Conducting a Needs Assessment: Identify and Describe the Purpose

Chapter 4
Conducting a Needs Assessment
Knowing what is necessary is half the battle.
Chapter Four Learning Objectives
Readers will achieve the following learning objectives after
reading
Chapter Four.
1 Identify and describe the purpose of a needs assessment at it
relates
to knowledge development, skills acquisition, ability
development,
and performance improvement.
2 Define and describe the usefulness of a needs assessment
required in
designing a training program.
3 Identify and discuss the goals of a needs assessment.
4 Identify and describe the different types of needs assessments.
5 Examine and explain the range of uses and depth of coverage
of a
needs assessment.
6 Describe and compare the differences between a formal and
informal
needs assessment.

7 List and explain the different types of methods for collecting
information.
8 Identify, describe, and explain the different types of questions
to
ask in the needs assessment information gathering stage of the
needs
assessment process.
9 Identify, describe, and explain the different circumstances
that
require a needs assessment or do not require a needs
assessment.
10 Identify, describe, and sketch an example of a needs
assessment
information gathering process.
11 Identify, explain, and demonstrate how to present the results
of a
needs assessment using a model report and a model presentation
format.
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36 Conducting a Needs Assessment
Learning Objective #1: Identify and Describe the Purpose
of a Needs Assessment as It Relates to Knowledge
Development, Skills Acquisition, Ability Development,
and Performance Improvement
A needs assessment represents a methodology for collecting
information and
it represents the preliminary step in the process of designing a
training pro-
gram. A needs assessment can be organized systematically as a
formal process
or it can function as an informal process. A formal needs
assessment requires a
structured plan that serves as a blueprint to follow. An informal
needs assess-
ment adheres to a process as well, but the process is less
structured.
The circumstances dictate whether a more or less formal
approach is nec-

essary. Formal and informal approaches represent two ends of a
continuum. A
sense of urgency is one factor that determines the choice of
approach. When
time is critical, the designers of a needs assessment will opt for
a less formal
approach. The requirements of the important decision-makers
represent an
important factor in deciding whether to use a formal or less
formal approach.
When decision-makers stress the importance of the training, the
result is the
creation of a formal, structured needs assessment process to
ensure thorough-
ness of the process. Finally, the importance of the subject
dictates the choice
of approach. An important subject leads to a formal needs
assessment process.
The importance of the subject matter can influence the design
and imple-
mentation of the training program.
Where the training is very important but there is no urgency, the
individu-
als responsible for designing the needs assessment must be
thorough and must
create a more formal process. When the situation is important
and urgent,
the needs assessment won’t be as formal because of the time
limitations in
conducting the needs assessment. A less formal design is the
result. Finally,
when there is no urgency and the issue is not important, the
design is more
informal (see Figure 4.1).

As an information collection, analysis, and dissemination
process, the
designers of the needs assessment process will collect the
information, analyze
the information, report the important themes that emerge from
the analysis,
and provide a report about the information in a way that
facilitates the work
of the training program designers in designing the actual
training program.
There are three broad categories of information that the
designers could
focus on, depending on the purpose for undertaking the needs
assessment.
One category is knowledge acquisition or knowledge
enhancement. Trainees
Informal
Design
Formal
Design
Not Urgent
Not Important
Urgent
Not Important
Not Urgent
Important
Urgent
More Important

Not Urgent
Very Important
Figure 4.1 Continuum on the Range of Possible Design
Configurations
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Conducting a Needs Assessment 37
either need to learn something new, build on prior knowledge,
or both gain
new knowledge and build on prior knowledge. Skills
development is another
category. Skills acquisition or building on an existing skill
represent varia-
tions of skills development. Trainees learn a new skill, work on
improving
an existing skill, or both. The third category is the development
of an indi-
vidual’s abilities. Abilities represent natural tendencies to be
strengthened.
For example, an individual might be a strategic thinker or a
natural organizer
or an effective communicator. Such abilities are improvable
through training.
Learning Objective #2: Define and Describe the Usefulness
of a Needs Assessment Required in Designing a
Training Program
Important stakeholders initiate the idea that some type of

training is necessary.
The role of the training program designers is to learn from the
stakehold-
ers the specific goals that training needs to achieve. Identifying
the train-
ing goals encompasses the scope that a needs assessment must
cover. Scope
involves learning how much trainees need to learn about
different subjects;
skills required, as well as the trainees’ abilities which can be
built on. Depth
of coverage is an important focus as well. Stakeholders might
not require a
broad range of knowledge but do require that the trainees are
very knowl-
edgeable about one or several subjects. For example, a student
might take a
lot of business courses to be knowledgeable about business.
This represents
the scope of knowledge required. Depth occurs when a student
concentrates
on one subject (e.g., marketing, accounting, etc.).
Stakeholders might want trainees to have a broad range of
skills, such as
the ability to use different pieces of equipment (e.g., road
building equip-
ment, etc.), or to specialize in the use of one piece of equipment
(e.g., exca-
vator, etc.) and all the possible applications of that equipment.
The development of personal abilities can focus on a wide-range
of per-
sonal abilities such as critical thinking, communication skills,
self-motivation,
stress tolerance, social skills, and self-leadership. The

alternative approach is
to narrow the scope by focusing on critical thinking only, for
example, to
develop critical thinking abilities. This is an example of depth
of coverage.
The importance of a training program’s goals dictates the
context of the
needs assessment, the types of questions to ask, and the process
to follow in
collecting the information. Content refers to the subjects the
design team
needs to learn about. Questions are important to ensure that the
informa-
tion accurately reflects the views of the respondents answering
the questions.
Process entails the stages associated with the design,
implementation, and
reporting of the findings of the needs assessment.
The goal of the needs assessment is to generate the information
necessary to
facilitate the design and implementation of the training
program. Designing a
training program requires an understanding of the subjects to
cover; learning
about the preferred instructional methods to use, and learning

how to ensure
that trainees remain motivated throughout the training program.
Motivation
of trainees is often influenced by the importance of the subject
to the trainee,
the preferred instructional methods that work best with the adult
trainees,
the trainer’s attitude, and the use of motivators during training.
Knowles et al.
(2005) mention that motivation is high for the adult learner
when training
is perceived as furthering the self-development process for the
adult learner.
Ross (2015) speaks to the personal development of the
individual as part of
the self-leadership process that motivates the individuals and
which they pur-
sue in building self-esteem through work-related activities.
Learning Objective #3: Identify and Discuss the Goals
of a Needs Assessment
A needs assessment provides information but the important
focus of this
information gathering process is to identify the type of training
program
to design. Stakeholders may have general ideas about the
training program
requirements, but the role of the needs assessment is to either
confirm or not
confirm these ideas and to provide more specific details that
offer guidance to
the individuals responsible for designing the training program.
Another goal of a needs assessment is to help the designers of
the training

program to organize the information based on the types of
issues reported
by the respondents. During this information organization
process, the needs
assessment analysts must prioritize the subjects using a method
(such as rank-
ing) to identify where the training program designers should
focus their
efforts. The needs assessment can facilitate organizing and
prioritizing the
types of issues to focus on by asking respondents to identify the
important
subjects by the type of questions asked. This is not a foolproof
method and
the stakeholders might disavow the feedback, but the
information does con-
tribute to the overall analysis of subjects to focus on during
training.
A third goal of a needs assessment is to identify the specific
knowledge, skills,
and abilities of the trainees in order to identify baselines for
each. Analysts need
to identify trainee baselines to identify what trainees need to
learn. The training
program designers want to avoid unnecessary duplication that
can de-motivate
the trainees and result in a less-than-successful training
program.
Learning Objective #4: Identify and Describe the Different
Types of Needs Assessments
There are six major types of needs assessments. By
understanding the type
(based on purpose) of a needs assessment, the training program

designers can
design the information gathering process that is integral to the
needs assess-
ment and questions to ensure the collection of relevant
information to aid
in the design of the training program. Each subject identified
through the
information collection process generates a different set of
training goals and
learning objectives associated with each training goal.
Mandatory training is one type of training program. Mandatory
training
can be externally or internally driven, or both. For example,
financial service
firms must provide annual training on ethics for all financial
advisors and
ensure that all financial advisors participate in the training. A
firm can meet
the minimum requirements, such as hours of training. But a firm
can also
request more hours, as well as a variety of methods to promote
ethical train-
ing. A firm might require a minimum score that all financial
advisors need
to achieve. Internally driven training could include training on
sexual harass-

ment. The training could be preventative or in response to
events within the
organization that warrant a formal response by the organization.
The scope
of training could be narrow by covering only the definition of
sexual har-
assment. The scope could be broad by focusing on the definition
of sexual
harassment, reporting process, review process, penalty policy
and notifica-
tion process. An organization’s policies are fundamental for
implementing the
organization’s strategy. The organization often wants to ensure
adherence to
these policies through mandatory review training sessions which
serve as a
reminder of the importance of these policies.
Another subject of a needs assessment is to identify problems or
deficien-
cies that exist. Once decision-makers (e.g., stakeholders, etc.)
have identified
issues, the needs assessment designers need to design the
information col-
lection segment of the needs assessment to accurately identify
the problems,
determine the scope of the problems, assess the seriousness of
the problems,
and determine the degree of urgency in solving the problems.
Ranking the
problems from most critical and urgent to solve to least critical
and least
urgent to solve helps prioritize the problems to focus on.
Often symptoms are defined as problems. The question or
questions asso-

ciated with collecting the information need to ensure that
responses delineate
between a problem and a symptom. Symptoms are typically
some type of
performance indicator that we see or experience, whereas
problems cause
symptoms but remain unobtrusive. For example, when sick and
visiting the
doctor, the doctor asks what is wrong, and the response is a list
of symp-
toms. The doctor attempts to identify the causal factors from
hearing about
the symptoms and conducting tests that generate additional
information that
together enable the doctor to make a diagnosis.
Another subject of a needs assessment is to learn about
impending organi-
zational changes. A new strategy, a new executive hire, an
acquisition, or a
new product or service all result in change. The designers need
to create an
assessment method that collects information that enables the
training program
design team to create a training program that prepares people to
successfully
implement the changes.
Often an organization looks to pursue new opportunities as part
of a
strategy. The range of opportunities can vary widely. The needs
assessment

designers must create the information collection process and
questions such
that the respondents can accurately identify the knowledge,
skills, and per-
sonal abilities needed to successfully pursue these new
opportunities.
Organizations seek to leverage existing strengths by building on
these
strengths to improve organizational performance. The designers
of the needs
assessment must create a process that includes questions that
identify the types
of changes planned, the magnitude of the changes, the urgency
in imple-
menting the changes, and what individuals need to participate in
the train-
ing process.
Organizations often pursue new strategies to impleme nt in the
pursuit of
new opportunities. These new strategies require different
approaches in order
to implement the new strategies. A needs assessment must target
the important
decision-makers associated with implementing the new strategy
to learn about
the implementation methods required. The designers must
develop questions
that enable the designers to learn about the specific
implementation require-

ments so that the individuals responsible for designing the
program can do
so correctly. A well-designed training program provides trainers
with relevant
information that is comprehensive and thorough in detail.
Implementation of
change is the most challenging aspect of change management,
and training is
one of the instrumental methods used to facilitate successful
change.
Learning Objective #5: Examine and Explain the Range
of Uses and Depth of Coverage of a Needs Assessment
There are six issues that determine whether a needs assessment
is necessary and
the type and amount of data required. An analogous scenario
serves as a way
to facilitate understanding of the associated issues. College
students must take
a wide variety of college courses that cover three areas: non-
major courses,
major courses, and specialty area courses. These three
categories of require-
ments demonstrate the range of coverage. Assuming a student is
a business
major, the depth of coverage begins with the number of business
courses cov-
ered, for example. Further depth of knowledge and skills
development occurs
from specializing in a particular subject such as marketing or
accounting.
The needs assessment designers must learn what is feasible to
cover within
the training program. The needs assessment designers have to

learn the breadth
of a subject to cover from the needs assessment respondents in
order for the
training program designers to create a training program that
encompasses the
range of subject matter and the required depth of subject matter
overage.
If better performance is a training goal, the designers of the
training pro-
gram need to know the factors that contribute to improving the
performance
of the trainees and the extent to which each factor’s depth of
coverage con-
tributes to improved performance. A useful example helps to
explain. If stu-
dents need to achieve a score of 80 or higher in an accounting
exam, this
is a performance goal. The range of topics included in the exam
is dictated
by whether the topics are covered in a single accounting course
or several
accounting courses. The fewer the courses, the greater the depth
of coverage,
whereas the more courses required, the less depth of coverage is
necessary.
However, a professional qualifying exam likely requires broad

comprehen-
sive knowledge of a subject along with detailed knowledge of
topics within
each subject area. This explains why training is often required
prior to sitting
for a professional qualifying exam, and often the pass rate on
the first attempt
is well below 100%.
If a problem and solving a problem is the training goal, then the
design-
ers need to create a needs assessment instrument and
information gathering
process that enables the training program designers to focus on
problems and
not symptoms. Furthermore, the designers need to be able to
differentiate
between major problems and secondary problems, focus on
major problems,
and learn whether the solutions to the problem are simple or
complex in
order to ensure successful trainee learning. The range of
problems and the
seriousness of the problem(s) dictate the subject matter that
trainees will be
exposed to. Complex problems often require complex solutions
and so fewer
problems are covered during a single training session. Trainers
need to know
this information during the design phase of the training process.
Typically, the need for training originates from a variety of
sources, both
external to the organization and from within the organization.
Externally,
examples include the need to meet legal requirements,

competitive circum-
stances, economic conditions, and other types of external
reasons. Internally,
training often follows the needs required based on
organizational policies,
strategic plans, and important decision-makers. Designers of the
needs assess-
ment must craft an assessment method that provides information
which ena-
bles the training program designers to create a program that
encompasses the
range of subjects that must be covered and the topic coverage
within each
subject, all within the required time frame allocated.
Finally, the training program designers need to learn if training
is knowl-
edge-based, the range of subjects to cover, and the depth of
coverage within
each subject. If training is skills-based, then the designers need
to know the
range of skills to cover as well as the minimal level of
satisfactory performance
expected. If proficiency of knowledge acquisition or skills
development (or
both) are necessary, then the designers need to learn how
proficiency is
measured to determine the range of subjects and the depth of
coverage of
each subject. All of these issues need to be addressed by the
designers of the
needs assessment.
Learning Objective #6: Describe and Compare the
Differences between Formal and Informal Needs Assessments

A formal needs assessment and the stage of information
gathering represent
planned events. A formal needs assessment process and the
method(s) used to
gather the information is driven by the importanc e of the
training program
and the complexity of the subject of training. This is illustrated
in Figure 4.2.
Often formal methods for collecting information aim to generate
objec-
tive information that comes in the form of quantitative results.
For example:
rank ordering of subject material, the percentage of participants
indicating the
importance of a subject or topics within a subject area, or scaled
responses
such as 75% of respondents indicated the subject is “very
important.”
A formalized information gathering process along with the
formal
method(s) associated with gathering the information is typically
required
when the performance of the trainees or seriousness of the
problem(s) require
a careful and thorough understanding of the problem(s) and not

the symp-
toms of the problem(s). Figure 4.3 illustrates how the level of
criticalness
influences the level of formalization required.
An informal needs assessment and informal information
collection pro-
cess are defined as requiring little systematic planning because
there is a clear
understanding of the needs to satisfy from the training and there
is no urgency
associated with designing the training program. An additional
type of situation
where an informal approach is the best method is when the
needs assessment
is for the purpose of confirming information gathered from a
tangentially
related prior study. Decision-makers can decide that an informal
approach is
best because the decision-makers have a general idea of the
training needs to
focus on and the needs assessment only needs to confirm the
details of the
required training.
F
o
rm
a
l
Importance
Figure 4.2 The Importance of Training and the Extent of
Formalizing the Needs

Assessment Process
F
o
rm
a
l
Performance/Problem Critical
Figure 4.3 The Level of Criticalness Influencing the Level of
Formalization Required
Typically, an informal needs assessment process generates
qualitative types of
information because the training program designers only require
confirmation
of the subject knowledge to cover and topics within each
subject. There is no
need for objectifying the collected information. Examples of
qualitative infor-
mation for a sexual harassment training program can include:
the definition
of sexual harassment, the process for reporting sexual
harassment, the sexual
harassment adjudication process, etc. Topics within each subject
provide the

specifics to cover in that subject area. For example, a topic
within the definition
of sexual harassment can be forms of sexual harassment, the
government man-
dated definition of sexual harassment, level of seriousness of
the harassment, etc.
Informal and formal needs assessments represent two ends of a
continuum.
Often circumstances initially lead to the use of an informal
approach that transi-
tions to a more formal approach during the design of the needs
assessment and
information collection stage (along with the method(s) used to
collect the infor-
mation). Personal experiences, interactions among people, and
customer/users/
clients or employees can all indicate the necessity of either a
formal or informal
needs assessment. Over time, when and if the circumstances
result in a growing
sense of urgency and the importance of the subject matter
becomes more criti-
cal, then the informal needs assessment can lead to a formal
needs assessment.
Learning Objective #7: List and Explain the Different
Types of Methods for Collecting Information
Several methods are available to those individuals responsible
for implement-
ing the needs assessment information collection process. Table
4.1 presents
each method along with the advantages and disadvantages of
each method.
The circumstances dictate the choice of method. A

comprehensive approach
is to use two or more of the methods in some combination. For
example,
face-to-face interviews can lead to creating a survey instrument
to gain input
from a large number of individuals, or survey results can
initiate face-to-face
meetings. Survey results can lead to selective contact with
participants by
telephone to clarify the survey findings.
The method individuals use during the information gathering
process can
vary and can be as simple or as complex a process as necessary
to gain the
feedback that enables the training program designers to design a
well thought-
out training program that meets the organization’s requirements.
Learning Objective #8: Identify, Describe, and Explain the
Different Types of Questions to Ask in the Needs
Assessment Information Gathering Stage of the Needs
Assessment Process
The goal in formulating questions is to generate responses to
the ques-
tions that aid training program designers in designing the
training program

correctly. Good questions increase the response rate as well as
providing
clear, accurate, and relevant information. The response rate is
important
if the information gathering process relies primarily on indirect
methods
for collecting information (e.g., surveys, etc.). The type of
questions asked
directly impacts on the quality of the responses. A quality
response provides
clear, concise, and unambiguous responses necessary to design a
relevant
training program.
If quantitative types of responses are the goal, then the
questions need to
be framed to generate quantitative types of responses.
Examples of questions generating quantitative responses
include:
1 Select and rank the top three subjects to cover in training.
2 Select the percentage that best represents the amount of time
to spend
on subject “A.”
3 Rate the importance of covering subject “A” during training.
Not Important Somewhat Important Very Important Important
Critical
1 2 3 4 5
Table 4.1 Types of Methods for Collecting Information

Method Advantages Disadvantages
Face-to-Face • Able to get detailed
responses w/clarifications
• Target important participants
• Time consuming
• Fewer participants due to
time constraints
• Unable to meet with enough
key participants
Survey • Able to reach large numbers
of participants
• Able to ask specific questions
• Able to generate quantitative and
qualitative responses
• Able to categorize respondents to
note differences among groups
• Low response rates
• Unable to ask clarification
questions unless able to
send another survey
Telephone • Able to get more detailed responses
to questions
• Able to ask clarification questions

• Difficult in reaching
enough people
• Time consuming
• Contact fewer participants
due to time constraints
Email • Quick
• Able to reach large numbers of
people
• Low response rate
• Selection bias based on
who responds
• Difficult to clarify responses
Secondary
Sources
• Information accessible
• Information available quickly
• Information too general
• Information does not
directly address the reasons
for training

1 How much time (in minutes) during the eight hours of training
should
be spent covering subject “A?”
2 Is covering subject “A” during training important? _____ Yes
_____ No
When the preference is qualitative types of responses, preparing
the right type
of questions is critical in order to achieve the goal of generating
detailed state-
ments from the respondents.
Examples of questions generating detailed qualitative responses
include:
1 Identify the important subjects to cover in the training
program and
explain why these subjects are important.
2 Describe what subjects you think need to be covered in the
training
program.
3 What makes covering subject “A” during training important?
4 Identify the types of instructional methods to use and explain
the impor-
tance of each.
5 Describe the type of personality a trainer needs to have in
conducting
training on subject “A.”

Often the use of questions to generate qualitative responses is
done with the
aim for respondents to provide viewpoints that were not
considered or were
initially considered irrelevant, and after sorting through and
organizing the
responses into categories, the information gathers can formulate
more perti-
nent questions that generate more useful responses.
Questions designed to generate a qualitative response are used
when the
information gathers have a general idea on possible subject
matter and want
to learn about other issues to consider in designing the training
program.
Setting a narrow range of subject matter is important so as to
avoid over-
whelming the trainees with too much information to learn.
The design of the question is one of the critical factors that can
influence the
response rate. Important criteria to consider when designing a
question include:
1 Non-Technical: avoid technical terms that might confuse the
respond-
ent, but if necessary, offer a brief explanation.
2 Non-Jargon: jargon can confuse the respondent and jargon can
have dif-
ferent meanings to different people.
3 Short: brief questions keep the respondent’s attention better.
4 Specific: non-specific and multi-part questions can exceed the
respond-

ent’s attention span as these types of question are long and
confusing as
to the purpose of the question.
There are four broad categories of types of questions that
information gath-
ers can include during the information collection stage of the
needs assess-
ment process.
1 Open-ended questions: the purpose is to generate qualitative
responses.
2 Closed questions: the purpose is to generate quantitative type
responses.
3 Range of responses limited: the purpose is to set limits on the
responses
and to quantify responses.
4 Multi-part questions: the goal is to reduce the complexity of
asking one
question by sub-dividing a question into parts, with each part
asking for
a limited response from the respondent.
The number of questions to include in the needs assessment
information

gathering process is critical because this likely will influence
the response rate
and the quality of the responses. There is not a set number of
questions to use.
However, if the decision is to seek qualitative responses, the
fewer the ques-
tions, the greater the likelihood of a higher response rate and
better quality
responses. If quantitative responses are the goal, using more
questions is okay
because the respondents need only circle a choice or put in a
number. Brief
questions still remain the preferred choice in order to encourage
rather than
discourage participation. Think of the time you received a
survey and the
questions were wordy and there were too many questions. What
did you do?
Including questions that solicit both quantitative and qualitative
responses
is doable, but some concerns remain because the more
questions, the greater
the likelihood of a lower response rate and less informative
responses.
Respondents’ time constraints, attention span and knowledge of
a subject
can vary. The designers of the questions need to consider these
issues when
designing the questions to use. When in doubt, fewer, shorter,
and concisely
worded questions is the default mode.
Learning Objective #9: Identify, Describe, and Explain the
Different Circumstances That Require a Needs Assessment

or Do Not Require a Needs Assessment
A needs assessment is always necessary, but a formal, planned
needs assess-
ment is not always required to design a training program. An
informal needs
assessment is an option when training follows prior practices
and the focus
of the training is well-known to all the important stakeholders.
An informal
needs assessment requires a minimal effort at gathering
information to assure
stakeholders that there is no change in circumstances to warrant
modifying an
existing training program, or that a modest change in
circumstances requires
only minimal changes to the existing training program.
However, there are circumstances when a formal needs
assessment is nec-
essary and required to design a new training program to ensure
successful
training results. First, there are externally based conditions that
can require
a formal, planned needs assessment process. Government
initiatives and/or
government decisions can rule that an organization needs to
offer specific
types of training. For example, several years ago certain
personnel practices
of Ford were ruled as biased and the government required Ford
to initiate a

specific type of ethics training for all employees. Customers,
users or clients
might have concerns, and the organization seeks to respond by
developing
a training program intended to train personnel in ways the
organization has
determined are necessary to be responsive to the concerns
expressed.
Organizational decision-makers may determine that training is
necessary to
resolve a problem or correct a situation. Training goals
originate from the deci-
sion-makers and these goals necessitate that the designers of the
training program
design it according to the decision-makers’ requirements.
Gaining important
insights on how to design an effective training program
warrants creating a
formal information collection process that includes identifying
important infor-
mation providers, the methodology to use in gathering the
information (e.g.,
survey, interview, etc.), and the analytical method needed to
analyze the find-
ings so as to provide a blueprint to follow in designing the
training program.
Finally, a formal needs assessment is necessary when decision-
makers
determine that the effectiveness of a training program is

questionable and
warrants evaluating. When this situation occurs, the
expectations of the deci-
sion-makers requires careful consideration to ensure that the
training require-
ments are identified thoroughly. To evaluate the effectiveness
of a training
program, trainees are tested prior to training and post-training.
Knowing
what to test for, knowing the subjects and topics to cover during
training, and
learning about the preferred instructional methods to use during
training are
all important issues to consider when designing a training
program.
Learning Objective #10: Identify, Describe, and Sketch
an Example of a Needs Assessment Process
Conducting a needs assessment includes creating a process for
collecting
information that aids in designing a training program.
Developing a pro-
cess provides a systematic, logical approach to gathering the
information.
Whether the process is formal or more informal, creating some
type of pro-
cess functions as a means for helping to collect the information
needed for
designing the training program.
The scope of the training subject shapes the process and is
shaped by the
information gleaned from the process. The first stage of the
process is being
aware of an issue or problem and deciding that training is a

logical method for
solving the problem or educating trainees on an issue(s). The
next step is to
develop fact-based reasons for requiring a training program.
Facts introduce an
objective-based approach to justify moving forward with the
needs assess-
ment and information collection stage. Once the idea of a needs
assessment
gains acceptance, the next step is to identify the goals of the
needs assess-
ment. The use of SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Realistic, and
Time-limited) goals provides an objective approach for learning
if the needs
assessment process was successful. SMART-type goals
objectify the needs
assessment process whereby measured, time-limited goals
provide the neces-
sary focus to the entire needs assessment process.
The next stage involves estimating the time needed to complete
the entire
needs assessment process. Estimating the approximate time for
completing
the needs assessment process begins with a rough approximation
that likely
changes as the planners work on the plan of action to pursue in

designing the
needs assessment process. The plan involves identifying all the
stages involved.
The plan considers sub-steps to the overall needs assessment
process. These
sub-steps focus on identifying who to collect information from,
the type of
questions to ask, the method(s) for collecting the information,
the analytical
method(s) used to assess the information, analysis of the
information collected,
method(s) for prioritizing the findings, preparation of a report
that includes rec-
ommendations, and a presentation of the results of the process
(see Figure 4.4).
Learning Objective #11: Identify, Explain, and Demonstrate
How to Present the Results of a Needs Assessment Using
a Model Report and a Model Presentation Format
Presenting the findings and recommendations is an integral part
of the needs
assessment process. It is critical because any confusion in
presenting the
findings can lead to a less than optimal training program.
Organizing the
Idea or
Problem
Fact-
based
Reasons
Goals

Time
Frame
Plan Participants Questions
Data
Collection
Methods
Collect
Responses
Aggregate
Results
Analyze
Data
Prioritize
Findings
Prepare
Report
Present
Findings
Design
Training
Program
Figure 4.4 Flowchart of the Process for Conducting a Needs
Assessment

information and recommendations in clear, concise, and easy to
understand
language benefits the reader. A sensitivity to the reader’s
interests and con-
cerns helps to set the author’s priorities in the order of subject
coverage.
However, the general rule of thumb is to present the important
issues first,
and these issues are determined by the goals of the needs
assessment.
All results, whether quantitative, qualitative, or some
combination of
the two, are easily presented in tables. The author identifies the
appropri-
ate table for the reader to reference, with the narrative covering
only the
top two to three issues. The narrative includes the analysis of
the findings
and recommendations.
Sectioning a report makes it easier for the reader to follow the
presentation
of the important issues. For example, the report could begin
with an Executive
Summary in Section 1, which provides the reader with an
overview of the
report. Next is the section that presents the Situation. This
section serves two
purposes. First, the author states the purpose of the report.

Second, the author
identifies the goals of the needs assessment.
Section 3 of the report presents an overview of the Needs
Assessment Process,
referencing a flowchart that shows the process along with a
brief overview
that describes the process followed.
Section 4 covers the Important Findings. The author can sub-
divide this
section by subject categories. For example, one category could
include
important knowledge. Another category could entail important
skills. A
third category could cover preferred instructional methods. The
narrative
works best when using bullets to present the information and to
make
reading easier. At the end of each major section the author
could pro-
vide the reader with Conclusions. Conclusions represent the
implications
of the findings, as all the stakeholders reading the report need
to under-
stand the usefulness of the findings. Finally, the report includes
a section on
Recommendations. Recommendations describe the author’s
suggestions on
how best to design the training program.
Any technical information, including tables, belongs at the end
of the
report in an Appendix. Most readers choose not to review
technical material,
but the author provides easy access to the material for those

readers interested
in this information.
Oral presentations need to follow the order of the information in
the
report and the report should be accessible to audience members.
An effec-
tive PowerPoint presentation is clear, succinct and follows the
format of the
report. A maximum of four to five bullets under a heading with
no bullet
more than two lines in length is optimal. The audience’s
attention span
is maintained by brief, simple, and non-technical terminology.
An outline
of the PowerPoint presentation should accompany the
presentation as an
additional means to follow the presentation and for taking
notes. A Q&A
session works best when conducted after the formal
presentation. The pre-
senters should prepare the audience by briefly providing an
overview of
the presentation.
Questions
1 Explain the importance of a needs assessment.

2 Describe why the design of a formal needs assessment process
is important.
3 Explain the difference between a formal and informal needs
assessment.
4 Under what circumstances is an informal needs assessment
process preferred?
5 Discuss the reasons why creating a formal report to present an
over-
view of the needs assessment process and the findings of the
assessment
is important.
Bibliography
A Capacity Builder’s Resource Library. Conducting a
Community Assessment. A study
funded by The Compassion Capital Fund administered by the
U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services.
Berkowitz, B.F. & Nagy, J. (2016). Section 7: Conducting needs
assessment surveys.
Community Tool Box.
Grant, J. (2002). Learning needs assessment: Assessing the
need. British Medical Journal.
324(7330): 156–159.
HR Guide. (2015). Needs Analysis: How to Determine Training
Needs.
Knowles, M.S., Holton, E.F., & Swanson, R.A. (2005). The
Adult Learner. 6th Edition.
Killington: Elsevier.
McCawley, P.F. (2009). Methods for conducting an educational

needs assessment.
University of Idaho Extension (online). 1–23. Available at:
www.cals.uidaho.edu/
edcomm/pdf/bul/bul0870.pdf.
McNamara, C. (2010). Assessing Your Training Needs: Needs
Assessment to Training Goals.
National Resource Center (online). Available at:
https://managementhelp.org/train-
ing/systematic/needs-assessment.htm.
Office of Migrant Education (2001). Comprehensive Needs
Assessment (online). 1–25. Avail-
able at:
https://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/account/compneedsassessment
.pdf
Ross, S.C. (2015). The Road to Self-Leadership Development:
Busting Out of Your Comfort
Zone. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing.
Rouda, R. H. & Kusy, Jr. M.E. (1995). Needs Assessment: The
First Step. Technical
Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (online). Available
at: http://alumnus.
caltech.edu/~rouda/T2_NA.html.
Society for Human Resource Management. (2014). How to
conduct a training needs assessment
(online). Available at:
https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/tools-and-
samples/how-
to-guides/pages/conduct-training-needs-assessment.aspx.

http://www.cals.uidaho.edu/edcomm/pdf/bul/bul0870.pdf
http://www.cals.uidaho.edu/edcomm/pdf/bul/bul0870.pdf
https://managementhelp.org/train-ing/systematic/needs-
assessment.htm
https://managementhelp.org/train-ing/systematic/needs-
assessment.htm
https://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/account/compneedsassessment
.pdf
http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~rouda/T2_NA.html
http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~rouda/T2_NA.html
https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/tools-and-
samples/how-
Topic and Proposal
Instructions
Topic and Proposal (50 points towards Final Grade) – Due
Week 1: MY TOPIC IS HARRIET TUBMAN
Assignment Expectations: As part of your Research Project, the
first assignment requirement expects students to write and
submit a topic proposal. Students must select a topic within the
historical parameters of the course, History of the United States
to 1865. Consider a person, event or idea that you want to learn
more about within the context of this class. My suggestion is
that you think about a topic that is related to your area of study
at UMGC. You can also skim through the Learning Resources
section of each week under Content in our LEO class site to get
some ideas. Or you can continue scrolling to the end of this
learning block for a list of ideas. The list provided is by no
means exhaustive, just some ideas to get you started. You can
also email your instructor for suggestions or help narrowing
down a topic idea. Just note, as this project is one you will be
living with for the term, you should find a topic that interests

you before setting out on the project itself.
Assignment Directions: Once you have selected a topic,
students will need to write a short proposal for instructor
approval. Your topic proposal should be typed in a word
document, doubled spaced with a minimum word count of 100
words. In this proposal, students should explain what topic they
selected and why. Your proposal must include a working thesis
statement with the understanding that it may be slightly
modified later in the research process. Should you have further
questions about submitting this proposal, please do not hesitate
to reach out to your instructor.
Students should also make sure that their topic is not too broad.
A topic on the Civil War or Salem Witch Trials is fantastic but
might be a bit overwhelming as one gets further into research.
Consider narrowing down your topic a bit. For instance, you
might research medicine during the Civil War or the accusers
involved in the Salem Witch trials.
Submitting Your Work: Students can submit their work under
Topic and Proposal directions. Click on this assignment, scroll
to the bottom of the page where you see “Add Attachments,”
and then attach assignment here. Students can also submit this
assignment through the Assignment tab. Students will also see
the rubric attached to this assignment. Please make sure to
review the rubric before submitting your final draft.
Potential Topics:
Accounting/Business
Joint Stock Colonies
Mercantilism
Lewis and Clark Expedition - pay attention to their account

books/journals
Lowell Factory Movement (before the Civil War)
Environmental Studies/Management
Native American land use practices v English Colonial methods
Lewis and Clark Expedition
Criminal Justice
Salem Witch Trials
Indentured Servitude
Dorothea Dix
Education/any subject
School in the Colonial Era
Education and the New Nation
Thomas Jefferson on Education
Education for Girls
Horace Mann
Military Studies
Colonial Militias
French and Indian War
Revolutionary War
War of 1812
Mexican-American War
Civil War
Government/Political Science
The Revolutionary War and New Nation: Declaration of
Independence, Articles of Confederation, Constitution, Bill of
Rights
Secession: Virginia/Kentucky Resolves, Hartford Convention,
Nullification, Civil War
Constitutional Interpretation: Strict v Loose
John Marshall and the Supreme Court: Judicial Review
Women's Rights

Abigail Adams
Sojourner Truth
Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott
Seneca Falls Convention
Slavery
Colonial Era
Thomas Jefferson and the Declaration of Independence
The Constitution
Abolition
Sojourner Truth, Harriet Tubman, Lloyd Garrison, David
Ruggles, Frederick Douglass
Abolition and Women's Rights
Chapter 3
The Adult Learner
Do not focus on what you cannot do. Focus on what you can or
want to do. Practice as an actor rehearses to master their craft!
Chapter Three Learning Objectives
reading
Chapter Three.
1 Define and explain the meaning of the theory of andragogy.
2 Discuss the importance of a self-motivated adult learner.
3 Explain that the adult learner requires that learning be
purposeful.
4 State the importance of having a role in shaping the learning
process.

5 Discuss why the adult learner prefers to learn through
problem-solving.
6 Explain why the adult learner learns best when able to relate
to the
subject of a training exercise.
7 Describe how the adult learner prefers certain types of
instructional
methods that offer a less structured approach to learning.
8 Explain why the adult learner prefers instructional methods
that
increase learning and which create less stress during the learn-
ing process.
9 Describe the typical types of instructional methods most
supportive
of adult learning.
Learning Objective #1: Define and Explain the Meaning
of the Theory of Andragogy
Andragogy is often referred to as many things: theory, body of
concepts,
constructs, principles of learning, etc. (Blondy, 2007). Because
andragogy
offers a detailed understanding for how adults learn, theory is
the best form of
approach in referring to andragogy. Andragogy was popularized
by Malcom
Knowles (1980), who benefited from early German studies on
adult learning.
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GLOBAL CAMPUS
Organizations: An EssentialGuide For Trainers. Routledge.
com.ezproxy.umgc.edu/eds/ebookviewer/ebook?
sid=9642c859-904d-4428-adcb-623cb5b2defc%
40redis&ppid=pp_24&vid=0&format=EB
The Adult Learner 25
The Adult Learner
Andragogy characterizes the creation of a learning process as a
joint effort
involving the adult learner and the facilitator or instructor
associated with the
design and implementation of a planned learning process. The
adult learner
shares in the responsibility for designing a planned learning
process because
the adult learner knows best what knowledge is needed, the
preferred ways

of learning, and the pace of learning that is optimal. Partnering
in design-
ing the learning process motivates the adult learner to actively
engage in the
learning process.
Knowles et al. (2015) identified five assumptions associated
with adult
learning.
1 Self-concept: adults evolve to assert greater control over all
aspects of
their life.
2 Adult learning experience: experience provides the foundation
that sup-
ports future learning.
3 Readiness to learn: the motivation process leads adults to
learn in support
of their role within the group and society.
4 Orientation to learn: motivation increases the urgency to learn
and learn-
ing focuses on problem-solving as a practical focus for learning.
5 Motivation to learn: motivation to become an adult and then
throughout
adulthood shifts the focus of motivation from being externally
directed to
where the individual is self-motivated to learn.
A complement to Knowles’ basic assumptions is contained in
four principles of
andragogy that are useful guides for designers of an adult
learning experience.

1 Adult learners benefit best from a learning experience that is
shaped by
their personal involvement in designing the learning process
and in eval-
uating the outcomes of the learning experience that is a product
of the
learning process.
2 Activities associated with the learning process need to build
on the learn-
er’s prior experiences.
3 Learning activities need to be of direct benefit to the learner.
4 Problem-focused learning activities offer the greatest benefit
to the
adult learner.
Learning Objective #2: Discuss the Importance of a
Self-Motivated Learner
The adult self-learner’s motivation to learn stems from the drive
to satisfy
needs. Need satisfaction is a lifelong process because needs
remain omnipres-
ent. The only change is the actions that the adult self-learner
must satisfy.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (1943) provides a useful
overview of
the importance of needs, the variety of needs individuals have
during their

26 The Adult Learner
lifetime, and how the satisfaction of needs falls more in the
control of the
individual as the individual moves into adulthood. An
individual’s needs
do not disappear. Needs remain constant but the individual
learns the skills
required to successfully satisfy certain needs. Maslow’s theory
puts an empha-
sis on levels of needs. The individual learns to satisfy lower -
level needs and
moves on to focus on learning how to satisfy higher-level needs.
Higher-level
need satisfaction becomes more challenging because the higher -
level needs
become more difficult to satisfy. As a result, the individual
strives harder to
accomplish need satisfaction and the effort involves learning
new skills and
methods for pursuing need satisfaction.
As the individual moves into adulthood, he or she assumes more
responsi-
bility for satisfying personal needs. There are two reasons for
asserting greater
control over the process of satisfying needs. First, societal
values emphasize
less reliance on parental figures and others to guide the
individual in satisfying
personal needs. These values are part of every individual’s
development process
that is often referred to as maturation. Second, the individual

assumes greater
responsibility for satisfying personal needs as the image of their
self-concept
becomes more lucid and developed. In short, the individual has
a better image
of the self and believes that only through taking personal
responsibility will
they successfully achieve their ideal goal of the self. This goal
is often referred
to as self-concept or sense of self-worth (Ross, 2015).
The individual’s assertion of greater control over fulfilling
needs is driven
by the importance of self-concept and creating a self-image that
achieves
the desired point. Adults remain self-motivated though, because
self-worth
is like reaching for the sun, always on the move because the
sense of self-
worth continues evolving. This phenomenon occurs because the
individual’s
needs are never fully satisfied, according to Maslow. The other
explanation
for understanding the catalyst for self-motivation is to fulfill
social needs.
Individuals are social beings with the driving need to be part of
a social
group and to gain acceptance from group members. Gaining
acceptance is
only one phase of the needs fulfillment process. Remaining a
member of the
group explains the ongoing importance of meeting social needs.
A corollary
to this process is that some individuals want to assume an
important leader-
ship position within the group. This shift in role expectations

reflects a shift
in the individual’s self-concept, which now includes the need to
become an
important contributor to the group.
A third explanation for self-motivation is the need to solve
problems.
Problems occur in pursuing the fulfillment of both the self-
concept and the
social needs linked to an individual’s self-concept. Problems
impede and the
individual’s focus shifts to resolve the problems. Because both
self-concept
and social roles fluctuate over time and circumstances,
problems occur that
require resolution.
Learning becomes critical in the individual’s efforts to solve
problems
that can hinder the development of the self-concept and
achieving the social
needs of the individual. Learning is essential in building the
self-concept and
becoming part of a group. Self-learning occurs because the
individual rec-
ognizes that success in meeting personal needs requires taking
more control

over the learning process.
Learning Objective #3: Explain That the Adult Learner
Requires That Learning Be Purposeful
The adult learner becomes pragmatic because he or she asserts
greater control
over the learning process. Learning does not occur for the sake
of learning.
Learning becomes useful to the adult learner who is attempting
to achieve
personal and professional goals. The pursuit of goals originates
in the drive
to satisfy needs.
If the learning experience lacks relevance in the drive to
achieve a goal,
then the adult learner quickly loses interest because the subject
matter is not
perceived as being useful in satisfying needs. The subject
matter must fulfill
two needs. First, the individual seeks to join social groups and
establish a role
identify. Once a member, the individual seeks to maintain their
role and per-
haps become a more important member of the group. Satisfying
social needs
becomes an important goal of the individual.
Professional-type needs associated with the individual’s self-
concept (and
self-esteem) represent another of the individual’s motivators. A
job offers the
individual the opportunity to satisfy most personal needs
(Maslow, 1943).
Developing competencies strengthens the individual’s work

role, enhances
the individual’s social role with the work organization, and
enhances the
individual’s feeling of self-worth. This process of developing
competencies is
dynamic and not static because the organization operates in an
external envi-
ronment with competitors, changing customer needs, evolving
economic
and social conditions, and rapidly changing technologies. These
factors cre-
ate a dynamic environment whereby competencies soon become
yesterday’s
strengths. The individual, like the organization, needs to learn
how to adapt
to survive and succeed in this dynamic environment.
In this pursuit of competency to establish social and work roles
the indi-
vidual confronts problems. Solving problems represents the
individual’s effort
to eliminate impediments in the pursuit of competencies.
Problem-solving
strategies have the purpose of eliminating road blocks during
the process of
achieving goals.
Creating a learning experience based on prior knowledge
represents the
individual’s commonsense approach to learning. Prior
experience provides
the individual with strategies that worked in the past and which
offer useful
lessons to build on to solve problems during the process of
developing com-
petencies related to achieving personal and professional goals.

The link to past
learning makes learning new knowledge and skills relatable;
this helps the
individual move up the learning curve faster, with the increased
likelihood for
successful learning to occur. A training program must enable
the individual to
benefit from their prior personal experiences.
Learning Objective #4: State the Importance of Having a
Role in Shaping the Learning Process
Andragogy emphasizes the importance of having the adult
learner assume an
active role in designing the curriculum. The underlying
assumption is that
the more active the role in designing the program, the greater
the likelihood
that learning will occur.
What accounts for the individual’s role are personal goals
identified by the
individual. The two primary categories of goals are social goals
and work-
related goals. Specific goals are set by the individual. For
example, a social
goal is to marry or to start a family. The individual needs to

learn the role to
succeed in achieving these types of goals. Another social goal is
to become
a member of a social group such as a club, team or activity that
temporarily
brings people together. A social group can include peers at work
and learning
how to fit in, which usually means developing social skills but
can include
professional competencies if the group is a work group.
Work-related goals entail earning positive evaluations, meeting
job expec-
tations, and earning promotions, as well as receiving bonuses.
These goals
often require certain types of experiences, and gaining these
experiences
entails learning the knowledge and necessary skills. Though the
organization
can provide general insights on the knowledge and skills needed
to achieve
successful experiences, the individual is the best judge to
determine the gaps
in the knowledge and skills needed. A proactive role in shaping
the indi-
vidual’s learning experience is critical to achieving work-
related goals that
are important in satisfying fundamental needs, according to
Maslow 1943).
The individual recognizes that an adult is held accountable for
their actions.
Accountability assumes the need to answer for the behaviors of
the adult.
Adults recognize that accountability has strong ramifications for
the adult

personally, in failing to achieve either social and/or work-
related goals. Since
the adult is more responsible for the results of their actions, the
adult seeks
greater control over the antecedents that influence their actions.
The learning
process is instrumental in shaping the individual’s actions
because learning is
pivotal to achieving personal goals and individuals are held
accountable for
the success or failure to achieve these goals. The individual
assumes a pro-
active role in structuring the learning process based on prior
strategies that
worked towards the same ends.
The individual’s role in asserting greater control over the
learning process
is explained by the individual’s understanding of the barriers
that can nega-
tively impact the learning process. These barriers are often
personal, though
andragogy indirectly identifies other types of barriers. For
example, one form
of barrier is not using an individual’s personal experiences to
influence ongo-
ing learning. These barriers often take the form of instructional
methods and

the extent to which a curriculum is designed. Certain
instructional methods
are preferred by the adult learner (e.g., visuals, case studies,
group work, etc.).
Structure helps shape the learning process but too much
structure can stifle
learning because structure can constrain while serving the
purpose of giving
focus and guidance to learning.
Learning Objective #5: Discuss Why the Adult Learner
Prefers to Learn through a Problem-Solving Process
One of the underlying assumptions of adult learning as
explained by andra-
gogy is that adults prefer to learn when solving a problem.
Problems are
identified by gaps in the individual’s current knowledge or
limitations in
the individual’s skill set. Gaps are identified during the process
for achieving
social goals and work-related goals. Solving a problem moves
the individual
closer to achieving personal and professional goals.
As individuals move through the developmental process from
infancy to
adulthood, one of the important differentiators that separates the
adult from
the non-adult is the individual’s pursuit of self-efficacy, and
how achieving
this goal of self-efficacy requires the individual to assert
greater self-respon-
sibility in pursuing this goal. The developmental focus is
reinforced by the

external focus of society’s expectatio ns that adults control their
lives and are
responsible for both successes and failures. To achieve self-
efficacy the indi-
vidual identifies milestones to accomplish and organizes a
process or pro-
cesses to achieve these milestones. During the pursuit of these
milestones (also
known as social and work-related goals) to achieve self-
efficacy, problems
occur. The individual’s ability to solve problems enables them
to move for-
ward in the pursuit of greater levels of self-efficacy.
Problem-solving represent a higher form of application of
cognitive think-
ing. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning (Bush, Daddysman &
Charnigo, 2014)
offers a useful model for understanding the different levels of
thinking that
are possible. Though the individual does not choose to have
problems, set-
ting goals invites problems to occur because a goal is not
always achieved and
problems can and do occur during the process of achieving
goals. Problem-
solving becomes a rewarding and reinforcing process because
through it the
individual gains self-confidence that personal cognitive abilities
and their
application have led to successful problem resolution in prior
situations, and
the individual becomes confident of future success in solving
new problems.
Learning Objective #6: Explain Why the Adult Learner

Learns Best When Able to Relate to the Subject of a
Training Exercise
Cognitive functioning evolves through the human development
process
since associated learning becomes more prevalent as the
individual moves
through various developmental stages into and through
adulthood.
Associated learning involves the pairing of a known with an
unknown.
Analogies represent a common way to test associated learning.
The more
familiar the subject, the easier it is for the individual to draw a
connection
between the known and the unknown.
Because experience is an important part of the process of
associated learn-
ing, adults seek to learn based on the familiar. Whether a self-
learner or
learning in a training or educational program, instructional
methods that
emphasize the use of prior experiences become more significant
learning aids.
Human behavior follows the application of routines – hereafter

referred
to as learning processes – to achieve various outcomes (social
and work-
related goals). Self-learning adheres to this process model.
Once established,
this programmed process becomes the basis for future learning.
Programming
refers to the individual formalizing a self-learning process. This
is similar to
an organization creating a policy on a subject. When confronted
with a new
situation the individual focuses on their personalized self-
learning process as
the basis for dealing with a new subject or situation.
The process and the experiences associated with this process
become the
basis for future learning because the process evolved from past
successful
learning experiences. Individuals do not use what did not work
before unless
shown a different way to do so, and even then resistance is
likely to occur
unless the experiential learning method is the method used to
overcome the
memory of prior failure, which is a negative experience.
Experiences represent the building blocks for future learning.
We build
on past knowledge gained from prior experiences because what
was learned
becomes incorporated within the individual’s comfort zone. The
comfort
zone represents the individual’s internalized policies which
represent the rules
to follow and the processes to use in adhering to these policies

(or guidelines)
for responding to all types of familiar and less familiar
situations. The strategy
for responding to unfamiliar situations is to apply an
internalized policy(ies)
Only when the individual learns that the situation differs from
past experi-
ences will the individual apply a different strategy, but still a
strategy linked
with policies learned from prior experiences. Experiential
learning exercises
intended to promote new learning need to heed the important
role of an
individual’s comfort zone if the learning experiences are to lead
to a success-
ful outcome.
Learning Objective #7: Describe How the Adult Learner
Prefers Certain Types of Instructional Methods That Offer
a Less Structured Approach to Learning
One of the important principles of andragogy is that the adult
learner needs
to be involved in the design and implementation of a learning
process. This
leads to the question: why? Adults seek to succeed in what they
do. Learning
is no different for the adult learner. The adult learner seeks to
benefit from

the learning experience because the adult intends to benefit
from learning
through achieving goals.
Prior learning experiences that are associated with successful
outcomes
represent the preferred methods for achieving success in the
future. This
includes the type of instructional methods used during these
successful learn-
ing experiences. As a participant, the adult learner’s preference
is to leverage
those instructional methods that offered the best way to
achieving the learn-
ing outcomes and keep within the learner’s comfort zone.
Instructional methods that are acceptable to the adult learner
must meet
the requirements posed by three criteria relating to the
individual’s comfort
zone. First, the adult learner creates a policy or policies
regarding acceptable
and unacceptable instructional methods, complete with a
rationale for this.
Second, the delivery of instructional methods must conform to
the acceptable
processes to follow according to the learner’s internal policies.
For example,
the adult learner often prefers group work that emphasizes
values such as
social interaction, teamwork, and learning from others. These
values influ-
ence the choice of instructional methods, such as group work.

The adult
learner develops a preference for certain implementation
methods or pro-
cesses to follow. How often have we used or heard the
expression “This is
how we did it before and things went well”?
A less structured learning process does not mean there is no
structure.
The adult learner seeks to create that structure or be involved in
creating
the structure that is acceptable to the adult learner’s comfort
zone require-
ments. If the structured learning experience allows flexibility so
that the
individual benefits when learning are most beneficial, then
structure is
acceptable. Only when a rigid structure is applied does the adult
learner
resist, because the adult’s prior positive learning experiences
were associated
with less structure and negative learning experiences with the
rigid applica-
tion of a structured learning process. This attitude extends to
the type of
instructional methods used during a learning experience. Some
instruc-
tional methods can constrain learning and other instructional
methods can
encourage and promote learning.
Learning Objective #8: Explain Why the Adult Learner
Prefers Instructional Methods that Increase Learning and
Which Create Less Stress during the Learning Process
As depicted in Figure 3.1, increases in the level of stress

experienced by the
individual participating in a learning program mean that less
learning occurs.
Research shows that a certain level of stress is beneficial to the
individual,
but that the benefit quickly diminishes as the individual shifts
the focus from
learning to eliminating or reducing the level of risk to tolerable
limits.
Adults typically are familiar with most if not all types of
instructional meth-
ods. This familiarity means that the adult learner can
differentiate between
instructional methods which induce too much stress and those
methods that
are either stress-free or which pose acceptable levels of stress.
For the adult learner participating in a learning experience, the
goal is to
maximize learning to achieve personal and professional goals.
Any instruc-
tional method that impedes achieving these goals is actively
resisted. The
adult learner advocates for instructional methods that best serve
the needs of
the adult learner.

Instructional methods that require the adult learner to
participate in a
social situation (i.e., a group project), and which allow the adult
to utilize
prior experiences as a way to facilitate learning, are the
preferred instructional
methods. Any other type of instructional method will lead to
less optimal
levels of learning because the individual resists the methods
used.
Learning Objective #9: Describe the Typical Types of
Instructional Methods Most Supportive of Adult Learning
There are at least 150 instructional methods available to use in
working with
adult learners. The plethora of methods is useful in offering
trainers a variety
to select from. Some methods are better at drawing on the
experiences of
adult learners than other methods. These instructional methods
are the focus
here. But more important than the instructional method is the
manner in
which the trainer applies the method that draws on the personal
experiences
of the individual.
Examples of methods for working with individuals are listed in
Table 3.1.
The trainer needs to ensure that the focus of the method draws
on the indi-
vidual’s personal experiences. What the trainer wants to take
advantage of is
the individual’s insights. Cognitive skills and cognitive style

(i.e., the way the
individual processes information) can be used to facilitate
learning.
Table 3.2 presents methods that involve two or more people
working
together in a learning exercise. Group work that draws on an
individual’s
prior learning experiences also provides useful feedback on an
individual’s
0
Learning
Stress
Figure 3.1 Association between the Level of Stress and
Learning That Can Occur
social skills, teamwork capabilities, and level of self-
confidence. Group work
offers the trainer the opportunity to facilitate a learning
experience that differs
from those methods used with individuals only.
Neither individual nor group instructional methods are superior
to the

other. Each type of method offers the trainer the opportunity to
draw on dif-
ferent dimensions of the individual’s personal experiences that
the individual
leverages during a learning situation.
Questions
1 Define the term “andragogy.”
2 Identify and explain the reasons to explain the approach
adults pursue
in learning.
3 Identify and briefly describe five motivational methods that
would likely
be used to train adults.
Table 3.1 Instructional Methods to Use with Individuals
Method Focus
Case Studies • Apply prior learning experience to actual
situations
based on specific themes.
Discovery Learning • Uncovering through exploration that
utilizes prior
learned exploratory processes.
Journals • Personal insights based on prior situations and the
results experienced.
Self-Reflection Exercises • Situation-specific to learn how the
individual
understands the lessons to learn.

Problem-Solving • Examines the process the individual uses for
identifying
a problem from symptoms and the process used to
solve the problem.
Table 3.2 Instructional Methods to Use with Groups
Method Focus
Case Studies • Shared perspectives on understanding a situation
and for
generating solutions.
Cooperative Learning • Participants work together to facilitate
learning for
everyone.
Role Playing • Participants utilize prior experiences to
dramatize roles and
observers interpret the situation.
Problem-Solving • Participants interpret the cause(s) of
symptoms and offer
solutions.
Discussion Group • Members of the group share their views on
a subject.
Team Task • Group members assigned a goal to achieve as a
team effort.
Presentation • Participants work together in developing and
delivering a
presentation.

4 Explain why adults prefer to learn by using a problem-solving
approach.
5 Explain how adults reduce stress during a new learning
situation.
Bibliography
Blondy, L. (2007). Evaluation and application of andragogical
assumptions to the adult
online learning environment. Journal of Interactive Online
Learning. 6(2): 116–130.
Bush, H., Daddysman, J. & Charnigo, R. (2014). Improving
outcomes with Bloom’s
taxonomy: From statistics education to research partnerships.
Journal of Biometrics &
Biostatistics. 5(4): 1–3.
Henschke, J.A. (2011). Considerations regarding the future of
andragogy. Adult Learning.
22(1-2).
Kaufman, E.K., Carter, H.S., Rudd, R.D. & Moore, D.N. (2009).
Leadership development
for local volunteers: A case study of andragogy in practice. The
International Journal of
Volunteer Administration. 25(3): 21–31.
Knowles, M.S. (1980). What is andragogy? In: Knowles, M.S.,

The Modern Practice of
Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. Cambridge:
Cambridge Adult Education,
Chapter 4.
Knowles, M.S., Holton, E.F. & Swanson, R.D. (2015). The
Adult Learner: The Definitive
Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development.
London: Routledge.
Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation.
Psychological Review. 50, 370–396.
McClean, G.N. (2006). Rethinking adult learning in the
workplace. Advances in Developing
Human Resources. 8(3): 416–423.
Reischmann, J. (2004). Andragogy: History, meaning, context,
function (online). Available
at: //www.andragogy.net.
Ross, S. (2015). The Road to Self-Leadership Development:
Busting Out of Your Comfort Zone.
Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing.
Sandlin, J.A. (2005). Andragogy and its discontents: An
analysis of andragogy from three
critical perspectives. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning. 14:
25–42.
http://www.andragogy.net

Chapter 6
Instructional Methods
How we prime the pump determines what flows out!
Chapter Six Learning Objectives
reading
Chapter Six.
1 Define instructional methods and explain the important role of
these methods in the learning process.
2 Describe and explain the relationship between training
program
learning objectives and instructional methods.
3 Describe and explain the relationship between instructional
meth-
ods and andragogy.
4 Discuss the relationship between instructional methods and
motivation.
5 Explain and examine the levels of instructional methods
associated
with levels of learning.
6 Describe and examine the process for identifying instructional
methods to use in a training program.

7 Describe and explain the relationship between training
learning
styles and the selection of instructional methods.
8 Describe and explain the relationship between teaching styles
and
instructional methods.
9 Differentiate between instructional methods and learning
locations.
10 Define, explain, and assess how instructional methods are
meant to
impact the trainee’s learning process.
C
o
p
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r
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2
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.
GLOBAL CAMPUS
Organizations: An Essential
Guide For Trainers. Routledge
com.ezproxy.umgc.edu/eds/ebookviewer/ebook?sid=c3ba8a53-

c943-451a-b678-345beab11ff7%
40redis&ppid=pp_68&vid=0&format=EB
Instructional Methods 69
Learning Objective #1: Define Instructional Methods
and Explain the Important Role of these Methods
in the Learning Process
Instructional methods are sometimes referred to as learning
methods or
teaching strategies. Each term refers to the same thing.
Instructional methods
represent practices used by trainers and teachers to stimulate
trainee/student
learning. Instructional methods are not learning locations such
as online or
the classroom. Locations represent places where learning
occurs.
The goal in using instructional methods is to stimulate learning
that results
in different trainee behavior or a change in the trainee’s
performance. In
a formal training program learning has a purpose, and one of the
primary
responsibilities of the designers of training programs is to select
those instruc-
tional methods that enable the trainees to achieve the learning
objectives
identified by the trainers.

The preferred instructional methods are methods that directly
link learn-
ing to the relevant “real-world” requirements of the training
program. These
real-world requirements are associated with enabling the trainee
to act dif-
ferently at work in order to improve work performance. The
organization
should benefit as a result. However, training needs to be a win–
win situa-
tion for both the organization and the trainee. Trainees benefit
by gaining
promotions, positive performance reviews, financial benefits , or
enhanced
career opportunities. The trainee needs to perceive a direct
benefit in order
for learning to occur. Simply put, the trainee is motivated to
learn because of
the “WIIFM model” (i.e., What’s in it for me?).
Instructional methods associated with stimulating the learner’s
metacogni-
tion skills are important to the learning process because a
learner’s metacog-
nition skills represent the learner’s intellectual capabilities used
to facilitate
learning. These skills keep the learner focused and attentive,
which results in
the learner processing the information in a meaningful way. The
end result
in using metacognition skills is that learning increases and the
information
learned is retained.
Research studies show that actively involving learners in the
learning pro-

cess leads to more learning and longer subject retention rates.
The concept
that describes this phenomenon is active learning. By engaging
the learner
through their active involvement in the learning process,
learning increases.
The preferred instructional methods associated with active
learning are
methods that focus the learner on learning the most important
subjects to
be learned. The focus on important subjects limits the potential
problem of
information overload and increases the retention rate of the
subject.
Finally, instructional methods that excite the learner
intellectually, socially,
emotionally, and behaviorally (i.e., where the emphasis is on
developing the
values underlying behavior) represent the optimal instructional
methods
to facilitate learning because these methods engage the learner’s
important
70 Instructional Methods
self-influencing factors. Engaging the learner’s self-influencing
factors simul-
taneously leads to a more motived learner who is eager to learn.

Learning will
occur because the subject matter is relevant, narrowly focused,
and does not
push the learner beyond their capacity to learn.
Learning Objective #2: Describe and Explain the Relationship
between Training Program Learning Objectives and
Instructional methods represent one of the important issues to
consider dur-
ing the training program design process. Instructional methods
represent the
techniques selected to use to teach the subject matter
sufficiently so that
trainees will achieve the learning objectives.
The type of learning objective is one of the determi ning factors
influ-
encing the choice of instructional methods. A wrong choice
almost always
ensures that trainees won’t achieve one or more of the learning
objectives.
Skills-based learning objectives require instructional methods
that focus
on skill development. Learning objectives that focus on
cognitive learning
require instructional methods that emphasize intellectual
development. These
kinds of methods include knowledge acquisition but extend
beyond the
acquisition of knowledge (see Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive
Learning,
as discussed by Huitt [2014]), such as by demonstrating
comprehension or
applying the knowledge and analysis, for example. Learning

objectives for
developing personal abilities require instructional methods that
focus on such
personal abilities as value acquisition, value strengthening,
communication
skills, problem-solving skills, and the ability to organize
information, to name
a few types of personal abilities.
There are over 150 different types of instructional methods . A
rule of
thumb to use in selecting instructional methods is to select
those which
offer the “best” practice. Best practice is subjective and open to
interpreta-
tion. Designers need to examine the selected learning objectives
and the
trainees’ needs and capabilities in order to develop a set of
objective criteria
for selecting the instructional methods that enable the trainees
to achieve
the learning objectives. An example helps to identify how to
select objec-
tive criteria. Let us use the learning objective “trainees are able
to recall the
stages of the new hiring process, explain each stage, and
illustrate the stages
of the hiring process.” In the example, “recall,” “explain,” and
“illustrate”
represent the critical words for identifying the objective criteria
to use in
selecting instructional methods. Another criterion to use is the
time avail-
able for training, since limited time allocated for training can
eliminate
such time-consuming methods as lengthy videos, role-playing

exercises,
group discussions, etc. Other criteria include the need for visual
methods
to present the stages of the hiring process; the need for hard
copy to show
each stage of the hiring process; and the sequence of the stages
of the hiring
process along with explanations. Trainees need the opportunity
to review
the proposed hiring process, ask questions, and demonstrate
learning using
a variety of assessment methods to determine if the trainees
have achieved
the learning objective.
The correlation between the motivation of the trainee and the
level of learn-
ing is strong. Knowing this, along with knowing the trainee’s
personal char-
acteristics, the important subject matter to cover, and the
learning objectives
enables the designers to select the instructional methods most
likely to motivate
trainees to learn. For example, the adult learner enjoys working
on problems
and solutions, working with others, and dealing with relevant
issues pertinent to

the trainee’s job performance. Lectures, video, or working
independently would
not be ideal instructional methods under these circumstances.
Small group dis-
cussion, case studies, and group work-related research are
examples of instruc-
tional methods which are more likely to motivate the trainee to
learn and
demonstrate learning occurred by achieving the learning
objectives.
Learning Objective #3: Describe and Explain the Relationship
between Instructional Methods and Andragogy
A prior chapter covered the theory of andragogy in detail.
Chapter Six pro-
vides the reader with an overview of how adults learn and the
factors that
motivate trainees to want to learn, as well as the relationship
between the
theory about adult learning (i.e., andragogy) and instructional
methods.
Understanding an adult’s learning process is important because
the choice of
instructional methods will either motivate or de-motivate the
trainee(s) to
learn. Learning objectives get achieved only if the adult trainee
wants to learn.
The WIIFM (What’s in it for me?) principle is primary to the
adult learner.
The adult learner is inherently practical and views learning
through the
WIIFM lens. Training must be beneficial in terms of helping the
trainee per-
form their job better, leading to promotions, and/or leading to

the achieve-
ment of career goals. Anything less, and the trainee is less then
enthused
about training.
The use of prior experience during training is important for
adult learning
to occur because adults leverage their depository of personal
and work-related
experiences to facilitate the learning of new information. Prior
experience is
the anchor as the adult learner deals with new and unfamiliar
learning topics.
Adult learning relies on familiar, similar types of problems or
situations, and
adults attempt to use prior learning strategies for dealing with
new problems
or new learning situations. This represents the primary approach
that adults
use in learning situations. Furthermore, research indicates that
90% of women
and 60% of men are relational learners, linking prior
experiences and strate-
gies to new situations as a starting point to facilitate learning.
Case studies, simulations, and group work represent three
examples
of instructional methods commonly used in training programs
with adult

72 Instructional Methods
trainees. The types of cases and simulations must be sufficiently
relevant to
the trainees; the designers cannot be whimsical in selecting
instructional
methods. Group work is an important learning method for the
adult learner
because the adult learner values social interaction to profit from
the insights
of peers and discuss topics relevant to the adult learner, and
adult learners
value the social dimension that is part of group dynamics.
Group size is an
important issue, because large groups often discourage many
people from
participating in the group discussion.
Problem-solving strategies represent an important way the adult
learner
begins the problem-solving process. It is important to use
instructional meth-
ods that enable the adult learner to leverage these strategies
during the prob-
lem-solving process. Prior strategies represent the default
setting as the learner
attempts to solve a problem. New types of problems lead to
incremental
changes to the problem-solving strategies. Adults confront more
situations
than non-adults or young adults. Where problems occur, the
adult develops
strategies to solve these problems. As adults age, the adult
confronts more and
different situations with different types of problems. Familiarity
with a range

of different types of problems, learning how to distinguish
problems from
symptoms, and developing strategies to solve the problems
represent a wealth
of relevant experiences to draw on when confronting new types
of situations
that present new types of problems. Furthermore, the adult
learner develops
a problem-solving process that serves as a model to use in
future situations;
the model is modifiable when the adult confronts new situations
because the
adult has learned that the model is adaptable from prior
experience. In sum,
the model of a problem-solving process provides the framework
that the
adult learner uses when confronting different types of situations
with different
types of problems.
Learning Objective #4: Discuss the Relationship
between Instructional Methods and Motivation
Motivated individuals direct their energy and behavior towards
achieving
the objective of their efforts. This applies to achieving the
learning objectives
within the context of a training program, as well as to personal
objectives
and organizational objectives. Trainees can enter training highly
motivated
but can quickly become unmotivated. The inverse is also true:
trainees can
start training unmotivated and then become motivated.
Instructional meth-
ods represent one of the critical training influences in

motivating trainees.
Instructional methods serve as the vehicle for introducing
trainees to the
subject of the training program. Sometimes the training subject
matter can
be less than exciting, but the choice of instructional methods in
delivering
the subject matter often makes a significant difference. For
example, games
represent one type of instructional method. A game designed
around the sub-
ject introduces competition and rewards. Most people respond
positively to
a fun competitive situation. Rewards are often extrinsically and
intrinsically
motivating. Earning a prize of some type, such as a gift
certificate, is an exam-
ple of an extrinsic reward. The reward is external to the
individual. Feeling
good about winning or performing among the top performers is
an example
of an intrinsic reward. People feel good when they perform
well. Games
with goals to achieve and a reward for being successful
represent the applica-
tion of reinforcement theory. Reinforcement theory is one of the

important
motivational theories in the field of motivation studies;
motivational theory
influences the selection of instructional methods.
The variety of different motivational theories offers a plausible
approach
to motivate the individual. Identifying the “best” theory is a
useless strategy
because there is no one “best” theory. Each theory examines the
subject of
individual motivation from a different perspective in trying to
understand
how to motivate people. The training program designers do not
need to be
concerned with instructional methods matched with one
particular moti-
vational theory, however. In designing a training program, what
is impor-
tant is to utilize a variety of instructional methods associated
with a variety
of motivational theories. Using various types of instructional
method likely
ensures that each trainee gets motivated in some way. Designers
need to
know the more important motivational theories and the types of
instructional
methods closely associated with these theories. The theories
most applicable
are the theories that provide a comprehensive approach to
motivating indi-
viduals. For example, Maslow’s (1943) Needs Theory posits
that people have
needs to satisfy. One type of need is the need to socialize.
Group work is
an instructional method linked to fulfilling a social need.

Expectancy theory
offers another view on motivation. Using expectancy theory as a
way to
understand what motivates individuals, who focus and seek to
achieve if they
view the probability of success as being greater than the
perceived likelihood
of failure. Trainees may begin training with a fear of failure,
but successful
effort based on feedback in the form of formative formal and
informal assess-
ments throughout the training leads to a more motivated trainee,
confident
that the probability of achieving the learning objectives is
increasing. Poor
results from the formative assessments have the opposite effect,
although the
information gained from these assessments offers the trainer the
opportunity
to modify training to improve the assessment results. The goal
is to motivate
trainees to learn. Success in achieving the learning objectives
and ending
training with the trainee feeling positive about the training
experience is the
goal. Formal formative assessments include planned quizzes,
exams, and pres-
entations. Informal formative assessments (e.g., Q&A, surprise
quizzes, etc.)
are spontaneous and often used when the trainer has some
concerns about
flagging trainee interest.
The designers need to select meaningful instructional methods
because
instructional methods are instrumental in ensuring the

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Conducting a Needs Assessment: Identify and Describe the Purpose