urey experiment generates electric sparks in a mixture of gases thought to
resemble early Earth's atmosphere successfully

Why Do Scientists Come Up Hypotheses
This paper will be talking about hypotheses and theories that have been proven over time with the
experience of how scientists came up with their own hypothesis and proved them or have other
people prove them wrong. Its goes over claims,evidence and reasonings scientists gave to prove
their hypothesis correct. Russian Chemist A.I. Oparin and English Geneticist J.B.S. Haldane were
the first scientists involved and conceived the Primordial Soup Hypothesis. It was developed in the
year 1924. These scientists claimed that the building blocks of the life came from one simple
molecule that was formed from the atmosphere (without oxygen) and was called "organic soup".
Now,evidence suggests that the first organisms were autotrophs. Two new scientists, Chemists
Stanley Miller and Physicist Harold Urey, did a famous experiment 30 years later in 1950. Their
experiment consisted of mixing gases to present primitive earth. the gases used
were:Methane,Ammonia,Water,Hydrogen,and no oxygen, Then they electrocuted the mixture to
signify ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Sales Gydon de Montlivant, who thought life came from the moon, H.E. Richter, who stated life
came from comets and meteorites,and lastly Svante Arrhenius who came up with Panspermia.But
Panspermia was first mentioned in the writing of a Greek philosopher named Anaxagoras in the year
500 BC–428 BC. "Panspermia suggests that the seed of life may have been purposefully started off
with an advanced extraterrestrial civilization, or can be spread to earth other other planets by
humans."(Panspermia–Theory) The evidence to prove this hypothesis are quite a lot so here are a
few: –In early development mars had oxygen when earth did not and also when in early
development mars was not as hot as earth. There were many experiments made on this subject but
one that was solely on Panspermia was made on April 9th 1864 by a French Chemist named Louis

Ancestral Genetic Synthesis Essay
A fictional novel about the search for the clues and secrets that unlock mysteries of the human
genome and could save or destroy humanity. A researcher, Dr. Kate Warner has discovered
important genetic techniques to unlock important genes through her studies of 2 autistic children.
The unlocking of these genes is linked to the Atlanteans, a race of people who are currently frozen
under Antarctic Ice. The Atlanteans have been instrumental in the important 'leaps' in human
evolution from Australopithecines to modern humans. The key is in unlocking parts of the human
genome. Kate is helped by an intelligence officer, David Vale, who is investigating secret coded
messages sent by the Immari, a 2000 year old secret society dedicated to controlling ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
'Extinct' genes called pseudogenes are a part of our DNA but, because of mutations, are shut off.
Studies in the 1990s have attempted to 'resurrect' these genes but have been largely unable to do so.
It is thought that these genes were functional in pre–human species such as Australopithicenes and
Homo Habilis etc. Things such as exceptional hairiness in Neanderthals is thought to be an example
of genes that were functional and advantageous during their history but are not needed or functional
anymore.
B. Autism and 'autistic savants' a. www.autism.com/understanding–savants "Autistic savant is one
of the most interesting cognitive phenomenon in psychology." Autistic savants used to be called
'idiot savants' which means unlearned skill (from the French 'idiot' = unlearned). 10% of the autistic
population have savant abilities compared to only 1% in the non–autistic population. As many as
33% of autistic people have exceptional abilities. This certainly supports the idea in the text that
autistic people might hold the key for unlocking 'super' skills in the rest of the human population.
b.

An Exploration of Different Theories of Evolution Essay
An Exploration of Different Theories of Evolution
Where did we come from? It is a question that has haunted the entire history of humanity.
Thousands of years ago, our ancestors sought to answer the question with myths. Today, we are still
struggling with the same question–only today we seek to answer this mystery with science.
Given various observations, it seems plausible that all life arose from a few very simple organisms
millions of years ago. Observations of life will raise two important (though almost paradoxical)
questions: Why are there so many different kinds of life? And why do there appear to be some over–
riding similarities among organisms? The diversity of life is apparent in the vast number of different
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If all life on earth arose from one common ancestor it makes sense that they should have common
characteristics. Once the theory of evolution is accepted, there is still disagreement as the how
evolution occurred. This will be the focus of my paper.
Until quite recently, neo–Darwinism – as defined as the combination of Darwin's theory of evolution
of the species through gradual change guided by natural selection coupled with modern genetics –
was accepted as THE theory of evolution. However, lately neo–Darwinism has fallen out of favor.
Since neo–Darwinism has always been the most widely Observations in nature would appear to
support the claims of Neo–Darwinism. Just as Darwin hypothesized, organisms in nature do produce
more offspring than can survive and reproduce given the constraints of the environment. (12)
Richard Milton argues, however, that evolution does not arise from " survival of the fittest" , but
rather " survival of the most prolific" . (13) This argument is valid to a point. However, if an
organism has a characteristic that enables it to survive longer than its peers that organism will have
time to breed more times and therefore have more offspring.
Neo–Darwinism rests on the theory that random genetic mutations over thousands of generations
resulted in evolution. And there have been studies proving that genetic mutations could serve as the
mechanism by which evolution occurs. A group of scientists in London discovered a way in which

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