Motivations to Support Charity-Linked Events After Exposure to
Facebook Appeals: Emotional Cause Identification and Distinct
Self-Determined Regulations
Kaspar Schattke
Université du Québec à Montréal
Ronald Ferguson and Michèle Paulin
Concordia University
Nonprofit organizations are increasingly dependent on the involvement of Millennial
constituencies. Three studies investigated their motivations to support charity-linked
events: emotional identification with a cause, self-determination theory (SDT) regula-
tions, and context-related Facebook promotions. This article addresses the recent call to
expand SDT research from a simple analysis of autonomous versus controlled moti-
vation, to studying the effects of all the regulations in the SDT continuum, in particular,
the inclusion of the tripartite dimensions of intrinsic motivation and integrated moti-
vation. Results demonstrated that the greater the emotional identification with the
cause, the stronger was the tendency to support the charity-linked event. Also, the
results in these social media contexts revealed that specific intrinsic dimensions (e.g.,
experience stimulation) are motivators of online and offline support, as is the personal
value nature of integrated regulation. Whereas only autonomous motivational regula-
tions predicted support for the two events organized specifically a for charitable causes,
both autonomous and controlled regulations predicted support of a for-profit event
organized with a charitable cause as an adjunct. These findings can assist practitioners
in designing more effective social media communications in support of charity-linked
events.
Keywords: social media, self-determination theory, integrated regulation, tripartite
model of intrinsic motivation, charitable causes
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/mot0000085.supp
Social media is a new domain offering excit-
ing opportunities to investigate research ques-
tions in social psychology (Greitemeyer, 2011;
Kende, Ujhelyi, Joinson, & Greitemeyer, 2015).
Our research examined motivation to support
charity-linked events of nonprofit organizations
that are currently faced with increased compe-
tition for resources and declining government
support (Paulin, Ferguson, Jost, & Fallu, 2014;
Reed, Aquino, & Levy, 2007; White & Peloza,
2009). Presently, they depend on an ageing set
of traditional supporters (Urbain, Gonzalez, &
Le Gall-Ely, 2013). However, their future suc-
cess lies in ensuring the sustainable involve-
ment of the Millennial generation (Fine, 2009),
distinguished from other generations by their
intense exposure at an early age to interactive
technology and social media (Bolton et al.,
2013).
Facebook, the most detailed social media, is
used primarily to maintain or solidify existing
offline relationships allowing people to develop
a public or semipublic profile and to emotion-
ally participate with those whom they can share
This article was published Online First December .
Introduction to ArtificiaI Intelligence in Higher Education
Motivations to Support Charity-Linked Events After Exposure to.docx
1. Motivations to Support Charity-Linked Events After Exposure
to
Facebook Appeals: Emotional Cause Identification and Distinct
Self-Determined Regulations
Kaspar Schattke
Université du Québec à Montréal
Ronald Ferguson and Michèle Paulin
Concordia University
Nonprofit organizations are increasingly dependent on the
involvement of Millennial
constituencies. Three studies investigated their motivations to
support charity-linked
events: emotional identification with a cause, self-determination
theory (SDT) regula-
tions, and context-related Facebook promotions. This article
addresses the recent call to
expand SDT research from a simple analysis of autonomous
versus controlled moti-
vation, to studying the effects of all the regulations in the SDT
continuum, in particular,
the inclusion of the tripartite dimensions of intrinsic motivation
and integrated moti-
vation. Results demonstrated that the greater the emotional
identification with the
cause, the stronger was the tendency to support the charity-
linked event. Also, the
results in these social media contexts revealed that specific
intrinsic dimensions (e.g.,
2. experience stimulation) are motivators of online and offline
support, as is the personal
value nature of integrated regulation. Whereas only autonomous
motivational regula-
tions predicted support for the two events organized specifically
a for charitable causes,
both autonomous and controlled regulations predicted support
of a for-profit event
organized with a charitable cause as an adjunct. These findings
can assist practitioners
in designing more effective social media communications in
support of charity-linked
events.
Keywords: social media, self-determination theory, integrated
regulation, tripartite
model of intrinsic motivation, charitable causes
Supplemental materials:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/mot0000085.supp
Social media is a new domain offering excit-
ing opportunities to investigate research ques-
tions in social psychology (Greitemeyer, 2011;
Kende, Ujhelyi, Joinson, & Greitemeyer, 2015).
Our research examined motivation to support
charity-linked events of nonprofit organizations
that are currently faced with increased compe-
tition for resources and declining government
support (Paulin, Ferguson, Jost, & Fallu, 2014;
Reed, Aquino, & Levy, 2007; White & Peloza,
2009). Presently, they depend on an ageing set
of traditional supporters (Urbain, Gonzalez, &
Le Gall-Ely, 2013). However, their future suc-
cess lies in ensuring the sustainable involve-
3. ment of the Millennial generation (Fine, 2009),
distinguished from other generations by their
intense exposure at an early age to interactive
technology and social media (Bolton et al.,
2013).
Facebook, the most detailed social media, is
used primarily to maintain or solidify existing
offline relationships allowing people to develop
a public or semipublic profile and to emotion-
ally participate with those whom they can share
This article was published Online First December 21, 2017.
Kaspar Schattke, Department of Psychology, Université
du Québec à Montréal; Ronald Ferguson, Management De-
partment, John Molson School of Business, Concordia Uni-
versity; Michèle Paulin, Marketing Department, John Mol-
son School of Business, Concordia University.
This research is a pertinent activity within Michèle Pau-
lin’s Royal Bank of Canada Professorship in Strategic Re-
lationship Marketing. The authors also wish to thank
Marylène Gagné for her encouragement during the initial
stages of this research.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed
to Kaspar Schattke, Département de psychologie, Université
du Québec à Montréal, CP 8888, Succ. Centre-Ville, Montréal,
Québec H3C 3P8, Canada. E-mail: schattke.kaspar_
[email protected]
T
hi
s
do
9. related anonymous context (Martela & Ryan,
2016). Studies of nonprofit organizations
have addressed the increasing importance of
social media but not the practical details of
how to go about it effectively (Guo & Saxton,
2014).
The purpose of our article is to address this
practical gap from the theoretical perspective of
motivation to support charity-linked events in a
social media context. First, with respect to emo-
tional identification with a charitable cause, we
expand on the vast research literature regarding
the motivation for engaging in prosocial behav-
iors based on, among others, social identifica-
tion (Tajfel, 1972; Tajfel & Turner, 1986), al-
truism/egoism (Batson & Shaw, 1991), moral
identity (Reed et al., 2007), gender (Eagly,
2009), and personality (Penner, 2002). Second,
we address the more recent call to expand SDT
research from just an analysis of autonomous
versus controlled motivation, to studying the
effects of the continuum of distinct motivational
regulations in various charity-linked situations
(Pelletier, Rocchi, Vallerand, Deci, & Ryan,
2013). We also assess the tripartite dimensions
of intrinsic motivation and of integrated moti-
vation, two important regulations often missing
in previous SDT research (Amiot & Sansfaçon,
2011; Carbonneau, Vallerand, & Lafrenière,
2012; Chemolli & Gagné, 2014; Ferguson, Gut-
berg, Schattke, Paulin, & Jost, 2015; Miquelon
& Castonguay, 2017).
This article presents three empirical studies
of Millennial’s motivation to support charity-
10. linked events promoted on social media. Two
were organized specifically for a charitable
cause and the other was to promote a for-
profit event with a charitable cause as an
adjunct. Study 1 involved the promotion of an
annual charity event for the cause of homeless
youth. Study 2 involved a proposed charity
event for the cause of breast cancer, of which
the annual promotions were predominantly
feminine in nature (Sulik & Zierkiewicz,
2014). Study 3 involved a charity-related for-
profit fashion show for women. The partici-
pants in these studies were Millennial first-
year undergraduate business school students.
Traditionally these students can gain an addi-
tional two percent of a core-course grade by
participating in research projects. No mone-
tary or other incentive for participation was
given. Historically, more than 65% of stu-
dents take part in available research projects.
This target group is particularly pertinent
given that they are digitally savvy and highly
engaged in social media and, as future man-
agers of for-profit and nonprofit organiza-
tions, they will be involved in charitable
causes. In each study, participants examined
Facebook event page appeals and answered
questions online. They were requested to
carefully examine the Facebook event cover
photo, description section, photos, and a vid-
eo.
The design of each study involved the ad-
vanced Conditional Process Model, which is
particularly applicable when, the “. . . goal is to
11. describe and understand the conditional nature
of the mechanism or mechanisms by which a
variable transmits its effect on another” (Hayes,
2013, p. 325). The model’s assumptions are that
(a) all direct effects function through some kind
of mechanism (mediation), (b) they are contin-
gent on something (moderation), and (c) any
analysis which focuses only on mediation or
moderation but not both is going to be incom-
plete in some ways. Therefore, each study ex-
amined (a) the direct effect of the emotional
identification with a cause on online and offline
intentions to support a charity related event, (b)
the mediation of this effect by the distinct SDT
motivational regulations in the SDT continuum
and, (c) the moderator effects of separate Face-
book page appeals as motivators to support
these three different charity-linked events.
316 SCHATTKE, FERGUSON, AND PAULIN
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16. Direct Motivational Effect of Emotional
Cause Identification and Support for
Charity-Linked Events
Social identity theory can be an important
perspective to explain motivation for prosocial
behaviors (Levine, Prosser, Evans, & Reicher,
2005; Thomas, McGarty, & Mavor, 2009). So-
cial identity is that part of one’s self-concept,
which derives from knowledge of belonging to
a certain social group together with an emo-
tional and value significance of this group mem-
bership (Tajfel, 1972). Social identification is
found to be one of the prime motivations for
participation in social movements (Stets &
Burke, 2000). Central and salient social identi-
ties are more likely to influence thought, feel-
ing, and action because they are contextually
relevant and subjectively important (Ashforth,
Harrison, & Corley, 2008). Identification with a
salient social group may engender a sense of
“we-ness” where self-benefit and others-benefit
merge leading to helping behaviors (Penner et
al., 2005).
More specifically, social identity theory im-
plies that a sense of community should increase
social engagement, volunteering, and helping
because it increases one’s sense of belonging
(Omoto & Snyder, 2002). Indeed, identifying
with a social group has been shown to increase
helping and volunteering (Simon, Stürmer, &
Steffens, 2000), to enhance group cohesion and
motivation (Ellemers, de Gilder, & Haslam,
2004), and to improve citizenship behaviors
(Tyler & Blader, 2001). Although much pro-
17. social behavior is about helping individuals in
need, it can also be directed at supporting
groups or organizations coordinating the provi-
sion of that need (Eagly, 2009; Ferguson et al.,
2015). Whereas one can develop social identi-
fication with facets of an organization, family or
other grouping, an emotional identification can
also exist with respect to a charitable cause
(Thomas et al., 2009). Vanhamme, Lindgreen,
Reast, and van Popering (2012) define cause
identification as the degree of overlap in an
individual’s self-concept and the perception of
the cause. They report that the stronger the
identification with the cause, the more positive
are the evaluations of campaigns for that cause.
However, it is imperative to investigate further
this motivational link between cause identifica-
tion and event support as promoted in various
situations via social media.
Mediation of Direct Effect of Cause
Identification on Event Support via Distinct
SDT Motivational Regulations
Self-Determination Theory is a “macrotheory”
of human motivation influenced by and dependent
upon social and environmental factors (Deci &
Ryan, 1985; Moller, Ryan, & Deci, 2006). SDT
expands on the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation by positing a continuum of behavioral
regulations ranging from controlled to autono-
mous motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Gagné &
Deci, 2005; Pelletier, Rocchi, Vallerand, Deci, &
Ryan, 2013; Vallerand, Pelletier, & Koestner,
2008). In each of these two broad categories is a
18. set of motivational regulations with distinct char-
acteristics. Controlled motivation includes exter-
nal and introjected regulations, whereas autono-
mous motivation is comprised of identified and
integrated regulations as well as intrinsic motiva-
tion.
Intrinsic motivation involves three dimen-
sions: to experience stimulation, acquire knowl-
edge, and accomplish (Vallerand, Blais, Brière,
& Pelletier, 1989; Vallerand et al., 1993). Car-
bonneau et al. (2012) described this as the Tri-
partite Model, in which the intrinsic motivation
to experience stimulation is seeking for sensa-
tions, excitement, or aesthetic enjoyment; the
intrinsic motivation to know is doing an activity
for the pleasure and satisfaction of learning and
exploring or understanding something new and;
the intrinsic motivation toward accomplishment
is deriving pleasure and satisfaction from at-
tempting to surpass oneself or engaging in the
process of accomplishing or creating some-
thing. They report that exploratory and confir-
matory factor analyses in several contexts (edu-
cation, work, leisure, and sport contexts)
demonstrate that the three dimensions of intrinsic
motivation, although related, are nevertheless dis-
tinct constructs.
Thus, SDT provides a richer set of distinct
regulations than simply analyzing the effects of
autonomous versus controlled motivation (Fer-
guson et al., 2015; Taylor, Jungert, Mageau,
Schattke, Dedic, Rosenfield, & Koestner, 2014).
The SDT continuum has been viewed as se-
quentially moving from low to high levels of
19. 317MOTIVATIONS TO SUPPORT CHARITY-LINKED
EVENTS
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self-determination (Vallerand, 1997). However,
this has been questioned (Ferguson et al., 2015;
Koestner & Losier, 2002). Chemolli and Gagné
(2014) argued that the multidimensional treat-
ment of motivation is a unique strength of SDT.
However, until recently, autonomous integrated
regulation has not been included in the assessment
of SDT motivations and conspicuously absent in
the above critique of the sequential predictive
power of the SDT continuum (Amiot & Sansfa-
çon, 2011; Ferguson et al., 2015). Given that in-
tegrated regulation is determined by one’s closely
held values, it is expected to be an important
motivational factor for supporting a charitable
cause with which one identifies. In addition,
the majority of studies have employed an
overall measure of intrinsic motivation rather
than assessing the individual effects of the
tripartite dimensions.
24. Moderation of Direct Effects of Cause
Identification on Event Support via
Facebook Appeals
According to Hayes (2013), moderation anal-
ysis is pertinent when an investigator seeks to
determine whether a given variable is thought to
influence the size of the direct effect of an
independent variable on the dependent variable.
In the present research, we chose three contexts,
in which the motivation for supporting a chari-
table-linked event was thought to be directly
determined by the participants’ emotional iden-
tification with the cause. Sequentially, we as-
sessed a single moderating effect relevant to
each context: self-versus -others benefit appeals
in Study 1, gender in Study 2, and appeals for a
commercial product alone versus a combined
cause/product in Study 3.
The Empirical Studies
In general, for each of the three studies we
hypothesized that (a) in the context of events
linked to a cause, the strength of emotional
cause identification would have a positive direct
effect on Millennials’ online and offline support
of the event, (b) this direct effect would be
mediated (indirect effect) by different SDT mo-
tivational regulations depending on the event
studied, and (c) the direct effect would be mod-
erated (conditional direct effect) by the type of
promotional Facebook page appeal. Figure 1
illustrates the expected relationships.
25. Study 1: Homeless Youth Event
Study 1 examined motivations for support of
the “Five Days for the Homeless” event (Five
Days for the Homeless, https://5days.ca/about).
This annual event began at one university busi-
ness school in 2005 and now involves 26 with
total donations of nearly two million dollars.
For five days, students, professors, and celebri-
ties live and sleep overnight on the street sur-
rounding the university. Volunteers solicit
funds from the student population and the pub-
SDT REGULATIONS
Intrinsic/to experience
Intrinsic/to know
Intrinsic/to accomplish
Integrated regulation
Identified regulation
Introjected regulation
External regulation
EVENT SUPPORT
Online
Offline
IDENTIFICATION
WITH CHARITABLE
CAUSE
Study 1
FACEBOOK APPEAL
Self-Benefit
31. lic. Besides examining participants’ online and
offline intentions to support the event, we also
examined their online and offline self-reported
behaviors two weeks following the event.
Method
Participants and procedures. Study 1
used a between-subjects design involving N �
339 first-year undergraduate business school
students. The “Five days for the Homeless”
Facebook event page was manipulated to pro-
vide two appeals, which were randomly as-
signed to two groups. One appeal mainly pro-
moted benefits to others (n � 165) and the other
appeal benefits to the self (n � 174). The self-
benefit appeal emphasized “where will you be
sleeping tonight”, “sleepers are heroes”, “great
for their CVs”, “free tickets to a rock concert”,
and “tax breaks”. The others-benefit appeal em-
phasized that “we take to the streets to raise
funds”, “it makes ‘cents’ to participate”, “by
working together we can help the homeless”,
and “there is strength in numbers”.
Measures. Descriptive statistics, scale reli-
abilities, and intercorrelations for all Study 1
variables are presented in Table 1. All measures
were 5-point Likert scales. The dependent vari-
ables included two 4-item scales of intentions to
support the event. The online support scale was
prefaced with the statement: “The Facebook
event page makes me want to. . . .” The items
were: “. . . respond that I like some of the
postings”, “. . . post my comments to it”, “. . .
share it with my friends and others in my net-
32. work”, and “. . . share some of the videos,
pictures and links”.
The offline support scale was prefaced with
the statement “Other things considered, I would
. . .”. The items were “. . . attend”, “. . . make a
donation”, “. . . volunteer to help out”, and “. . .
willingly be on the organizing committee”.
The independent variable of emotional iden-
tification with the cause of homeless youth was
assessed with a 4-item scale prefaced by the
statement “The cause is important to me be-
cause . . .” followed by “it is personally close to
my heart”, “I know someone who has suffered”,
“it can touch my family or those close to me”,
and “it is one of the most important concerns for
people my age”. The proposed mediation vari-
ables were the seven motivational regulations in
the SDT continuum measured using a 28-item T
ab
le
1
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scale (see Appendix) adapted from Guay, Ma-
geau, and Vallerand (2003) as well as Amiot
and Sansfaçon (2011). The scales included four
items for each of the measures: the three dimen-
sions of intrinsic motivation; to experience
stimulation, to know, and to accomplish as well
62. as integrated, identified, introjected, and exter-
nal regulations. The motivational regulations
scales were introduced with the statement, “I
would become engaged in the “Five Days for
the Homeless” event because. . . .” The self-
versus others- benefit Facebook appeals were
analyzed as the dichotomous moderator vari-
able (self � 0, other � 1) of the direct effect of
cause identification on the online and offline
support of the “Five days for the Homeless”
event.
The participants were also contacted by e-
mail in the two weeks following the “Five Days
for the Homeless” event. They were asked to
respond by indicating which, if any, actions
they took with regard to the event. The reported
actions were grouped into two categories, on-
line and event behaviors. For example, online
actions could be donating online, following the
event, commenting or sharing information on-
line. Event related actions included being a
sleeper, visiting the site, being a volunteer, dis-
cussing with sleepers and volunteers, donating
via a volunteer or attending opening and closing
ceremonies. No monetary or other incentives
were offered in return for this information. A
total of N � 149 participants (44%) responded
to the e-mail request.
Results
The descriptive results in Table 1 show that
online and offline intentions to support the
homeless event were strongly correlated, r �
.60, p � .001 but not strongly enough to be
63. redundant, which justifies conducting separate
analyses for online and offline intentions. More-
over, identification with the cause was posi-
tively correlated with online, r � .44, p � .001
and offline intentions, r � .57, p � .001 to
support the event. Furthermore, participants
tended to have higher mean values for autono-
mous forms of motivation than for controlled
ones and, overall, the correlations of cause iden-
tification and support intentions seem to be
higher with autonomous than with controlled
forms of motivation.
Analyses of the conditional process models
(see Table 2) showed significant direct effects
of identification with the cause on both online
(b � .29, SE � .10, p � .002) and offline (b �
.34, SE � .08, p � .001) support for the “Five
days for the Homeless” event, as indicated by
unstandardized coefficients. The direct effect of
cause identification was found to be mediated
(indirect effect) through intrinsic motivation to
experience stimulation for both online and of-
fline support (see Table 2). Also, integrated
regulation mediated the direct effect of cause
identification on offline but not online support.
Moderation analyses showed a significant in-
teraction term between the Facebook appeal
type (self � 0, other � 1) and identification
with the cause for online (b � .34, SE � .12,
p � .004) as well as offline intentions (b � .24,
SE � .10, p � .016). Online support for the
“Five Days for the Homeless” event was stron-
ger for the others-benefit (b � .63, SE � .09,
p � .001) compared to the self-benefit appeal
64. (b � .29, SE � .09, p � .002). Similar results
were found for offline event support for the
appeals to others-benefit (b � .58, SE � .07,
p � .001) and self-benefit (b � .34, SE � .08,
p � .001).
In the follow-up study, there were no signif-
icant differences in the previous online and of-
fline support for the Five Days for the Homeless
event between those participants who did or did
not respond to the follow-up email request for
event behavior information (Online: M � 3.33,
SD � 0.90 vs. M � 3.52, SD � 0.93, t(337) �
�1.80, p � .07, r � .10, and actual offline
actions: M � 3.13, SD � 0.81 vs. M � 3.26,
SD � 0.93; t (337) � �1.29, p � .20, r � .07).
Those respondents who reported that they actu-
ally engaged in supporting the event online and
offline had also previously indicated signifi-
cantly higher intentions to do so than those who
did not (Online: M � 3.65, SD � 0.70 vs. M �
3.08, SD � 0.96, t(122) � 3.73, p � .001, r �
.32, and offline actions: M � 3.24, SD � 0.74
vs. M � 2.85, SD � 0.93, t(122) � 2.39, p �
.018, r � .21).
Discussion
First, the findings of Study 1 are consistent
with the literature demonstrating the positive
motivational relationship between the degree of
emotional feelings of cause identification and
320 SCHATTKE, FERGUSON, AND PAULIN
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the engagement in prosocial helping behaviors.
They fully support the hypothesis that the
strength of the identification with the cause of
homeless youth directly predicts Millennials’
online and offline intentions to support the
“Five Days for the Homeless” event.
Second, these results validate previous re-
search showing that identification with a cause
engenders autonomous rather than controlled
motivation in support of prosocial …