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MEMORY AID – THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
I S E R V E W I T H P R I D E 1
PERSONALITY
 Originated from the Latin word persona meaning
masks
 Pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique
characteristics that give both consistency and
individuality to a person’s behavior
 Traits – consistency of behavior over time; stable
across situations; pattern is different for each
individual
 Characteristics – unique qualities of an individual
(i.e. physique, intelligence)
PERSPECTIVES OF PERSONALITY
Psychoanalytical approach
 Innate desires
 Unconscious
 Early experiences
Trait approach
 Personality lies in a continuum
 Used statistical analysis
Biological approach
 Physiological aspect; genetic
Humanistic approach
 Person is innately good
 Aim to achieve fullest potential
Behavioral approach
 Environment influences us
 Learned and acquired externally
Cognitive approach
 Schema
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF
PERSONALITY
Sigmund Freud
 Most influential: Twin cornerstones of
psychoanalysis – sex and aggression
 Collaborated with Jean Charcot in treating
hysteria through hypnosis
 Worked with Joseph Breuer; taught catharsis,
process of removing hysterical symptoms through
“talking them out”; discovered free association
technique
LEVELS OF MENTAL LIFE
Unconscious
 Contains all drives, urges, or instincts beyond
awareness but motivate most of our words, feelings
and actions
 Exist? Serves as explanation for the meaning behind
dreams, slips of the tongue, and repression
 Enter into consciousness but only after being
disguised or distorted enough to elude censorship
Phylogenetic Endowment – inherited unconscious images;
a portion of our unconscious originates from experiences
of our early ancestors that have been passed through
generations
Preconscious
Contains memories that are not part of current thoughts
but can readily be available to mind if need arises
(equivalent to memory)
Conscious
 Contains whatever we are thinking about or
experiencing at a given moment (all that our senses
detect)

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
Childhood greatly influence personality in adulthood.
Oral Stage
 Age: Birth – 1.5 years
 Focus: mouth
 Gratifying activity: Nursing – responsive nurturing is key.
PROVINCES OF THE MIND
Id
 No contact with reality, but strives to reduce tension
by satisfying basic desires
 Operate on pleasure principle
Ego
 In contact with external world
 Operate on reality principle
 Tries to reconcile irrational claims of the id and the
superego with the realistic demands of the external
world
 Uses defense mechanisms to protect against anxiety
Superego
 Guided by moralistic and idealistic principles
 No contact with external, unrealistic in demands for
perfection
 Two subsystems: conscience and ego-ideal
 Conscience – results from experiences with
punishments; what we should not do
 Ego-ideal - develops from experiences with rewards
for proper behavior; what we should do
 Guilt is function of conscience; inferiority feelings stem
from ego—ideal
*In a healthy individual, id and superego are integrated into
a smooth functioning ego and operate in harmony.
Drives
 Characterized by impetus, source, aim and object
 Impetus – amount of force
 Source – region of body in a state of tension
 Aim – seek pleasure by reducing that tension
 Object – person or thing serves as means through
which aim is satisfied
 Two major headings: sex or Eros and aggression or
Thanatos
Sex/Eros
 Aim of sexual drive is pleasure
 Erogenous zone – part of the body where libido is
centered (i.e. mouth and anus)
Aggression/Thanatos
 Aim of destructive drive is to return the organism to an
inorganic state
 Final aim is self-destruction
 Explains the need for the barriers that people have
erected to check aggression (i.e. Love thy neighbour
as thyself.)
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
 Ego uses to avoid dealing directly with sexual and
aggressive impulses and defend itself against
anxiety
 Repression – forcing threatening feelings into
unconscious
 Reaction formation – doing the opposite of what you
really feel in an exaggerated form
 Displacement – people redirect their unacceptable
urges onto a variety of people or objects so that the
original impulse is disguised
 Fixation – happens when the ego resort to remaining
at the present, more comfortable psychological
stage
 Regression - going back to childhood behaviors
when faced with anxiety
 Projection – attributing the unwanted impulse to an
external object; seeing in others unacceptable
feelings or tendencies that usually reside in one’s
own unconscious
 Introjection – people incorporate positive qualities of
another person into their own ego
 Rationalization – justify a regretful behavior or event
 Sublimation – repression of genital aim of Eros by
substituting a cultural or social aim

 Oral-receptive phase – needs are usually satisfied but as
infants grow older they become more frustrated as a result
of scheduled feedings. These are accompanied by feelings
of ambivalence toward their mother and by increased ability
to defend against environment
 Oral-sadistic period – emergence of teeth; respond to
others through biting, smiling, crying and thumb-sucking
(satisfies sexual but not nutritional needs)
 Symptoms of oral fixation: smoking, nail biting, and verbal
hostility
Anal Stage
 Age 1.5 – 3
 Focus: Anus
 Gratifying activity: toilet training and urge control
 Harsh toilet training: Anal-retentive personality
 Lenient toilet training: Anal-expulsive personality
Phallic Phase
 Age: 4-5
 Focus: Genital
 Gratifying activity: play with genitals; identification
 Male Phallic Phase
1. Oedipus Complex – condition of rivalry toward their
father and sexual desire for mother
2. Castration complex – in the form of castration anxiety,
boy surrenders his incestuous desires
3. Identification with the father
4. Strong superego ensures repression of Oedipus
complex
 Female Oedipus Complex
1. Castration complex in the form of penis envy
2. Oedipus complex develops as an attempt to obtain
penis (sexual desires for father; hostility for mother)
3. Gradual realization that Oedipal desires are self-
defeating
4. Identification with mother
5. Weak superego replaces the partially dissolved
Oedipus complex
ld
 Age: 5-puberty
 Repress sexual drive and direct their psychic energy toward
school, friends, hobbies
 Time of learning, adjusting to the social environment, form
beliefs and values
Genital Stage
 Age: Puberty+
 Focus: Genital
 Gratifying activity: heterosexual relationship
 Renewed sexual interest
MAIN TENETS:
1. The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the
striving for success or superiority.
 Everyone begins life with physical deficiencies that
activate feelings of inferiority
 People strive for superiority or success as a means of
compensation for feelings of inferiority or weakness
 Striving for personal superiority (previously coined as
masculine protest) – personal goal; strivings are
motivated by exaggerated feelings of personal
inferiority or presence of inferiority complex
 Striving for success – healthy individuals are
concerned with goals beyond themselves; sense of
personal worth is tied closely to their contributions to
human society.
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
Alfred Adler
 Presented an optimistic view of people, relying on
notion of social interest, oneness with all humankind
 Motivated by social influences and striving for
superiority or success
 People are responsible for who they are
 Present behavior is shaped by people’s view of the
future
 Basic premise: People are born with weak, inferior
bodies – a condition that leads to feelings of
inferiority and consequent dependence on other
people. A feeling of unity with others (social interest)
is inherent in people and the ultimate standard for
psychological health.

2. People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior
and personality.
 Fictionalism – consistent with Adler’s teleological view
of motivation
 People are motivated by present perceptions of the
future.
3. Personality is unified and self-consistent.
 Each person is unique and indivisible.
 Thoughts, feelings and actions are all directed toward
a single goal. (i.e. mystery film where everything
makes sense at the end)
 Organ dialect – deficient organ expresses direction of
individual’s goal (i.e. boy who wet the bed at night to
send a message that he does not want to obey his
parents)
4. The value of all human activity must be seen from the
viewpoint of social interest.
 Social interest – defined as an attitude of relatedness
with humanity in general and empathy for each
member of the community; manifests as cooperation
with others for social advancement rather than
personal gain
 Yardstick for measuring psychological health
Origins of Social Interest
 Originates from mother-child relationship
 Mother must show genuine love for the child –
centered on child’s well-being which develops from a
true caring for child, her husband and other people.
 A successful father avoids dual errors of emotional
detachment and paternal authoritarianism.
5. The self-consistent personality structure develops into
a person’s style of life.
 Style of life refers to flavour of a person’s life.
 Includes person’s goal, self-concept, feelings for
others and attitude towards the world
 Healthy people see many ways of striving for success
and continually seek new options
6. Style of life is molded by person’s creative power.
 Creative power – holds people in control of their own
lives; implies movement towards the goal
 “law of the low doorway” – you can choose your own
action
Safeguarding Tendencies
 Largely conscious
 Create patterns of behavior to protect their exaggerated
sense of self-esteem against public disgrace
 Limited to construction of a neurotic style of life
Excuses
 “Yes, but” or “If only”
Aggression
 Depreciation – undervalue other people’s achievements
and to overvalue one’s own
 Accusation - blame others for one’s failures
 Self-accusation – marked by self-torture or guilt
ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT
 Underdeveloped social interest – underlies all types
of maladjustments
 Neurotics lack social interest, set their goals too
high, live in their own private world and have a rigid
style of life.
External Factors in Maladjustment
 Exaggerated physical deficiencies –
overcompensate for their inadequacy; overly
concerned with themselves
 Pampered style of life – have weak social interest but
a strong desire to perpetuate the pampered, parasitic
relationship with parents. Their parents
demonstrated their lack of love by doing too much
and thus they are treated as if they cannot solve their
own problems; also fearful when separated from their
parent
 Neglected style of life – abused and mistreated
children are often distrustful of others, see society as
enemy and feel alienated from others.

Withdrawal – run away from problems by setting up a distance
 Moving backward - revert to a more secured period
of life
 Standing still – avoid all responsibility by ensuring
themselves against any threat or failure
 Hesitating - procrastinations; “It’s too late now.”
 Constructing obstacles – build something to knock
down
ANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY
Carl Jung
Levels of the Psyche
Conscious
 Ego as the center of consciousness but not the core of
personality
Personal Unconscious
 Repressed, forgotten or subliminally perceived experiences
of one particular individual
 ‘formed by individual experiences and unique to each of us
 Contains complexes – embedded themes (power, mother,
father, religion) that influence consciousness and behavior
Collective Unconscious
 Rooted in ancestral past of the entire species
 Responsible for people’s myths, legends and religious
beliefs
 Innate tendency to react in a particular way when an
experience stimulates a biologically inherited response
tendency (i.e. mother save newborn infant)
Archetypes
 Ancient or archaic images that derive from the collective
unconscious
 Expressed through dreams, fantasies and delusions
Persona
 Mask, public self
 Strike a balance between demands of society and who we
really are
Shadow
 Represents urges that are socially unacceptable
 Strive to know our shadow
Anima
 Representation of woman in a man
 Men’s ancestral experiences relating to women
Animus
 Representation of man in a woman
 Women’s ancestral experiences relating to men
Great Mother
 Opposing forces of fertility and destruction
Wise Old Man
 Wisdom
 Symbolizes human’s pre-existing knowledge of the
mysteries of life
BIRTH ORDER - influences behavior and personality
Eldest
 Nurturing and protective of others
 Must always be right
 Exaggerated feelings of power
Middle
 Tries to dethrone first born
 Highly motivated
 Competitive
Youngest
 Most pampered and protected
Only Child
 Socially mature
 Pampered and spoiled

Hero
 Powerful but undone by some seemingly insignificant
person or event
Self
 Most comprehensive
 Unites all archetypes in the process of self-realization
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Stage 1: Childhood
 Problem-free age
 Gradual awareness of existence as a separate individual
Stage 2: Youth
 Extraversion period
 Period of increased activity, maturing sexuality and
growing consciousness
Stage 3: Middle life
 Give up extraverted goals of youth and move into
introverted direction of expanded consciousness
Stage 4: Old Age
 Death is the goal of life
Self-realization – process of becoming an individual or whole
person
 Must allow the unconscious self to become the core of
personality
PSYCHIC LIFE ON INFANT
Phantasies
 Possess unconscious images of “good” and “bad”
Objects
 Means through which the aim is satisfied
 Internal objects have life of its own in the child’s fantasy
world
 Example: Children who have introjected their mother
believe she is inside their body.
Positions
 Infants are in constant conflict between good and bad
 To reduce conflict, objects are organized into positions.
Paranoid-schizoid position
 Infant comes into contact with the good and bad breast
 Persecutory breast vs ideal breast
 Organize experiences that includes both paranoid feelings
of being persecuted and a splitting of internal and external
objects into good and bad
 Splitting of world into good and bad serves as a prototype
for developing ambivalent feelings toward a single person
Depressive Position
 See that good and bad can exist in the same person
 Tolerate destructive feelings
PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES
 Attitudes – predisposition to act or react in a
characteristic direction
A. Introversion – turning inward of psychic energy
with an orientation towards the subjective
B. Extroversion – turning outward of psychic energy
with an orientation towards objective
 Functions
a. Thinking – logical intellectual activity that
produces a chain of ideas
b. Feeling – process of evaluating an idea or
event
c. Sensing – receives physical stimuli and
transmits to perceptual consciousness
d. Intuiting – perception beyond workings of
consciousness
OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY
Melanie Klein
 Offspring of Freud’s instinct theory but placed
importance on consistent patterns of interpersonal
relationships
 More maternal
 Human contact and relatedness as primary motive
 Emphasized on first 4 to 6 months after birth
 Child’s relation to breast serves as a prototype for later
relation to whole objects like father and mother
 Role of early fantasy

 Fearing possible loss of the mother, the infant desires to
protect her from the destructive instincts but also realizes
that s/he lacks capacity to do so.
 Infant experiences guilt.
 Resolved when children fantasize that they made
reparation and recognize that their mother will not abandon
them
Internalization – introject aspects of external world and
organize in a meaningful framework
 Ego – dual image of self to manage the good and bad
aspects of external objects
 Superego – produces terror, reaction to ego’s aggressive
self-defense against its own destructive tendencies
 Oedipus complex – earlier; overlaps with oral and anal
stages, reaches climax during the genital stage; based on
child’s fear that parents will seek revenge against them for
their fantasy
PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
Karen Horney
 Emphasized importance of cultural influences in shaping
personality
 Modern culture is based on competition among individuals
which results in feelings of isolation.
 Leads to intensified needs for affection - > development of
neuroses
 Basic Hostility – when parents do not satisfy child’s needs
for safety and satisfaction, child develops basic hostility
toward the parents which is repressed - > leads to insecurity
 Basic anxiety – feeling of being isolated and helpless in a
hostile world
Compulsive Drives
 Normal individuals use variety of defensive maneuvers but
neurotics compulsively repeat same strategy
Neurotic Trends – basic attitude toward self and others
 Moving toward people – protect oneself against feelings of
helplessness; compliant people who strive approval or seek
a powerful partner (co-dependency)
 Moving against people – everyone is hostile; appear tough
and ruthless; play to win rather than enjoy the contest
 Moving away from people – behave in a detached manner;
build their own world; greatest fear is to need other people
Intrapsychic conflicts – originate from interpersonal
experiences
PSYCHIC DEFENSE MECHANISM – protect ego from
anxiety formulated by own destructive fantasies
 Introjection – incorporate unconsciously the good
and bad external object
 Projection - one’s own feelings and impulses
reside in another person and not within one’s body
 Splitting – separate good and bad aspects of
themselves; “good me” and “bad me”
 Projective Identification – infants split off
unacceptable parts of themselves, project them into
another object and finally, introject them into
themselves in a disguised form
10 NEUROTIC NEEDS
 Need for affection and approval – attempt to please
others
 Need for a powerful partner – overvaluation of love and
dread of being alone
 Need to restrict one’s life within narrow borders –
downgrade one’s abilities
 Need for power – control others
 Need to exploit others – evaluate others based on their
use
 Need for social recognition or prestige – trying to be
first
 Need for personal admiration – inflated self-esteem
 Need for ambition and personal achievement – confirm
superiority by defeating others
 Need for self-sufficiency and independence – get along
without others
 Need for perfection and unassailability – dread making
mistakes

Idealized self-image
 Early negative influences impede a person’s natural
tendency toward self-realization -> feelings of alienation
from themselves -> need to acquire a stable sense of
identity -> create idealized self-image (painting a godlike
picture of oneself)
 Lose touch with real self and use idealized self as standard
for self-evaluation
 Real self cannot measure up -> leads to self- hatred
(neurotics to hate their actual self because it cannot match
the glorified self-image)
 Goal of Horneyian therapy : direct towards self-realization
Existential needs
 Existential needs – needs that must be met for a meaningful
existence
 Different from animal needs
Relatedness
 Drive for union with another person or other persons
1. Submission – transcend separateness of his individual
existence by becoming part of something bigger
2. Power – symbiotic relationship
3. Love – union with somebody and retain separateness
Transcendence
 Rise above passive existence and into realm of
purposefulness
 Create: life, art, religion, laws
 Destroy life: malignant aggression: kill for reasons other
than survival
Rootedness
 Establish roots and feel at home again in the world
 Productive: actively relate to the world and become whole
 Nonproductive: fixation – reluctant to move beyond security
Sense of Identity
 Capacity to be aware of ourselves as a separate entity
 But the identity of most people reside in their attachment to
others or to institutions
Frame of Orientation
 Humans need a road map, to make their way through the
world
 Object of devotion: focus energy to a single direction; gives
meaning to our lives
Burden of Freedom
 Free from the security of being one with the mother
 Results to basic anxiety: feeling of being alone
Humanistic Psychoanalysis
Erich Fromm
 Modern people have been torn away from their
prehistoric union with nature and also with one
another but have the power of reasoning, foresight
and imagination.
 Lack of animal instincts and presence of rational
thought leads to human dilemma
 People have been separated from nature and yet are
aware of themselves as isolated beings
MECHANISMS OF ESCAPE
Authoritarianism
 Give up one’s own independence and fuse with
somebody or something outside
 Masochism or sadism
Destructiveness
 Do away with other people to restore power
Conformity
 Become what other people desire them to be; reactive
 Robots who conform to standards
Positive Freedom
 Achieve full expression of both rational and emotional
potentialities
 Twin components : love and work
Character Orientations
 Relatively permanent way of relating to people and
things
Nonproductive Orientations
 Receptive - More concerned with receiving things than
giving
 Exploitative - Aggressively take what they desire
 Hoarding - Save which has already been obtained
 Marketing – see self as commodity; personal value lies
on exchange value, ability to sell themselves
Productive Orientation
• Productive work – not as end in itself but as means of
creative self-expression
• Productive love
- care, responsibility, respect and knowledge
- Biophilia – love of live and all that is alive (i.e.
influence others and self-love)
• Productive thinking – concerned interest in another
person; see others as they are

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Infancy: Feelings about “good” and “bad” caregivers
 Age 0-2 y/o
 Significant other: mother/caregiver
 Interpersonal process: tenderness (feeding process –
receive food and satisfy tenderness need)
 Important learning: dual personification of mother
Childhood: Learning applicable to social habits
 Age 2-6 y/o
 Significant other: parents
 Interpersonal process: acculturation and protect security
through imaginary playmates
 Important learning: learn moral value and use language
Juvenile Era: Finding playmates and questioning parents
 Age 6-8.5 y/o
 Significant other: playmates of equal status
 Interpersonal process: orientation toward living in the world
of peers
 Important learning: compete, compromise and cooperate
Preadolescence: Collaborating with a friend
 Age 8.5-13 y/o
 Significant other: single chum
 Interpersonal process: Intimacy with a person of same age
and gender
 Important learning: affection and respect from peers; start
of capacity to love
Early Adolescence: Experiencing lust toward a single partner
 Age 13-15 y/o
 Significant other: several chums
 Interpersonal process: Intimacy and lust toward different
persons
 Important learning: balance of lust, intimacy and security
operations
Late Adolescence: establishing an adult love relationship
 Age 15 y/o to adulthood
 Significant other: lover
 Interpersonal process: fusion of Intimacy and lust
 Important learning: mature interpersonal relationship and
self-discovery
Adulthood: completion of the personality
 Significant other: lover/life partner
 Interpersonal process: maturity/high intimacy
 Important learning: perceptive of other’s needs, anxiety and
security
INTERPERSONAL THEORY
Harry Stack Sullivan
 Personality as an energy system
 Exist as tension or energy transformation
 Tension: potentiality for action
 2 types: needs and anxiety
NEEDS - help integrate personality
 General needs – facilitate overall well-being of a
person
a. Interpersonal – tenderness, intimacy and love
b. Physiological – food, oxygen, water etc.
 Zonal needs – arise from a particular area of the
body
Anxiety – interferes with satisfaction of needs
Energy Transformations – overt or covert behaviors
aimed at satisfying needs or reducing anxiety
Dynamisms – trait or behavioral patterns
 Malevolence - feeling of living in enemy country
“Once upon a time everything was lovely, but that was
before I had to deal with people.”
 Intimacy – integrating experience marked by a close
personal relationship with another person who is more
or less of equal status
Lust – isolating dynamism characterized by an
impersonal sexual interest in another person

STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
 Stages follow the epigenetic principle
 Interaction of opposites: syntonic vs dystonic; both are
needed for development
 Conflict of opposites produces basic strength
 Too little basic strength: core pathology
Stage 1: Infancy Age 0 to 1
 Oral-sensory mode: not just mouth; involves all senses
 Stage of incorporation: accepting and giving
 Significant person: primary caregiver
Basic Trust Basic Mistrust
If needs are met by
responsive parents
If care is inconsistent,
inconsistent
Hope Withdrawal
Stage 2: Early Childhood Age 2 to 3
 Anal-urethral-muscular mode: mastering of bodily
functions; impulsive and compulsive behavior
 Children strives for autonomy and parents try to control
the child through use of shame and doubt
 Allow expression within reasonable control
Autonomy Shame and doubt
Encourage initiative Disapproving parents
Will Compulsion
Stage 3: Play Age Age 3 to 5
 Genital locomotor mode: development of motor skill,
imagination and goal-setting
Initiative Guilt
Selection and pursuit of
goal
Inhibited goal
Purpose Inhibition
Stage 4: School Age Age 6 to 12
 Sexual latency period: divert energy to learning their
culture and social interaction; form pictures of themselves
as competent
Industry Inferiority
Be productive; acquire
job skills
Insufficient work to
accomplish goal
Competence Inertia
Stage 5: Adolescence Age – Age 12 to 18
 Social latency period: try out new roles, beliefs, career
possibilities and lifestyle while establishing a sense of ego
identity
 Identity crisis: find out who you are; turning point which
can promote growth or maladjustment
Identity Identity Confusion
Faith in one’s ideology,
decide how to behave
Divided self-image
Fidelity Role repudiation
Stage 6: Young Adulthood Age – Age 19 to 30
 Genitality: relationship; fuse identity with another person
while maintaining sense of individuality
Intimacy Isolation
Share mutual trust;
commitment of 2
equals
Fear commitment,
unable to accept
responsibility
Love Exclusivity
Post-Freudian Theory
Erik Erikson
Ego
 Not a slave of id/superego
 Deal with reality by unifying one’s experiences and
actions in an adaptive manner
 3 aspects:
 Body ego - experiences with the body
 Ego ideal – self-image in comparison with our ideal
 Ego identity – different social roles
Epigenetic Principle
 Develop through a predetermined rate in a fixed
sequence
 Ego grows at a certain time

Stage 7: Adulthood Age – Age 31 to 60
 Procreativity: assume responsibility for the care of offspring
that result from sexual contact; transmit culture
Generativity Stagnation
Guide next generation;
leave legacy through
parenting/mentoring
Motivated by self-
interest and self-
indulgence
Care Rejectivity
Stage 8: Old Age – Age 60 to end
 Generalized sensuality: take pleasure in variety of
physical sensations
Integrity Despair
Wholeness; hold self
together despite
diminishing physical and
intellectual powers
Without hope; fear of
death
Wisdom Disdain
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
 Physiological Needs – most prepotent, recurring, can be
completely or overly satisfied
 Safety Needs – cannot be overly satisfied
 Love and Belongingness Needs – need to both give and
receive love
 Esteem Needs – reputation and self-esteem
 Self-Actualization Needs – continuous desire to fulfill
potentials to be “all you can be”; embraced B-values (i.e.
truth, goodness, beauty, aliveness, uniqueness etc.)
 Aesthetic Needs – desire for beauty and order
 Cognitive Needs – desire to know, understand
 Neurotic Needs – unproductive and unhealthy;
compensation for an unfulfilled basic need
Self-Actualization
 Free from psychopathology
 Progressed through hierarchy of needs
 Embracing of B-values
 Full use of talents, capacities and potentialities
The Self
*Self – little sense of self – becomes aware and learns to value
his experiences – discriminate between positive and negative
experiences – perceive ME experiences – tendency to actualize
blossoms into self-actualizationlp
a. Self-concept – how we perceive ourselves
b. Ideal self – how we would aspire to be
Incongruence – wide gap between ideal self and self-concept
Is self-concept an accurate gauge? It depends on a person’s
level of awareness. Some aspects may be:
1. Ignored/denied
2. Accurately symbolized
3. Distorted
Holistic-Dynamic Theory
Abraham Maslow
 Assumes that the person is constantly motivated by
one need or another and people have the potential to
grow toward self-actualization
Assumptions on Motivation:
 Whole organism is motivated at any one time
 Motivation is complex and unconscious motives often
underlie behavior
 Continually motivated
 People in different cultures are motivated by same
basic needs
 Needs can be arranged on a hierarchy
Person-Centered Theory
Carl Rogers
 Non-directive
 Client-centered
 Client is the expert
Basic Assumptions:
1. Formative Tendency: general tendency of all matter to
develop from simple to complex forms
2. Actualizing Tendency: all living things tend to move
toward completion or fulfillment of potentials
a. Maintenance – basic needs and status quo
b. Enhancement – develop, achieve and grow

How does one become a person?
 Individual develops a need to be loved or positive regard
 Individual develops a prizing/valuing of one’s self or
positive self-regard
PSYCHOTHERAPY
Conditions
If the following conditions exist:
1. A vulnerable or anxious client
2. Contacts a counselor who possesses
3. Congruence in the relationship (Feelings, awareness and
expression),
4. Unconditional positive regard for client
5. Empathic understanding of clients internal frame of
reference
6. The client perceives conditions 3,4, and 5
Then the process of therapeutic change occurs:
1. Unwillingness to communicate about themselves
2. Discuss only external events and other people
3. Talk about themselves but only as an object
4. Discuss past emotions
5. Begin to express present feelings
6. Freely allow into awareness those experiences that were
previously distorted/denied
7. Experience change and growth
If process of therapeutic change is set into motion, then certain
observable outcomes can be expected.
Outcome: Help client become person of tomorrow (more
congruent, less defensive and more open to experience)
Basic Concepts
Being-in-the-world (oneness of subject and object)
 Adopt a phenomenological approach
 Unity of person and environment: Dasein (meaning to
exist there)
Alienation of self from the world is manifested in three areas:
1. Separation from nature
2. Lack of meaningful interpersonal relations
3. Alienation from one’s authentic self
Modes
1. Umwelt – environment around us
2. Mitwelt – relations with other people
3. Eigenwelt – relationship with our self
Nonbeing
 Awareness of self as living being leads to dread of
nonbeing or death
 Provokes us to live defensively and to receive less from
life
 Healthier: face inevitability of death and to realize that
nonbeing is an inseparable part of being
Barriers to Psychological Health
1. Conditions of worth – values and expectations we
put upon ourselves that are based on the
expectations of others
2. Incongruence – discrepancy between self-concept
and ideal self
a. Vulnerability – lack awareness of our
incongruence
b. Anxiety and Threat – gain awareness of
incongruence; can be healthy
3. Defensiveness – protection of the self-concept
against anxiety and threat by denying/distorting
experiences inconsistent with it
a. Distortion – misinterpretation of experience in
order to fit into some aspect of our self-concept
b. Denial – refuse to perceive an experience in
awareness
*When defenses fail, an individual may manifest psychotic
behavior: Disorganization
Existential Psychology
Rollo May
Existentialism vs Essentialism
 Existence means to become; essence implies a static
immutable substance
 Existence suggests process; essence refers to a
product
 Existentialists affirm that people’s essence is their
power to continually redefine themselves
 People are both subjective and objective
 People search for meaning and are responsible for
who they become

Anxiety
 Aware that our existence can be destroyed
 Threat to some value essential to one’s existence
 Normal anxiety – proportionate to the threat, does not
involve repression and can be confronted constructively
(i.e. growth)
 Neurotic anxiety – reaction disproportionate to the threat
and involves repression (i.e. values become dogma)
Guilt
 Arises when people deny their potentialities, fail to
accurately perceive the needs of fellow humans or remain
oblivious to their dependence to the natural world
 Umwelt (Separation guilt) – lack of awareness of Dasein,
removed from nature
 Mitwelt - See people only through our own eyes
 Eigenwelt – denial of potentialities or failure to fulfill them
Intentionality
 Structure that gives meaning to experience and allows
people to make decisions about the future
 Man’s action depend on his intentions
Care, Love and Will
 Care – recognize the person as a fellow human being;
source of love
 Love – delight in the presence of the other person and
affirming their value and development
 Will – organize one’s self in order to move to a certain
goal
Forms of Love
 Sex – biological function, satisfied through sexual
intercourse
 Eros – psychological desire that seeks procreation or
creation through an enduring union with a loved one
 Philia – intimate nonsexual relationship between people;
philia makes eros possible
 Agape – concern for other’s welfare beyond any gain,
disinterested love
Freedom
 Capacity to know that he is the determined one;
possibility of changing
 Existential freedom (freedom of doing) – act on the
choices one makes
 Essential freedom (freedom of being) – destiny
makes us more concerned about beingp’
Destiny
 Goal that cannot be erased but we can choose how
we can respond
Myths
 Conscious and unconscious belief systems that provide
explanations for personal and social problems
 Stories that unify a society
Role of Conscious Motivation
 Healthy adults are generally aware of what they are doing
and their reasons for doing it
 Accept self-reports at face value
Structure of Personality
 Common traits – general characteristics held in common
by many people; inferred from factor analytic studies
 Personal Dispositions – permit researchers to study a
single individual
Levels of Personal Dispositions
 Cardinal Dispositions – eminent characteristic that
dominates their lives; every action revolves around it (i.e.
Machiavellian, Narcissistic)
 Central Dispositions – 5 to 10 most outstanding
characteristics around which a person’s life focuses
 Secondary dispositions – not central to the personality yet
occur with some regularity
Psychology of the Individual
Gordon Allport
 Emphasized the uniqueness of an individual
 Morphogenic science – study of the individual
 Nomothetic science – focus on gathering data on
groups of people
 Personality is both physical and psychological;
includes both overt behaviors and covert thought; it
not only is something but it does something.

Motivational and Stylistic Disposition
 Motivational Dispositions – initiate action; received
motivation from basic needs or drives
 Stylistic Disposition – guide action
PROPRIUM – behaviors and characteristics that people regard
as warm and central in their lives; includes values and
conscience
Functional Autonomy – some human motives are functionally
independent from the original motive responsible for the human
behavior; explanation for the behavior itself
 Perseverative Functional Autonomy – tendency of an
impression to leave an influence on subsequent experience
 Propriate Functional Autonomy – self-sustaining motives
related to proprium (i.e. hobbies)
 Neuroticism – tend to be anxious, self-conscious,
emotional, and vulnerable to stress
 Extraversion – tend to be affectionate, jovial, talkative
and fun-loving
 Openness to experience – seek out different and
varied experiences, question traditional values,
imaginative, creative and curious
 Agreeableness – tend to be trusting, generous, soft-
hearted and good-natured
 Conscientiousness – hardworking, punctual,
persevering, organized and self-disciplined.
Skinner’s Theory of Personality
Individual History of Conditioning
1. Classical Conditioning – neutral stimulus is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus until it brings about a previously
unconditioned response, now called the conditioned
response
2. Operant Conditioning – consequences of behavior
produces changes in the probability of a behavior’s
occurrence
*Shaping – process of reinforcing successive
approximations that lead to a desired, more complex
behavior
Trait and Factor Theories
Eysenck’s Factor Theory
Hierarchy of Behavior Organization
1. Specific acts or cognition – individual behaviors or
thoughts that may or may not be characteristic of a
person
2. Habits – responses that recur under similar cognitions
3. Trait – semi-permanent personality dispositions;
significant intercorrelation among habitual behaviors
4. Types/Superfactors – made up of several interrelated
traits
Dimensions of Personality
 Extraversion – characterized by sociability and
impulsiveness and other traits indicative of people who
are rewarded for their association with others; low level
of cortical arousal
 Neuroticism – tendency to overreact emotionally and to
have difficulty returning to a normal state after emotional
arousal
 Psychoticism – characterized as cold, egocentric,
impulsive, hostile, aggressive and antisocial
Behavioral Analysis
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
Precursors to Skinner’s Scientific Behaviorism
Edward Thorndik
Law of Effect
 Satisfiers – strengthen the behavior
 Annoyers – inhibits the behavior
John Watson
Goal: prove that fear is learned
Procedure: white rat + loud noise
Contributions: use of objective and scientific method in
studying behavior
Goal of psychology: prediction and control of behavior

Reinforcement – strengthens the behavior and rewards the
person
 Positive Reinforcement – any stimulus that when added
to the situation, increases the probability that a given
behavior will occur
 Negative Reinforcement – removal of an aversive
stimulus from a situation also increases the probability that
the preceding behavior will occur
Punishment – suppress behavior and association of negative
feelings
 Positive Punishment – application of aversive stimulus
 Negative Punishment – removal of a pleasant stimulus
Conditioned vs Generalized Reinforce
Social Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura
Learning
Observational Learning - allows people to learn without
performing any behavior; seeing other people being reinforced
can be reinforcing already
Process: Modeling – involves adding and subtracting from
observed behavior
Factors:
1. Characteristics of the Model – model high-status,
competent people
2. Characteristics of the Observer – lack status, skill or power
3. Consequences of the Behavior – tend to model if it’s
rewarding
Processes involved:
1. Attention
2. Representation
3. Behavioral Production
4. Motivation
Enactive Learning – complex human behaviors can be learned
when people think about and evaluate the consequences of
their behavior.
1. Informs us of the effects of our actions which serve as
guide for future actions.
2. Motivate our anticipatory actions – visualize possible
outcomes.
3. Reinforce behavior.
TRIADIC RECIPROCAL CAUSATION
Chance Encounter – unintended meeting of persons unfamiliar
to each other
Fortuitous Event – environmental experience that is
unexpected and unintended
Human Agency – have capacity to exercise control over their
own lives
 Intentionality – proactive commitment to actions that bring
desired outcomes
 Forethought – ability to set goals
 Self-reactiveness – monitor one’s progress toward fulfilling
choices
 Self-reflectiveness – evaluate motives, values and goals
Self-Efficacy – person’s confidence that they have the ability
to perform certain behaviors
Schedules of Reinforcement
 Fixed-Ratio – behavior is reinforced after a required
number of responses
 Variable Ratio - behavior is reinforced after a number
of unpredictable responses
 Fixed Interval - behavior is reinforced after a fixed
amount of time has elapsed
 Variable Interval - behavior is reinforced after an
unpredictable amount of time has elapsed

Proxy Agency – capacity to rely on others for goods and
services
Collective Efficacy – confidence that groups of people have
that their combined efforts will produce social change
Sikolohiyang Pilipino – psychology born out of experience,
thought and orientation of Filipinos based on the full use of
Filipino culture and language.
Virgilio Enriquez – came up with a definition of psychology that
takes into account the study of emotions and experienced
language (kalooban at kamalayan), awareness of one’s
surroundings (ulirat), information and understanding (isip),
habits and behavior (diwa), and soul (kaluluwa)
Rethinking Filipino Values
Bahala Na
 Compared with American fatalism, resignation, leaving
everything to God
 Determination and risk-taking
 Telling themselves that they are ready to face a difficult
situation and will do their best to achieve their objective
 Pump courage
Hiya
 Shame, uncomfortable feeling of being in an socially
unacceptable position
 Did not give importance to affixations which can give a new
meaning
 Internal aspect: sense of propriety
Utang na Loob
 Principle of reciprocity incurred when an individual helps
another; colonizer as benefactor
 “gratitude or solidarity”
 Calling heard by Filipinos who go to other lands but to still
remain ties with their homeland
Pakikisama
 Maintain smooth interpersonal relations by going along with
the group’s decision
 Kapwa (shared identity) – heart of the structure of Filipino
values
 Pakikiramdam (shared inner perception) – pivotal
interpersonal value, request to feel or be sensitive
Pakikipagkapwa
 Treat the other person as kapwa or human being
 2 categories of kapwa: Ibang-tao (outsider) and Hindi-
Ibang-Tao (one of us); level of interaction varies
 Ibang-tao – pakikitungo (transaction/civility with),
pakikilahok (joining/participating), and pakikisama
 Hindi-Ibang-Tao – pakikipagpalagayang loob
(rapport/understanding), pakikisangkot (getting involved)
and pakikiisa (being one with)-

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