Chapter 7 Collecting Qualitative Data (Cresswell,2012)

1. COLLECTING QUALITATIVE DATA
*CHAPTER 7
By :
Hamid Darmadi
Riris Marlentera
Nursiati
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM
OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
FACULTY
TANJUNGPURA UNIVERSITY
KALIMANTAN BARAT

2. The five process steps in collecting qualitative data are:
*Identify the participants and sites to be studied and to be
engage in a sampling strategy which you choose.
*Gain access to the individuals and sites by obtaining
permissions.
*Consider what type of information will best answer your
research questions.
*Design protocols or instruments for collecting and recording the
information.
*Administer the data collection with special attention to
potential ethical issues tthat may arise.

3. *RANDOM SAMPLING VS PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING
*BOTH NEED PERMISSIONS TO BEGIN STUDY THE PARTICIPANTS
AND SITES
*BOTH USING INTERVIEWS, OBSERVATIONS AND DOCUMENTS TO
COLLECT THE DATA
*BOTH NEED TO RECORD THE INFORMATION SUPPLIED BY THE
PARTICIPANTS
*GATHERING INFORMATION FACE TO FACE VS USING ANONYMOUS
QUESTIONNAIRES

5. TYPES OF PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING
When does
Sampling occur?
Before Data
Collection
What is the Intent?
Maximal Variation
Sampling
Extreme Case
Sampling
Typical Sampling
Critical Sampling
Homogeneous
Sampling
Theory/Concept
Sampling
After Data
Collection Has
Started
What is the Intent?
Opportunistic
Sampling
Confirming/Disconfirming
Sampling
Snowball Sampling

6. Maximal Variation Sampling (a purposeful sampling strategy in
which the researcher samples cases or individuals that differ on
some characteristic or trait)
Extreme Case Sampling (a form of purposeful sampling in which
you study an outlier case or one that displays extreme
characteristics)
Typical Sampling (a form of purposeful sampling in which the
researcher studies a person or site that is ‘typical’ to those
unfamiliar with the situation)
Theory or Concept Sampling (a purposeful sampling strategy in
which the researcher samples individuals or sites because they
can help the researcher generate or discover a theory or specific
concepts within the theory)
Homogeneous Sampling (the researcher purposefully samples
individuals or sites based on membership in a subgroup that has
defining characteristics)

7. Critical Sampling (to study a critical sample because it is an
exceptional case and the researcher can learn much about the
phenomenon)
Opportunistic Sampling (a purposeful sampling undertaken after
the research begins, to take advantage of unfolding events that
will help answer research questions)
Snowball Sampling (a form of purposeful sampling that typically
proceeds after a study begins and occurs when the researcher
asks participants to recommend other individuals to be sampled)
Confirming and Disconfirming Sampling (a purposeful strategy
used during a study to follow up on specific cases to test or
explore further specific findings.

8. Sample size or number of research sites
*It is typical in qualitative research to study a few
individuals or a few cases.
*In some cases, you might study a single individual
or a single site. In other cases, the number may
be several, ranging from 1 or 2 to 30 or 40.

9. Seek Institutional Review Board Approval
Several strategies when negotiating qualitative research
through the institutional review board process:
*Determine if individuals reviewing proposals on the review
board are familiar with qualitative inquiry.
*Develop detailed descriptions of the procedures so that
reviewers have a full disclosure of the potential risks to
people and sites in the study.

10. *Detail ways you will protect the anonymity of participants.
*Discuss the need to respect the research site and to disturb
or disrupt it as little as possible.
*Detail how the study will provide opportunities to “give
back” or reciprocate in some way to those individuals you
study.
*Acknowledge that during your prolonged interaction with
participants, you may adopt their beliefs and even become
an advocate for their ideas.
*Specify potential power imbalances that may occur between
yourself and the participants, and how your study will
address these imbalances.
*Detail how much time you will spend at the research site.
*Include in the project description a list of the interview
questions so reviewers on the institutional board can
determine how sensitive the questions may be.

11. A gatekeeper is an individual who has an official or unofficial role at the
site, provides entrance to a site, helps researchers locate people, and
assist in the identification fof places to study (Hammersley & Atkinson,
1995).
Some requirement to submit written information about the
project/research to proceed are needed for the gatekeepers. The
information might include:
*Why their site was chosen for study
*What will be accomplished at the site during the research study (i.e.,
time and resources required by participants and yourself)
*How much time you will spend at the site
*What potential there is for your presence to be disruptive
*How you will use and report the results
*What the individuals at the site will gain from the study (Bogdan &
Biklen, 1998)

12. Observations
Interviews and Questionnaires
Documents
Audiovisual Materials

13. Observation
*Observations represent a frequently used form of data
collection, with the researcher able to assume different roles
in the process (Spradley, 1980)
*The advantages of using observation are the opportunity to
record information as it occurs in a setting, to study actual
behavior, and to study individuals who have difficulty
verbalizing their ideas.
*The disadvantages of using observation that we will be limited
to those sites and situations where we can gain access and in
the sites, we may have difficulty developing rapport with
individuals.

14. A Compendium of Data Collection Approaches in
Qualitative Research using Observations are:
*Conducting an observation as a participant
*Conducting an observation as an observer
*Spending more time as a participant than observer
*Spending more time as an observer than a participant
*First observing as an “outsider”, then participating in
the setting and observing as an “insider”
The form to collect the data in observation is by using
fieldnotes and drawings.

15. 1. As a participant observer
A participant observer is an observational role adopted by
researchers when they take part in activities in the setting
they observe.
2. As a nonparticipant observer
A nonparticipant observer is an observer who visits a site
and records notes without becoming involved in the
activities of the participants
3. As a changing observer
a changing observational role is one where researchers
adapt their role to the situation.

16. 1. Select a site to be observed that can help you best understand the
central phenomenon.
2. Ease into the site slowly by looking around; getting a general sense
of the site; and taking limited notes, at least initially.
3. At the site, identify who or what to observe, when to observe, and
how long to observe.
4. Determine, initially, your role as an observer.
5. Conduct multiple observations over time to obtain the best
understanding of the site and the individuals.
6. Design some means for recording notes during an observation.
7. Consider what information you will record during an observation.
8. Record descriptive and reflective fieldnotes.
9. Make yourself known, but remain unobtrusive.
10.After observing, slowly withdraw from the site.

17. *
Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers
from participants in a study.

18. *
*One-on-one interviews
*Focus groups interviews
*Telephone interviews
*E-Mail interviews

19. *
*Identify the interviewers
*Determine the type of interview you will use
*Audiotape the questions and responses
*Take brief notes during the interview
*Locate a quiet, suitable place for conducting the interview
*Obtain consent from the interviewee to participate in the
study
*Have a plan, but be flexible
*Use probes to obtain additional information
*Be courteous and professional when the interview is over

20. *
Open ended questions require a response with more depth
and a lengthier response. Open ended questions are also
helpful in finding out more about a person or a situation,
whether it’s during an interview or on questionnaires. So,
close-ended questions are those which can be answered by a
simple “yes” or “no,” while open ended questions are those
which require more though and more than a simple one-word
answer.

21. *
Documents consist of public and private records that
qualitative researchers obtain about a site or participants in a
study.
Documents can include newspapers, minutes of meeting,
personal journals, and letters.
Documents are sometimes difficult to locate and obtain.

22. *
*Identify the types of documents that you want to provide
*Consider that your documents as sources of information for
your research
*Provide the specific instructions if you ask participants to
keep a journal/diaries
*Examine them for accuracy and useful
*Record information from the documents

23. *
Audiovisual materials consist of images or sounds that
researcher collect to help them understand the central
phenomenon under study.

24. *
*Determine what visual material can provide information to
answer research questions
*Identify the visual available and obtain permission to use it
*Check the accuracy and authenticity of the visual material if
you do not record it yourself
*Collect the data and organize it

25. *
*Using protocols
- An interview protocol
take a notes during the interview and have the
questions ready to be asked.
- Development and Design of an Interview Protocol
a. it contains a header to record essential information
about the interview (statement or purpose of the
study)

26. b. following this header are five brief open-ended questions
that allow articipants maximum flexibility for
responding to the questions.
c. the core questions , Questions 2 through 4, address major
research questions in the study.
d. in addition to the five questions,you might use probes to
encourage participants to clarify or elaborate their idea.
* An observational protocol

30.  Informing the participants about the purpose
of our study
 Refraining from deceptive practices
 Sharing information with participants
 Being respectful of the research site
 Reciprocity
 Using ethical interview practices
 Maintaining confidetiality
 Collaborating with participants

31.  Patton (2002) offered a checklist of general
issues to consider, such as reciprocity,
assessment of risk, confidentiality, informed
consent, and data access and ownership.

32.  Identify the five process steps in collecting
qualitative data.
 Identify different sampling approaches to
selecting participants and sites.
 Recognize the various types of qualitative
data you can collect.
 Identify the procedures for recording
qualitative data.
 Recognize the field issues and ethical
considerations that need to be anticipated in
administering the data collection.

33.  Cresswell, J.W. (2012). Educational research:
planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research. New
York. Pearson

34. *THANK YOU….