2. Slide
6-2
Learning Goals
What is motivation?
What three beliefs help determine work effort,
according to expectancy theory?
What two qualities make goals strong predictors of
task performance, according to goal setting theory?
What does it mean to be equitably treated according
to equity theory, and how do employees respond to
inequity?
3. Slide
6-3
Learning Goals, Cont’d
What is psychological empowerment, and
what four beliefs determine empowerment
levels?
How does motivation affect job performance
and organizational commitment?
What steps can organizations take to increase
employee motivation?
4. Slide
6-4
What is Motivation?
Motivation is defined as a set of energetic forces
that originates both within and outside an employee,
initiates work-related effort, and determines its
direction, intensity, and persistence.
Motivation is a critical consideration because job
performance often requires high levels of both ability and
motivation.
Employees who are engaged completely invest themselves
and their energies into their jobs.
6. Slide
6-6
Discussion Questions
What makes you decide to direct your effort
to work assignments rather than taking a
break or wasting time?
What makes you decide to be a “good citizen”
by helping out a colleague or another
student?
7. Slide
6-7
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory describes the cognitive
process that employees go through to make
choices among different voluntary responses.
Employee behavior is directed toward pleasure
and away from pain or, more generally, toward
certain outcomes and away from others.
9. Slide
6-9
Expectancy Theory, Cont’d
Expectancy represents the belief that exerting a high
level of effort will result in the successful
performance of some task.
Expectancy is a subjective probability, ranging from 0 to 1
that a specific amount of effort will result in a specific level
of performance (abbreviated E → P).
Self-efficacy is defined as the belief that a person has the
capabilities needed to execute the behaviors required for
task success.
11. Slide
6-11
Expectancy Theory, Cont’d
Instrumentality represents the belief that successful
performance will result in some outcome(s).
Instrumentality is a set of subjective probabilities, each
ranging from 0 to 1 that successful performance will
bring a set of outcomes (abbreviated P → O).
Valence reflects the anticipated value of the outcomes
associated with performance (abbreviated V).
Can be positive, negative, or zero
12. Slide
6-12
Expectancy Theory, Cont’d
What exactly makes some outcomes more
“positively valenced” than others?
In general, outcomes are deemed more
attractive when they help satisfy needs.
Needs can be defined as cognitive groupings or
clusters of outcomes that are viewed as having
critical psychological or physiological
consequences.
14. Slide
6-14
Expectancy Theory, Cont’d
Extrinsic motivation is motivation that is
controlled by some contingency that depends
on task performance.
Intrinsic motivation is motivation that is felt
when task performance serves as its own
reward.
16. Slide
6-16
Expectancy Theory, Cont’d
Total “motivational force” to perform a given action
can be described using the following formula:
Motivational Force = E P x Σ[(P O) x V]
The Σ symbol in the equation signifies that
instrumentalities and valences are judged with various
outcomes in mind.
Motivational force equals zero if any one of the three
beliefs is zero.
17. Slide
6-17
Goal Setting Theory
Goal setting theory views goals as the primary
drivers of the intensity and persistence of
effort.
Assigning employees specific and difficult goals
will result in higher levels of performance.
What is a difficult goal?
20. Slide
6-20
Goal Setting Theory, Cont’d
Why do specific and difficult goals have such
positive effects?
Assignment of a specific and difficult goal shapes
people’s own self-set goals — the internalized
goals that people use to monitor their own task
progress.
Goals trigger the creation of task strategies,
defined as learning plans and problem-solving
approaches used to achieve successful
performance.
21. Slide
6-21
Goal Setting Theory, Cont’d
Moderators on Task Performance
Feedback consists of updates on employee
progress toward goal attainment.
Task complexity reflects how complicated the
information and actions involved in a task are, as
well as how much the task changes.
Goal commitment is defined as the degree to
which a person accepts a goal and is determined
to try to reach it.
25. Slide
6-25
Equity Theory
Equity theory acknowledges that motivation
doesn’t just depend on your own beliefs and
circumstances but also on what happens to
other people.
Employees create a “mental ledger” of the
outcomes (or rewards) they get from their job
duties.
26. Slide
6-26
Equity Theory, Cont’d
You compare your ratio of outcomes and inputs
to the ratio of some comparison other — some
person who seems to provide an intuitive frame
of reference for judging equity.
“Cognitive calculus”
Ratio of outcomes to inputs is balanced between
you and your comparison other.
My Outcomes
My inputs
vs. Other’s Outcomes
Other’s Inputs
28. Slide
6-28
Equity Theory, Cont’d
“Cognitive calculus,” cont’d
Your ratio of outcomes to inputs is less than your
comparison other’s ratio.
Any imbalance in ratios triggers equity distress —an
internal tension that can only be alleviated by restoring
balance to the ratios.
30. Slide
6-30
Psychological Empowerment
Psychological empowerment reflects an energy
rooted in the belief that work tasks contribute to
some larger purpose.
Meaningfulness captures the value of a work goal or
purpose, relative to a person’s own ideals and passions.
Self-determination reflects a sense of choice in the
initiation and continuation of work tasks.
Competence captures a person’s belief in his or her
capability to perform work tasks successfully.
Impact reflects the sense that a person’s actions “make a
difference”—that progress is being made toward fulfilling
some important purpose.
32. Slide
6-32
How Important is Motivation?
Strongest performance effect is self-efficacy /
competence; people who feel a sense of internal
self-confidence tend to outperform those who doubt
their capabilities.
Difficult goals are the second most powerful
motivating force.
The motivational force created by high levels of
valence, instrumentality, and expectancy is the next
most powerful motivational variable for task
performance.
Perceptions of equity have a somewhat weaker
effect on task performance.
