3 d printed building technology report

3D PRINTED BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering, RIT HASSAN Page 1
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure.
Construction starts with planning, design, and financing. It continues until the project is built
and ready for use. Concrete is the most widely used construction material on this planet. It is
the second most used material after water. A world without concrete, and its dominant
material, Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), is hard to imagine. Concrete is a term defining
intimate mixture of various kinds of materials such as cement and aggregates with water at a
suitable proportion. Concrete is the widely used construction material across the world due to
its adaptability, durability, strength, availability and economy. It can resist cyclones,
earthquakes, blasts, fires etc. along when constructed with reinforcement. In India Reinforced
Cement Concrete has been extensively used for the construction of residential buildings,
commercial buildings, roads, bridges and dams.
The current concrete construction industry faces several challenges. One of them is
the high cost. According to a recent study, formwork is responsible for about 80% of the total
costs of concrete construction. The significant amount of wastage generated in the
construction is another challenge. Formwork is a significant source of waste, since all of it is
discarded sooner or later, contributing to a generally growing amount of waste in the
construction industry. Furthermore, the conventional approach of casting concrete into a
formwork limits geometrical freedom for the architects to build in various geometries.
Another challenge is the slow speed of construction. The concrete construction often
comprises many steps including material production, transportation, and in-situ manufacture
of formwork, and each step is time consuming. Moreover, the current concrete construction
industry is labour intensive and has issues with safety of the labour. Most of the deaths in the
construction field is due to the falling of labour from height. Last but not least, the current
construction industry has serious issues with sustainability. In general, the current
construction methods and materials are not environmentally friendly. The entire construction
process, including off-site manufacturing, transportation of materials, installation and
assembly, and on-site construction, emits huge amounts of greenhouse gases and consumes
large quantities of energy.

Therefore, the application of three-dimensional (3D) printing techniques in concrete
construction could solve the above-mentioned challenges. 3D printing technology is recently
gaining popularity in construction industry. In the last few years, different 3D concrete
printing (3DCP) technologies have been explored.
1.2 HISTORY OF 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY
The 3D printing process builds a three-dimensional object from a computer-aided
design (CAD) model, usually by successively adding material layer by layer, which is why it
is also called additive manufacturing. The term "3D printing" covers a variety of processes in
which material is joined or solidified under computer control to create a three-dimensional
object, with material being added together typically layer by layer. In the 1990s, 3D-printing
techniques were considered suitable only for the production of functional or aesthetic
prototypes and a more appropriate term for it was rapid prototyping. As of 2019, the
precision, repeatability, and material range have increased to the point that some 3D-printing
processes are considered viable as an industrial-production technology.
Robotic bricklaying was conceptualized and explored in the 1950s and related
technology development around automated construction began in the 1960s. Many of these
approaches earlier in the 1950s led the foundation for the development of 3D printing.
In 1984, Charles “Chuck Hull” invented stereolithography (SLA), a method of 3D
printing where designers create a 3D model that is then printed layer by layer into a solid,
physical object. The SLA process involves pointing a UV laser at liquid photopolymer which
makes it solid. In 1989 “S. Scott Crump”, along with his wife and fellow inventor “Lisa
Crump”, invents and patents a new additive manufacturing method called Fused Deposition
Modelling. This technique involves melting a polymer filament and depositing it onto a
substrate, layer by layer, to create a 3D object. The technique of Contour Crafting by
“Behrohk Khoshnevis”, initially began as a novel ceramic extrusion and shaping method, as
an alternative to the emerging polymer and metal 3D printing techniques, and was patented in
1995. This technique is further developed to use to construct a full-fledged building. By the
end of 20th
century, several organizations began experiment by using 3D printing to produce
modular components of full-scale projects. In beginning of 21st
century, these applications
were in full swing and getting set to transform the entire industry.

Fig. 1.1 First 3D printer by Chuck W Hull (SLA-01)
After 2010 due to rapid development in this technology it is used to print residential
buildings, bridges, office building etc. Some of the structures to be printed are as follows.
1. Office building, Dubai- 2016
2. Villa in China- 2016
3. Public restroom, China- 2016
4. Pedestrian bridge, Madrid- 2017
5. Residential building, USA-2016 etc.,

CHAPTER-2
TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS
2.1 Stereolithography
Stereolithography or "SLA" printing is an early and widely used 3D printing
technology. Stereolithography or SLA or SL is a form of 3D printing technology used for
creating models, prototypes, patterns, and production parts in a layer by layer fashion using
photochemical processes by which light causes chemical monomers and oligomers to cross-
link together to form polymers. Those polymers then make up the body of a three-
dimensional solid. Stereolithography is a technology that can build objects with a high
precision and extremely complicated geometry.
The term “stereolithography” was coined in 1984 by Chuck Hull when he filed his
patent for the process. Chuck Hull patented stereolithography as a method of creating 3D
objects by successively "printing" thin layers of an object using a medium curable by
ultraviolet light, starting from the bottom layer to the top layer.
Fig. 2.1 SLA 3D printer
2.2 Selective Laser Sintering
Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing (AM) or a 3D printing
technique that uses a laser as the power source to sinter powdered material aiming the laser
automatically at points in space defined by a 3D model, binding the material together to
create a solid structure. Materials used in SLS technology usually have high strength and
flexibility. The most commonly used materials in SLS are nylon or polystyrene, polyamides,
polycarbonate etc.

Selective laser sintering (SLS) was developed and patented by Dr. Carl Deckard and
academic adviser, Dr. Joe Beaman at the University of Texas at Austin in the mid-1980s.
Fig. 2.2 SLS 3D printer
2.3 Fused Deposition Modelling
Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), or Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), is an
additive manufacturing process that belongs to the material extrusion family. In FDM, an
object is built by selectively depositing melted material in a pre-determined path layer-by-
layer. The materials used are thermoplastic polymers and come in a filament form. FDM is
the most widely used 3D Printing technology: it represents the largest installed base of 3D
printers globally and is often the first technology people are exposed to.
FDM is a technology was invented in 1988 by S. Scott Crump. Ductile materials
which are hardening itself during cooling process, are extruded through double headed
nozzle. Both, modelling and supportive materials are being deposited according to the cross-
section layers, generated from digital model supporting the printer. The nozzle contains
resistive heaters that keep the filament in appropriate melting point, which allows it to flow
easily through the nozzle, in case to form the layers.

Fig. 2.3 FDM 3D printer
2.4 Contour Crafting
Contour crafting is a building printing technology being researched by Behrokh
Khoshnevis of the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute, that
uses a computer-controlled crane or gantry to build edifices rapidly and efficiently with
substantially less manual labour. It was originally conceived as a method to construct moulds
for industrial parts.
Using a quick-setting, concrete-like material, contour crafting forms the house's
walls layer by layer until topped off by floors and ceilings set in place by the crane. The
notional concept calls for the insertion of structural components, plumbing, wiring, utilities,
and even consumer devices like audio-visual systems as the layers are built.
Contour crafting is an automated construction process, that is now progressively
allowing to save time and money while creating impressive constructions. Now, some 3D
printers are able to print at an architectural scale with new materials. Contour crafting 3D
printing technique is a huge advantage for architecture, to create models, for visualization,
and even for bigger projects.

Fig. 2.4 Contour Crafting 3D printer

CHAPTER-3
WORKING OF 3D PRINTER
3.1 WORKING
The process of 3D printing begins by making a graphic model of the object to be
printed. These are usually designed using Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software packages,
and this can be the most labour-intensive part of the process. Programs used for this include
TinkerCAD, Fusion360, and Sketchup. For complex products, these models are often
extensively tested in simulation for any potential defects in the final product. Of course, if the
object to be printed is purely decorative, this is less important. One of the main benefits of
3D-printing is that it allows the rapid prototyping of pretty much anything.
In fact, there are some objects that are simply too complex to be created in more
traditional manufacturing or prototyping processes like CNC milling or moulding. It is also a
lot cheaper than many other traditional manufacturing methods. After design, the next phase
is digitally slicing the model to get it for printing. This is a vital step as a 3D printer cannot
conceptualize a 3D model in the same way as you or I. The slicing process breaks down the
model into many layers. The design for each layer is then sent to the printer head to print, or
lay down, in order.
The slicing process is usually completed using a special slicer program like
CraftWare or Astroprint. This slicer software will also handle the "fill" of the model by
creating a lattice structure inside a solid model for extra stability if required. This also
happens to be an area where 3D printers excel. They are able to print very strong materials
with very low densities through the strategic addition of pockets of air inside the final
product. The slicer software will also add in support columns, where needed. These are
required because plastic cannot be laid down in thin air, and the columns help the printer to
bridge the gaps. These columns are then later removed if needed. Once the slicer program has
worked its magic, the data is then sent to the printer for the final stage.
From here, the 3D printer itself takes over. It will begin to print out the model
according to the specific instructions of the slicer program using different methods,
depending on the type of printer used. For example, direct 3D printing uses technology
similar to inkjet technology, in which nozzles move back and forth, and up and down,

dispensing a thick waxes or plastic polymers, which solidify to form each new cross-section
of the 3D object. Multi-jet modeling uses dozens of jets working simultaneously, for more
rapid modeling.
In binder 3D printing, the inkjet nozzles appliesa fine dry powder and a liquid glue,
or binder, that come together to form each printed layer. Binder printers make two passes to
form each layer. The first pass deposits a thin coating of the powder, and the second pass uses
the nozzles to apply the binder.
In photopolymerization, drops of a liquid plastic are exposed to a laser beam of
ultraviolet light, which converts the liquid into a solid.
Sintering is another 3D printing technology that involves melting and fusing
particles together to print each successive layer. The related selective laser sintering relies on
a laser to melt a flame-retardant plastic powder, which then solidifies to form the printed
layer. Sintering can also be used to build metal objects. The process of 3D can take hours or
even days, depending on the size and complexity of the project.
The overall 3D printing procedure is same irrespective of the technique or the type
of material used. Step by step procedure is as given below.
• Step 1: Produce a 3D model using CAD software.
• Step 2: The CAD drawing is converted to the standard tessellation language (STL)
format. Most 3D printers use STL files in addition to other file types such as ZPR and
ObjDF.
• Step 3: The STL file is transferred to the computer that controls the 3D printer. There,
the user designates the size and orientation for printing.
• Step 4: The 3D printer itself is set up. Each machine has its own requirements for
setup, such as refilling the polymers, binders and other consumables the printer will
use.
• Step 5: Start the machine and wait for the build to complete. The machine should be
checked regularly during this time to make sure there are no errors.
• Step 6: The printed object is removed from the machine.

• Step 7: The last step is post-processing. Many 3D printers require some type of post-
processing, such as brushing off any remaining powder or washing the printed object
to remove water-soluble supports. The new object may also need curing.
Schematic representation of the work-flow of a 3D printer is as given in figure below.
Fig. 3.1 Schematic representation of work-flow of a 3D printer
3.2 SOFTWARE FOR 3D OBJECT DESINING
• TinkerCAD
• 3D Builder
• Fusion 360
• OnShape
• 3D Slash
• SketchUp
• Figuro
• Blender

3.3 SOFTWARE FOR STL ANALYSIS AND SLICING
• 3DPrinterOS
• KISSlicer
• PrusaSlicer
• Cura
• Meshmixer
• AstroPrint
• SliceCrafter

CHAPTER-4
APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS
4.1 APPLICATIONS
The 3D printing technology provides enormous amount of applications in the field
construction. Some of the applications of 3D printing technology are given below.
1. Fast production: 3D Printing in the construction industry means greatly reduced
production time. That’s because the machines themselves are very fast, some of them
are capable of manufacturing 55 to 75 square-meter home in just 24 hours. 3D printers
are also fully automated, which eliminates human error. The machine just needs to be
monitored, but most of the production process doesn’t involve any human help. Also,
3D printers don’t use additional tooling. They have the construction programmed and
they just produce it, there is no need for additional support, different materials, and
other aspects to keep in mind that are required in the traditional methods.
2. Zero material waste: The main advantage of using 3D printing in the construction
industry is saving a lot of production costs on material waste. That’s because a 3D
printer, such as robotic arms, uses exactly the amount of material they need. Producing
buildings layer by layer and with lattice structures inside allows for a huge cost
reduction. Not only that, but they are also capable of using recycled materials. This
factor also benefits the environment. 3D printing has a much smaller impact than
traditional ways of manufacturing. Some companies took 3D printing into a great
development and designed one of the largest 3D printers in the world capable of
producing homes out of local materials and using green energy (hydro, wind or solar
power). This means much smaller emission, which is a big problem in today’s
construction industry. Additive Manufacturing can really help to build a better future for
the construction industry.
3. Cost effectiveness: Using 3D printing or Additive Manufacturing which allows the less
material usage and involves fewer people to work on construction. 3D printing is also a
much faster technology. Those factors radically reduce the costs of building any 3D
printed construction. While 3D printing structures, we use just the amount of material

we need, therefore we are eco-friendly and save money. This aspect can really bring the
costs down. 3D technologies also reduce supply costs. We can also save a lot of time,
3D printers don’t need to eat or sleep, their working hours are more adjustable and they
are a lot faster than people. And the faster you build, the more money you save.
4. Innovative design: Most important application of using 3D printing in the construction
industry, is all the innovative solutions it brings. 3D technologies can improve your
project planning as they can be used already at the design stage. Starting
from CAD plans of the buildings, which are technical drawings with all the parameters.
Based on those drawings, a 3D model of the construction can be made to meet the
clients’ expectations and show them the best design solutions. Addressing the client’s
issues and presenting the right answers to their questions is crucial. Additive
Manufacturing helps here. As we just mentioned with 3D technologies, you can present
your clients with 3D visualizations of the structure, but that 3D model can be 3D
printed.
5. Labour efficiency: In recent years the construction industry has experienced a high
demand for construction projects across all sectors of the industry. This upturn in work
has resulted in an increased demand for skilled and unskilled labour. According to a
2017 Workforce Survey conducted by the Associated General Contractors of America,
70% of construction firms are having a hard time filling hourly craft positions. Concrete
3D printing has the potential to effectively combat this shortage. The fabrication of all
concrete walls for an entire 2,700 square foot office building can be completely
automated, with the assistance of one printer operator. This demonstrates how 3D
printing can eliminate the need for large crews to produce components such as concrete
walls.
6. Environmental or Economical Impacts: Many 3Dprinting companies, are using
inexpensive and sustainable materials that utilize construction waste or locally sourced
clay and straw. This not only appeals to sustainable design but also to developing
nations as a method for producing affordable housing. Additionally, by saving between
30-60% on raw materials used, 3DP also has appeal to advanced nations where labour
costs and environmental standards are high.

4.2 LIMITATIONS
Although the potential advantages of 3D printing seem promising, the existing state of the
technology possesses many limiting factors that impair its growth in the construction
industry. Some of the limitations of 3D printing technology are given below.
1. The first and most obvious limitation is the sheer size of the printers. Some of the
companies have the largest printer in existence which may seem significant in better
construction but they are only capable of producing building components rather than
full systems. This hinders the technology’s ability to create a truly 3D printed
building because there will always be the need for traditional built foundations,
reinforcement.
2. Material is next largest limiting factor. As it exists today, construction grade 3D
printing technology is only compatible with various concrete mixtures, and plastics.
Such concrete mixtures range from lightweight air-entrained concrete, to eco-
friendly concrete mixtures that utilize construction waste. Plastics are typically used
in construction for modelling and mock-up purposes. While these materials are
effective for the prefabrication of certain building components, they will never be
able to replace traditional building methods like wood or steel frame construction. It
is also important to note that 3D printers are only capable of printing one material at
a time. This means that there are long turnover times associated with
reprogramming, cleanout, and reinsertion of a new material before a new design can
be printed.
3. There is also high reluctance from general contracting companies to invest in
3Dprinting technology. Although time and cost savings could be obtained in the
future, there is a high upfront cost associated with purchasing the equipment.
General contractors must also consider the time and cost associated with
management and operation of the 3D printers. This involves an entirely new set of
skilled labour and supervision and salaries for them also cost extra for the
contractors.
4. Building codes and regulations also pose as a large barrier for 3D printing in
construction. Most building codes and procurement standards which are suitable and

designed for traditional construction of buildings makes no mention of 3Dprinting
technology therefore making it difficult to legally implement 3Dpritning
components onto large scale projects.
5. Due to increased developments in the printers and the developing technology of 3D
printing generates the fear of cutting down of jobs since the printers can print the
structures on its own irrespective of requiring any human involvement.

CHAPTER-5
SCOPE FOR THE FUTURE
3D printers are definitely going to be responsible for the dawn of the third
industrial revolution. We’ve come a long way from the first one. Ever since the first
industrial revolution, factories, tools etc. have been synonymous with manufacturing – mass
manufacturing. The notion of modern manufacturing being done without factories is in itself
an astonishing one. However, this is exactly what is going to happen as 3D printing reaches
individuals and small businesses. We can now build parts, appliances and tools using a wide
variety of materials all from the comforts of your home just create or download a digital 3D
model of the object of your choice and with just a click of a button; you can watch your 3D
object take shape.
The future of 3D printing, and all the prospects that it seemingly holds for can make
the least materialistic person salivate. And while this new reality is extremely exciting, there
is significant doubt as to how this will affect manufacturing in the future. Factories won’t
disappear, but the manufacturing industry on the whole would get a massive makeover as
new materials, new products and new materials emerge.
When it comes to construction industry it is going to play a major role. Construction
giants are quickly realising the potential of 3D technologies and their impact on the future of
construction. The concrete 3D printing market is expected to reach $56.4m in 2021, and with
good reason. More and more companies are starting up in the sector to create new, innovative
projects. Some are more futuristic, some are very real in the present, such as Apis Cor’s 3D
printed house in 24 hours. 3D concrete printing is developing rapidly and relies on different
technologies and materials, offering many benefits to its users.
Also, National Aeronautics and Space administration (NASA) organised a challenge
program back in 2019 to print a suitable habitat for moon or mars using a 3D printer and
using the technique of contour crafting. The US based company “AI SpaceFactory” came up
with an idea of printing a building which suitable for outer space. They call the structure as
“TERA”. TERA was built from the autonomous 3D printing technologies and compostable
materials we designed for long term, sustainable life on Mars. TERA is built from a 3D
printed biopolymer basalt composite –a material developed from crops like corn and sugar

cane – tested and validated by NASA to be (at minimum) 50% stronger and more durable
than concrete.
All these improvements in the technology of 3d printing have an enormous amount
scope in the future. Due to research and development, in the future new innovative and
environmental friendly materials for the 3D printing can be used.
Fig. 5.1 Apis cor’s 3D printed building
Fig. 5.2 TERA 3D printed house for space

CHAPTER-6
CASE STUDY ON WORLD’S LARGEST 3D PRINTED
BUILDING
Dubai is known as a city of opulence that constantly tries to outdo other tourist
destinations. With the largest population in the United Arab Emirates, Dubai already has the
world’s tallest building, the Burj Khalifa, which stands 2,717 feet tall with 160 stories. Now,
the city has become the site of a new architectural feat, the largest 3D printed building in the
world. The building constructed for Dubai municipality for their administrative purpose.
6.1 PROJECT DETAILS
• Name of project: Municipality building
• Place: Dubai
• Year of completion: 2019 (17 days)
• Company: Apis Cor. USA
• Cost: $140,000
6.2 Foundation
The foundation for the building is constructed by general contractor in a
conventional method.
6.3 Walls
The walls of the building are 3D printed by a single Apis cor. printer. The walls
are Standing at 9.5 meters tall with an area of 640 square meters. Apis Cor was able to
conduct extensive R&D dedicated to testing the equipment under harsh climatic conditions
and developing the 3D printing material. The giant building was built on-site by means of one
Apis Cor's 3D printer. The material used for the construction of wall is a fast-drying mixture
of recycled construction debris, cement, gypsum, and other compounds. This gypsum-based
material is also developed by the Apis cor. The material transferred to the printer from a
concrete mixture through pipes.

Fig. 6.1 Printing of wall by 3D printer
The formwork for the building is 3D printed and the reinforcement that is column
reinforcement is filled to prepared formwork manually.
Fig. 6.2 Wall with column reinforcement

6.3 Slab and window installation
After the completion printing of walls, the slab and roof are installed. The slab
used is precast and the roof is installed as same as the conventional method by general
contractors.
The window and doors are installed after the completion of slab and roof
installation same as traditional method.
Fig. 6.3 Installation of slab and window
6.4 Structural analysis and calculations
Structural analysis and calculation for the building included: seismic actions,
vertical action, floor masses and mass moments of inertia, structural model, modal analysis,
accidental torsion effects, shear forces, displacements, damage limitations, internal forces.
After calculating all the necessary elements required for the construction of building, the
project was under taken.

6.5 Completed building
The construction of this building lasts for 17 days which includes printing of
walls, roofing, installation of slab and installation of windows.
Fig. 6.4 Completed building
Fig. 6.5 Building with printer

6.6 About the company
Fig. 6.6 Apis cor logo
Apis cor. a 3D printing, 3D software developing and a 3D structure designing
start-up, founded by Nikita Cheniuntai, CEO & Founder on September 1,2014. The company
have its headquarters in Boston, United States.
Apis Cor is the first company to develop a specialized equipment for 3D printing
in the construction industry. Their technology is capable of printing continuous wall
structures entirely on-site without extra assembly required. Apis Cor mission is to create fully
autonomous equipment that can print buildings on Earth and beyond. They also developed
the software required for the designing of 3D model of the structure that has to be printed by
the printer.
Fig. 6.7 Apis cor’s 3D printer

Other than this building in Dubai, the company also printed a house in Stupino
town, in the Moscow region of Russia. The area of the printed building is 38 m². The house
was erected in the coldest time of the year. The printing of this building is completed in just
24 hours. This building was constructed to show case how 3D printing can be used in the
field of construction to build a full-fledged house in a shorter span. The construction cost of
the project is $10000.
Fig. 6.8 Apis cor building in Russia

CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSION
Additive manufacturing or 3D printing of construction components is a relatively
new concept but may offer an innovative way of constructing architectural and structural
components. 3D printing technology has high potential to solve some of the issues such as
time consuming, inefficient construction approaches, etc. in construction industry. Although
3D printing technology is still at an early stage, many researchers believe that it would open
new doors in developing new trends, which would lead to allowing more economical,
sustainable, eco-friendly and faster means of construction. Researches are being conducted
worldwide to optimize the capacity, bond strength and the use of reinforcement in 3D printed
concrete. In addition, efforts are being made to develop standards/specifications of 3D printed
concrete so that code-based design of 3D printed concrete structure or structural components
can be initiated and move forward with this technology.
Technology of 3D printing is still young and presents lot of limitations, but there are
high expectations and hopes for the future of 3D printed buildings and building components.
Versatile applications of 3D printers and the development of new filament materials that
could possibly ensure different properties to provide thermal insulation, or strength are under
development.
The use of additive manufacturing and Contour Crafting in terrestrial applications
seems promising, there still exists more to be explored and other critical challenges for extra-
terrestrial applications such as construction in a low atmosphere as well as under reduced
gravity. Although these challenges are yet to be overcome, it is envisioned that continued
research efforts may provide the solution for extra-terrestrial shelter (e.g., electromagnetic
space radiation, thermal, micro-meteorites, dust storms, rocket blast eject at launch/landing,
etc.) for human crews and robotic equipment on planetary surfaces. In addition, it is expected
that new possibilities for space exploration and space mission architectures will continue to
arise.
Overall looking at the technology of 3D printing, which is a promising technology
for the future in this planet and also in the outer space can be a revolutionary concept moving
forward. If proper research and development made on this technology and research on the

perfect material for the printing of structures which should be low cost and environmental
friendly, the technology of 3D printing can be an effective tool for construction industry for
the upcoming generation.

REFERENCES
1. Wikipedia, available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printing
2. Wikipedia, available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_3D_printing
3. Behzad Nematollahia, Ming Xiab and Jay Sanjayanc “Current Progress of 3D
Concrete Printing Technologies” 34th
ISARC 2017.
4. Wikipedia, available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contour_crafting
5. Wikipedia, available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereolithography
6. Izabela Hager, Anna Golonka, Roman Putanowicz “3D printing of buildings and
building components as the future of sustainable construction” ICEBMP 2016.
7. Yoon-Si Lee, Sihyun Kim, Grant Hischke “3D Printing in Concrete Materials and
its Applications” International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering Research,
2018.
8. Mostafa Yossef, An Chen. Iowa State University, “Applicability and Limitations of
3D Printing for Civil Structures” 2015
9. Jake Kidwell, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, California.
“Applications of 3D Printing in the Construction Industry”
10. Wikipedia, available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fused_filament_fabrication
11. Wikipedia, available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_laser_sintering
12. “A History of 3D Printing in Construction” available from:
https://connect.bim360.autodesk.com/3d-printing-in-construction
13. “3D printing for construction and architecture projects” available from:
https://www.sculpteo.com/en/3d-learning-hub/3d-printing-applications/construction-
and-architecture/
14. Dubai municipality building, Apis cor. available from: https://www.apis-
cor.com/dubai-project

15. Russia building, Apis cor. available from: https://www.3dprintingmedia.network/apis-
cor-3d-prints-first-site-house-russia-one-day-10134/
16. “3D Printed House/Construction Materials”, available from: https://all3dp.com/2/3d-
printing-in-construction-what-are-3d-printed-houses-made-of/
17. NASA's Centennial Challenges: 3D-Printed Habitat Challenge, available from:
https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial_challenges/3DPHab/about.ht
ml
18. TERA, AI SPACEFACTORY'S EARTH HABITAT. Available from:
https://www.aispacefactory.com/tera
19. The Future of 3D Printing, available from:
https://www.architectmagazine.com/technology/the-future-of-3d-printing-in-the-
construction-industry_

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