Hofstede's Theory of National Culture Explained and Applied

HOFSTEDE’S THEORY OF NATIONAL CULTURE AND ITS 1
Hofstede’s Theory of National Culture
and Its Application to Missouri University of Science and Technology’s
Recruitment Video for International Students
YeonKyung Lee
TEC COM 6450

Abstract
In today’s globalized world, it is important for organizations to practice intercultural
communication. Understanding intercultural communication theories would provide a great
guide to technical communicators and organizations to practice intercultural application on their
products and services. This paper will explore one of the famous intercultural theories, Geert
Hofstede’s culture as ‘Software of the Mind’ and its six dimensions. Also, the paper will apply
Hofstede's theory on Missouri University of Science and Technology (Missouri S&T)’s
recruitment video. The paper will explain the background of the video and demonstrate
intercultural application to two different countries, South Korea and China, based on Hofstede’s
theory. Finally, this paper will present difficulties and limitations in the application of Hostsede’s
theory as a static culture approach.

Hofstede’s Definition of Culture as ‘Software of the Mind’
Hofstede defines culture as ‘software of the mind’. People have changes in how they use
the language, how they act, and what they eat as they grow up and get affected by interaction
with society and surrounding environment. Thus, people's surrounding environment affects their
behavior, thought, and value. Hofstede calls culture as ‘mental programs’, or, ‘software of the
mind’ (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p. 3).
Also, he believes culture emerges from patterns that differentiate one group from others.
He defines culture as “The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members
of one group or category of people from others” (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p. 4).
National Culture
In his use of the term ‘national culture’, ‘national’ stands for the nation system which is a
political division of the world. Hofstede mentions that nations are different from societies, which
are naturally and historically developed groups (Hofstedd & Hofstede, 2004, p. 18). His theory
of six dimensions of culture is focused on national culture rather than organizational or
occupational culture.
Hofstede’s Theory and Technical Communication
Hofstede’s theory of cultural dimensions could be used as a guide in intercultural
technical communication work environment. It may also raise technical communicators'
awareness on cultural differences. In his research, Hofstede performed the survey among 50
countries and listed each country’s index in his book Cultures and Organizations. Technical

communicators may use the theory as a guide when they localize information products like
websites, videos, and Smartphone applications. Hofstede's theory would also help understand the
context of different cultures. Understanding context would benefit technical communicators
when they work with people from different cultures or localize information products for different
nations.
Hofstede’s Model of Culture
Theory Development
Hofstede used survey data to draw his theory of national culture. He announced the
founding in his book Culture’s Consequences in 1980. His survey was conducted on 66 different
countries' IBM employees. Hofstede later analyzed the survey data to find out which value is
considered more important than others within each nation. After he figured out important value
within the nation, he compared them with other nation's value to find a pattern. His six
dimensions are the analyzed result of the pattern.
His survey was focused on measuring values rather than practices. He mentioned that
values are “the stable element in culture” (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p. 21). He pictured
culture in four different layers: Symbols, Heroes, Rituals, and Values. Four different layers are
presented as practices for observers, and values are “broad tendencies to prefer certain states of
affairs over others” (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p. 8). He believed that value is the deepest layer
and the core of the culture.

Dimension 1: Power Distance
Hofstede’s first theory is drawn from the Power Distance Index. He measured a degree of
inequality in each nation by asking questions about how people would react to inequality within
the organization. In countries with a high power distance, employees often are afraid of their
boss and hesitate to speak out their opinion to their boss. Also, employees tend to be dependent
on their boss and don’t have complaints about nation’s hierarchy. Most Asian countries and
eastern European countries scored high in the power distance index. On the other hand, in
countries with a low power distance, a relationship between the boss and employees are
interdependent. Employees are not afraid of expressing their opinion. Also, the emotional
distance between them is close. The United States, Great Britain, Austria, Germany, and Israel
have low power distance.
Dimension 2: Individualism vs. Collectivism
For a next dimension, Hofstede measured the degree of individualism in each nation.
Employees were asked whether they value their personal time, challenge, and freedom over
training, physical conditions, and use of skills (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p. 76). Counties with
high individualism index expect to look after themselves. On the other hand, countries with low
individualism index show collective tendency. For example, people are loyal to groups for a
lifetime they belong to, such as family, religion, or organization. The United States, Australia,
Great Britain, and Canada tend to have individualistic aspect while Korea, Taiwan, Thailand,
Africa, and Singapore have a collective aspect in their culture.

Dimension 3: Masculinity vs. Femininity
Hofstede’s third theory of masculinity versus femininity was drawn from a survey asking
masculine and feminine poles. The masculine pole includes earnings, recognition, advancement,
and challenge. On the other hand, the feminine pole includes a relationship with a manager,
cooperation, living area, and employment security (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p. 119). People
in the feminine society tend to cooperate, care about others, and value quality of life. Also, their
“emotional gender roles overlap” (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p. 120). Countries like
Netherland, Thailand, and Scandinavian countries are feminine oriented. On the other hand,
masculine society values material success and “emotional gender roles are clearly distinct”
(Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p. 120). People in the masculine society value personal
achievements rather than society’s unity. The roles between genders are non-equally distributed.
Germany, Japan, Colombia, Australia, and Switzerland have masculine tendency in their society.
Dimension 4: Uncertainty Avoidance
The next dimension measured is (in)tolerance of ambiguity. The uncertainty avoidance
index is used to measure the fourth dimension. Countries with a high index score have a higher
level of anxiety and stress over uncertainty. Countries that avoid uncertainty include Greece,
Portugal, Japan, and Uruguay. The society with a tendency of uncertainty avoidance tends to
have many rules to make people feel safer and more stable. On the other hand, societies with the
lower index score comparably tolerate uncertainty. Examples of uncertainty tolerance countries
are Singapore, Sweden, Hong Kong, and Great Britain.

Dimension 5: Long-Term vs. Short-Term
The fifth dimension of his theory was later established from the Chinese Value Survey
(CVS). The survey conducted in China showed correlated results for existing four dimensions,
but it raised a new dimension related to an influence of Confucianism. In Long-term oriented
society including Eastern Asian countries and the Netherland, society’s virtues are oriented
toward future. They believe good and evil can be changed. They also adapt to changes depending
on circumstances. On the other hand, a short-term oriented society like the Philippines, Pakistan,
the U.S., and African countries, focuses more on the past and present. They value national pride
and respect tradition. People in short-term society have a tendency to believe fixed norm and
stubborn attitude with changes around them.
Dimension 6: Indulgence vs. Restraint
Hofstede’s sixth dimension is relatively new. It is based on Michael Minkov’s analysis of
the World Values Survey that was conducted in 93 countries. In Indulgence societies, natural
human drives that are related to enjoying life or having fun are tolerated. Restraint societies
suppress and regulate those drives. Countries with a tendency of high indulgence value leisure
and sport as a part of their lives than restrained countries.
Limitation of Hofstede’s Theory
Hofstede's theory has been criticized by scholars over time. For example, the scholar
McSweeney (2002) points out the limited scale and narrowness of Hofstede’s research method.
He argued Hofstede's survey did not yield adequate samples. Because the number of IBM
employees vary in countries, the number of respondents in each country were different. The

average number of respondents was 50, but some countries had lower or an extremely small
number of respondents. McSweeney (2002) questioned the legitimacy of Hofstede's theory that
has the limited scale in his research.
Another problem of his survey is the “narrowness of the population survey”
(McSweeney, B., 2002, p. 94). It's hard to tell whether IBM employees represent the country
since they are educated people in the same organization. People in the same organization mostly
have similar value or are trained to seek IBM's unified organizational value.
Application of Hofstede’s Theory
The following section will demonstrate the application of Hofstede's theory in
information product localization. Localization means a change, development, or adaptation of
product or document to meet target audience’s need which could vary in different cultures. The
concept of localization would be confused with a term globalization, which means a design or
interface that help localization comparably easy (“Localization vs. Internalization”, n. d.). Also,
among various types of the information product including website, video, and Smartphone
application, this paper will implement Hofstede's theory on the recruitment video of Missouri
S&T.
Background of Selecting Missouri S&T’s Recruitment Video as a Subject
Currently, a public video welcoming Vietnamese students is on Missouri S&T Youtube
channel. The original video can be found at https://youtu.be/DlOAPqsElno. The Department of
Communication and International and Cultural Affairs have worked on developing this video to
promote Missouri S&T to international students. I was partially engaged in the project when I
was working for International and Cultural Affairs. The video was finalized in four different

versions: the United States, China, South Korea, and Vietnam. However, only translations were
made and the main part of the video remained same. Each video started with a added video clip
of Chinese, South Korean, or Vietnam student explaining why he/she joined Missouri S&T.
When I was assigned to translate the video into Korean, I realized that the video is very different
from South Korean university’s promotional videos. I thought fundamental changes were
needed, but it was too late to change the whole structure of the video. I believe this would be a
great opportunity to localize the video within the theoretical structure. The video’s content,
presentation, and subtitle will be examined and localized into two different countries: China and
South Korea.
Structure of the Video and Represented Theory of Hofstede’s in the United States’
Perspective
The video starts with an introduction saying that Missouri S&T can bring success to the
students. It spends a long time to explain different design teams on campus and their
achievements. After that, it shows various research areas of the university, mentions several
successful figures of our alumni, introduces international students on campus, and explains
COER’s service including a career fair. The image and video clips in the video mostly
demonstrate the campus environment and students in classrooms or a research fields. The most
used words are success, future, and leader. The video emphasizes the research and career
perspective of the university. Several scenes from the video reflect Hofstede’s theory. First,
according to Hofstede, the emotional distance between people is closer in the United States
(Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p. 45). Most class scenes show a casual atmosphere with laughing
students and closer physical space between students and a professor. It demonstrates the United

State’s low power distance. Also, a stress on the research perspective of the university and
student’s future success could be related with short-term orientation.
Application for South Korea
In Hofstede’s research, Korea showed a high degree of collectivism and long-term orientation.
Korea is characterized by high power distance, uncertainty avoidance, femininity, and restraint,
whereas the U.S. is characterized by low power distance, masculinity, low uncertainty
avoidance, and indulgence (See Figure 1).
Figure 1. South Korea’s cultural index scores in comparison to the United State. Reprinted from The
Hofstede Center, n.d., Retrieved September 15, 2015 from http://geert-hofstede.com/south-korea.html
For Korea’s recruitment video, the original video should reflect a collective aspect of
Missouri S&T. The original video mostly presents how Missouri S&T will lead students to a
successful life. Rather, it needs to show what it means to join Missouri S&T. Explaining

different disciplines that Missouri S&T has or presenting the university as a community would
also be great way to emphasize collective characteristic. The original video only emphasizes
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) field of study. According to
Hofstede, in a collective country, people are always integrated into groups that affect their entire
life (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p. 76). Thus, it should not only emphasize short-term success
but also present how Missouri S&T alumni are coping in the society. Also, in the collective
society, “diplomas provide entry to higher-status groups” (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p.
104). The video may show how alumni are influencing the society with respect to social status.
Also, Korea has a very strong tendency toward long-term orientation. Korea has been
affected from Confucian value historically. In long-term oriented society, people value thrives
for a good education. Korea values higher education and considers the ranking of universities to
be important. The original video states that “Missouri S&T is one of the highest-ranked science
and engineering universities in the United States”(Missouri SandT, 2015). Instead, the actual
number of the ranking or high school student’s effort may be presented to show how hard it is to
be a part of Missouri S&T. At the same time, too much stress in Confucian value in the video
may abuse Hofstede’s theory. Confucian value emphasizes women’s role as a mother and
member of the family. It is true that modern Korean society still is affected by Confucian value,
but the society is recognizing an importance of women’s role in the society. Thus, female
students and alumni who are projected in the original should remain in the video for Korea.
Finally, other aspect that could be considered is the femininity of Korean society. The
original video is oriented to a material success. It presents a list of Missouri S&T’s strengths,
which are design teams, research facility, and COER’s service. According to Hofstede, in
feminine society, people work in order to live and want to have more leisure time over work.

Korean society is stressed from competition at school and work. It may be helpful to add the
extracurricular aspects of the university such as sports teams and clubs.
Application for China
The most distinctive difference between China and the United States are individualism
vs. collectivism and long- vs. short- term orientation. China has a strong tendency of collectivism
and long-term orientation. Also, China has stronger power distance, uncertainty tolerance, and
restraint. There is not much difference in masculinity between China and the United States.
Figure 2. China’s cultural index scores in comparison to the United State. Reprinted from The Hofstede
Center, n. d., Retrieved September 15, 2015 from http://geert-hofstede.com/china.html
First, to reflect China’s collective aspect, the video may stress Missouri S&T alumni’s
influence to the society. The original video is focused on how Missouri S&T would help
student’s individual success. In Tsinghua University’s promotion video, for example, alumni’s

significant role in politics, economy, and science is emphasized and mentioned over and over.
Also, the original video presents alumni’s success as “Our graduates developed the first trans-
Atlantic voice transmission, revolutionized weather forecasting, worked as astronauts, developed
a process to speed DNA sequencing, and developed the first hand-held GPS unit” (Missouri
SandT, 2015). Rather, it could focus on what changes they brought to the society and how
important those were to improve the world, rather than listing their works.
Second, to accomodate long-term orientation in China, the original video may be adjust
the “invest” aspect of education at Missouri S&T. China is the top country that ranking in long-
term orientation. They thrive for future benefit. The video could directly mention the word invest
or present future benefits that students would get after graduation.
Lastly, China has stronger power distance than in the United States. One of the ways that
could be used is to stress faculty member’s authority. The original video simply states, “You will
study under faculty who are leaders in their fields. They have made significant discoveries,
including finding a way to cure liver cancer with tiny glass balls.”(Missouri SandT, 2015)
Rather, it could emphasize faculty member’s contribution to the society and their standing in
academic fields. Hofstede mentions that “In the large-power distance situation, the parent-child
inequality is perpetuated by a teacher-student inequality that caters to the need for dependence
well established in the student’s mind” (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p. 53). In countries with
higher power distance like China, students not only respect teachers but also follow them as
mentors. It is important to show how important faculty members are as a member of the society.
Students want to study under the teacher whom they can look up to.
Limitation of Hostede’s Theory on Localization as Heuristic View of Culture
Some of the applications are not strictly followed by Hofstede’s theory, based on my

understanding of Korean and Chinese culture. Hofstede’s theory views culture as static. The
static view of culture is useful to understand a big picture of different cultures. However, due to
development in technology, the world is changing rapidly. There are more and more people who
travel and have contact with different cultures. It is important to understand that application of
Hofstede’s theory may not be a perfect guide without understanding the background of his
research.
Fundamentally, the view of static culture is that people “have” a culture and their
behavior is dominated by the culture. Also, it believes that people within the same culture
understand and communicate better with each other. On the other hand, the dynamic approach to
culture is comparably new. It focuses on ambiguous and uncertain aspects of the culture. It also
values individual’s unique characteristics that can’t be explained by a national culture. Scholars
supporting the dynamic approach criticize the static approach for framing culture’s complexity
and diversity. In particular, they believe that the static approach is not suitable for a modern
society where cultures are merging and changing rapidly. They value individual differences that
are hidden in a large group of the culture and argue that culture should be accepted as it is with
an open end.
Conclusion
Despite criticisms on his theory, it seems Hofstede’s theory could be useful to a technical
communicator. The theory should be first understood by technical communicator before it is
abused. After understanding the background, the survey method, and the limitation of Hofstede’s
study, the technical communicator can be given autonomy to decide. Hofstede also
acknowledged that the survey results are not absolute, but rather relative (Hofstede & Hofstede,

2004, p. 42). He also mentions that the same score on an index among nations doesn’t mean that
their culture are homogeneous (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004, p. 44). As long as a technical
communicator doesn’t frame his/her thought into the stereotype, the theory could still be useful
in professional practices.

References
Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. (2004). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (Rev.
and expanded 2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Mcsweeney, B. (2002). Hofstede's Model of National Cultural Differences and their
Consequences: A Triumph of Faith - a Failure of Analysis. Human Relations, 89-118.
Ishida, W3C, Miller, Boeing. (2005). Localization vs. Internationalization. Retrieved September
11, 2015 from http://www.w3.org/International/questions/qa-i18n
Missouri SandT. (2015, July 9). Missouri S&T welcomes Vietnamese students. Retrieved
September 9, 2015, from https://youtu.be/DlOAPqsElno
Ping, D. (2011, Apr 23). Tsinghua University Publicity Film. Retrieved September 9, 2015, from
https://youtu.be/HCQKZaNwMjM
Itim international. (n.d.) The Hofstede Center. Retrieved September 7, 2015 from
http://geert-hofstede.com/national-culture.html

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