2. What shall we learn?
Why should we learn about enzymes?
Why nursing staff should know about them?
Who thought about them first?- History
How do we define them?
How do we name them?- The classification
3.
4. Definition
Enzymes are “Biocatalysts”, synthesized by living
cells and highly specific in their action.
They are:
Mostly proteins (Exception- Ribozymes)
Heat labile
Soluble in water
Colloidal
Precipitated by precipitation reaction
Contain 16% weight as nitrogen
5. Classification & Nomenclature
A. Recommended name
B. Systematic name
IUBMB
Unambiguous & Informative
But Cumbersome
6 major classes
Class.Subclass.sub-subclass.substrate
6.
7. OTHLIL
Oxidoreductases→ Transfer of H, O or e-
Transferases → Transfer of gr other than H
Hydrolases → Cleave bond & add H2O
Lyases → Cleave bond without adding H2O
Isomerases → Intramolecular transfers
Ligases → ATP dependent condensation of 2 molecules
8. 1. Oxidoreductases
AH2 + B →A + BH2
Alcohol+ NAD+ ADH Aldehyde + NADH +H+
• Dehydrogenases (hydride transfer)- ADH
• Oxidases (electron transfer to molecular oxygen)- L-
and D- AA oxidase
• Oxygenases (oxygen transfer from molecular
oxygen)- oxygenase, mono- & di-oxygenases,
Cytochrome oxidase
• Peroxidases (electron transfer to peroxide)-
Glutathione peroxidase
9. 2. Transferases
A-R + B → A + B-R
• transfer of an atom or group of atoms
(e.g. acyl-, alkyl- and glycosyl- ), between
two molecules, but excluding such
transfers as are classified in the other
groups (e.g. Oxidoreductases and
Hydrolases).
• Ex- Aminotransferases, all kinases,
transmethylases
• Hexose + ATP Hexokinase Hexose-6-P +
ADP
10. 3. Hydrolases
Cleavage of ester, ether, peptide or
glycosidic bond by addition of H2O
Ach + H2O acetylcholine esterase Choline +
Acetate
Ex: All digestive enzymes, lipase, pepsin,
Trypsin, ALP, Urease
11. 4. Lyases
Cleave bond without addition of H2O
Fructose-1,6-BP Aldolase Glyceraldehyde-3-
P
+ Dihydroxyacetone P
Ex: Fumarase, Histidase, HMG CoA lyase
12. 5. Isomerases
Can produce optical, geometrical or
positional isomers of substrates
Gly-3-P Triose P isomerase DHAP
Ex: Racemase, Epimerase
13. 6. Ligases (synthetases)
ATP dependent condensation of two
molecules
Acetyl CoA + CO2 + ATP Acetyl CoA Carboxylase
Malonyl CoA + ADP + Pi
Synthases and synthetases are different
!!!
Synthatase- need ATP; Synthase- no ATP
Ex: Glycogen synthase, ALA synthase
14.
15.
16. Some Terminologies
Active Site
Region where substrate binds
Occupies a very small portion of the enzyme
Situated in a crevice or a cleft
During binding specific groups realign themselves to fit
exactly
Substrate binds by non-covalent bonds
AA or grs. That directly participate in binding are
known as catalytic residues
Sometimes catalytic site and substrate binding site may
be different
Coenzymes and cofactors are a part of the catalytic site
Serine- frequently present
21. Characteristics of coenzymes
I. When cofactor is some organic substance
II. Group is transferred from or accepted by the
coenzyme
III. Heat stable
IV. Low MW
V. Combine loosely with enzyme
VI. Separated by dialysis
VII. Reaction complete→ Coenzyme released →
Goes to other reaction site
22. Prosthetic group
• When cofactor (collectively includes coenzymes
and metal ions) is strongly bound to the
apoenzyme by covalent or non-covalent forces
• Ex: PLP, FMN, FAD, TPP, Biotin;
metal ions of Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Se, and Zn
• Metals are most common
• 1/3rd enzymes contain metals- Metallozymes
/Metallo-enzymes
• Metals as cofactors- Metal activated enzymes
23. Metallo -enzymes
Metal Metal containing enzyme
Zn Carbonic anhydrase, Carboxypeptidase, ADH
Mg Hexokinase, PFK, Enolase, Glu-6-Phosphatase
Mn Phospho gluco mutase, Hexokinase, Enolase,
Glycosyl transferase
Cu Tyrosinase, cytochrome oxidase, SOD, Lysyl
oxidase
Fe cytochrome oxidase, catalase, peroxidase,
Xanthine oxidase
Ca Lecithinase, lipase
Se Glutathione peroxidase, Deiodinase
Mo Xanthine oxidase
25. How enzymes work???
Enzymes provide an alternate,
energetically favorable pathway different
from uncatalyzed reaction
The active site chemically facilitates
catalysis
26. A. Energy changes occurring during reaction
A ↔ T* ↔ B
Energy barrier separates reactants and products.
Energy barrier- Free energy of activation
↓
Energy difference between reactants and high energy
intermediate T*
27. a) Free energy of activation
Uncatalyzed reactions- high EA
Rate of reactions thus slow
32. Enzymes can be isolated and
properties can be studied in vitro
Factors affecting enzymes are:
1. Concentration of enzyme
2. Concentration of substrate
3. Concentration of product
4. Temperature
5. pH
6. Activators
7. Time
8. Light & radiation
9. Inhibitors
33. 1. Enzyme concentration
affecting enzyme activity
When substrate is sufficient,
Rate of reaction is proportional to
Enzyme concentration
Unit of enzyme activity- IU, Katal
(Kat), U, KAU
34.
35. 2. Substrate concentration
affecting enzyme activity
E + S ↔ ES ↔ E + P
A
B
C
3 Phases
A. At low substrate
conc.– V α [S]
B. [S] not directly
proportional to V
C. Reaction
independent of [S]
36. Most of the enzymes follow
Michelis-Menten kinetics
37. MICHELIS-MENTEN EQUATION
Enzyme combines reversibly with
substrate to form ES.
Breakdown of ES to product is
irreversible.
E= Enzyme
S= Substrate
P= Product
Es= Enz- substrate complex
K1, K-1, K2= Rate constants
39. Km/ Michelis constant
It’s the substrate concentration (expressed in
moles/lit) at half-maximal velocity.
50% of enzyme molecules are bound with
substrate molecules at that particular substrate
concentration
Km is independent of enzyme concentration
Expressed in moles/lit
Km is a constant for an enzyme. It’s the
characteristic feature of a particular enzyme for a
specific substrate- Signature of the enzyme
40. Km is the representative of measuring
the strength of the ES complex
Low Km – strong affinity between enzyme
and substrate
Ex: Glucokinase– Km= 10 mmol /lit
Hexokinase– Km= 0.05 mmol/lit
So what’s the inference??
41. 50% molecules of Hexokinase are
saturated even at a lower conc. Of
glucose.
When [S] << Km → reaction is first-
order
When [S] >> Km → reaction is zero-
order
44. 5. Effect of pH
pH change alters:
Ionization states of the amino acid residues
present in the active site
Ionization state of substrate
May dissociate apoenzyme from cofactor
Drastic change denatures the enzyme protein
Optimum pH is different for different enzymes
Mostly 6-8
Exception: Pepsin– 1-2
ALP– 9-10
Acid phosphatase – 4-5
52. Many different kinds of molecules inhibit
enzymes and act in a variety of ways
Enzyme inhibition
Competitive
Non-competitive
Reversible Irreversible
Uncompetitive
Suicide
Allosteric
Feedback
53. Competitive inhibition
• Inhibitor competes with the substrate for the active
site
• Inhibitor is substrate analogue
• Usually reversible
• ↑ [S] abolishes inhibition
• ↓ velocity of reaction
• ↑ Km
• Vmax unchanged
56. Non-competitive inhibition
• No competition between substrate and
inhibitor
• Different binding sites
• No structural similarities
• ↑ [S] doesn’t resolve the inhibition
• Usually irreversible
• May be reversible when inhibitor is
removed
• Km value unchanged
• Vmax reduces
57.
58. Clinical significance
• Cyanide inhibits cytochrome oxidase
• F inhibits enolase- removes Mn & Mg
• Heavy metals react with –SH gr. Of BAL-
hence BAL is used in heavy metal
poisoning
Toxicological importance
• Most of the poisons- Irreversible NC
inhibitors- iodoacetate, heavy metal
poisons
59. Competitive Vs Non-competitive inhibition
Competitive
inhibition
Non-competitive
inhibition
Act on Active site May/may not be
Str of inhibitor Substrate
analogue
Not an analogue
Reversibility Reversible Mostly irreversible
↑ Substrate Inhibition relieved No effect
Km ↑ No change
Vmax Unchanged ↓
Significance Drug action Toxicological
60.
61. How Isozymes help in Medicine??
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Biochemical assays
62. LDH iso -enzymes
No. of
isozyme
Subunit
Make
up
Tissue of origin % in
human
serum
LDH-1 H4 Heart muscle 30
LDH-2 H3M1 RBC 35
LDH-3 H2M2 Brain 20
LDH-4 H1M3 Liver, Skeletal muscle 10
LDH-5 M4 Liver, Skeletal muscle 5
63. Clinical application of LDH
Myocardial infarction-LDH-1> LDH-2;
flipped pattern see in MI (usually LDH-2 >
LDH-1)
↑LDH-1, LDH-2- peaks at 72hrs and
stays till 1 week
Muscular dystrophies- ↑LDH-5
Hepatocellular damage- ↑LDH-5
Megaloblastic anemia, renal infarction-
↑LDH-1, LDH-2
Cancers- ↑↑↑
64. Creatine kinase
Normal serum level- 15-100 U/L for males;
10-80 U/L for females
Dimer, 2 units M &B
3 isoenzymes
MM (CK3)- Skeletal Mm.
MB (CK2)- Heart Mm.
BB (CK1)- Brain
65. Clinical application of
CK
Myocardial infarction
Muscular dystrophies
CK-MB peaks after AMI at 10-24 hrs, returns
to normal within 2-3 days