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1. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018769958
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April-June 2018: 1–13
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DOI: 10.1177/2158244018769958
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Article
Introduction
The importance of writing in today’s world is undeniable,
and the position and role of writing as an effective way of
communication is obvious to all scholars. Writing in any lan-
guage is a significant way of expressing thoughts and ideas;
however, writing in a second language is still an acknowl-
edged difficulty for the majority of language learners. As stu-
dents enter postgraduate career in English-related fields,
their academic needs for improving this skill becomes more
obvious. Thus, they should go through different processes to
learn how to write appropriately.
Over the past decade, more attention has been paid to the
importance of academic writing tasks, and the need for
advanced instruction, focusing on writing from sources
(Keck, 2006; Leki & Carson, 1997; Li & Casanave, 2012;
Pecorari, 2013; Spack, 1997). In addition to describing the
types of “text-responsible” writing tasks assigned in univer-
sity classrooms, researchers (e.g., Keck, 2006; Pecorari,
2003; Shi, 2004) have become more interested in investigat-
ing how academic writers attempt to integrate source texts
into their own writing. Students’ inappropriate use of source
text, in particular, has been the focus of much discussion and
debate (e.g., Abasi & Graves, 2008; Elander, Pittam, Lusher,
Fox, & Payne, 2010; Keck, 2014).
In this regard, plagiarism in English as a second language
(ESL)/English as a foreign language (EFL) learning contexts
is a topic engaging many researchers in recent years
(Amsberry, 2010; Williams & Carroll, 2009; Yamada, 2003).
In the L1 context, plagiarism mainly has been judged as
“stealing” and “cheating,” whereas in ESL/EFL contexts, it
may be due to variations in cultural perceptions of texts and
textual borrowing. Typically, in the context of higher educa-
tion, as Yamada (2003) believes, student plagiarism is asso-
ciated with “cheating” and “dishonesty” but educators who
work with developing writers argue that, for many students,
plagiarism represents not an intention to deceive, but rather
769958SGOXXX10.1177/2158244018769958SAGE OpenFazilatfar et al.
research-article20182018
1
Yazd University, Iran
Corresponding Author:
Ali M. Fazilatfar, Department of English Language, Yazd University,
Safaeyeh, Yazd 8915818411, Iran.
Email: afazilatfar@yazd.ac.ir
An Investigation of the Effects of Citation
Instruction to Avoid Plagiarism in EFL
Academic Writing Assignments
Ali M. Fazilatfar1
, S. E. Elhambakhsh1
, and Hamid Allami1
Abstract
Plagiarism in ESL and EFL learning contexts has become a topic engaging many researchers in a hot debate in recent years.
Comparisons of student-generated texts with their source texts have shown that students rely amply on source texts in
their writings, using copying as a major strategy. The students themselves relate these problems to their confusion of how
to cite. Nevertheless, little research has been conducted on what constitutes effective citation practices in student writing.
The present study aims at measuring the effects of teaching anti-plagiarism strategy of proper citation on 19 postgraduate
and 34 graduate students’ use of multiple sources in their writings. The instructional treatment conducted in 30 min per
week for seven sessions, aimed at teaching correct quotation rules and different functions of citation (i.e., presenting the
literature in the field, comparing the existing views, supporting the writer’s view, etc.), while emphasizing the recognition of
these rules at work. The writing samples of the students were three citation tests and source-based writing tasks assigned
before, during, and after the treatment. Then the effective citation strategies of the students were analyzed according to their
use of standard citation in APA (American Psychological Association) style. The results of the assigned tasks and one survey
question demonstrated students’ perceived growing confidence and significant improvements in their citation skills in their
source-based writings. The results can yield insightful implications for writing course designers to treat significant problems
of the students in their academic writings.
Keywords
plagiarism, EFL academic writing, citation skills, APA style

2. 2 SAGE Open
their developing competence in text-responsible writing
(Currie, 1998; Elander et al., 2010; Keck, 2014). As a
dynamic and multilayered phenomenon, some studies have
also surveyed the attitudes of students toward plagiarism and
academic dishonesty (Pennycook, 1996; Sutherland, 2005).
Rodríguez, Yoplac-Lopez, Carpio-Tello, Sihuay-Torres, and
Cósar-Quiroz (2017), investigating perception of academic
plagiarism by dentistry students, concluded that the percep-
tion of plagiarism as a crime is relatively high. The students
had an average level of knowledge of what academic plagia-
rism is and poor level of knowledge about what paraphrasing
is. Hu and Lei (2016) in a study of plagiarism in English
academic writing, comparing Chinese university teachers’
and students’ understandings and stances, found that the par-
ticipants, though understanding plagiarism in English aca-
demic writing differently from Anglo-American academia,
plainly disapproved of identified cases of plagiarism. Their
findings also highlighted complex and nuanced understand-
ings of plagiarism and the crucial role of academic socializa-
tion in shaping knowledge of and attitudes toward plagiarism.
Others have taken a more ideological approach and have
questioned the presence of authorship of texts as well as the
relevance of plagiarism (Abasi, Akbari, & Graves, 2006;
Pennycook, 1996; Yamada, 2003) especially in connection to
writing habits of ESL/EFL writers whose cultural back-
grounds do not care valuing textual ownership (Yamada,
2003). Hence, as Sutherland (2005) points out the act of pla-
giarism needs to be understood in relation to a specific con-
text of academic conventions. Also, understandings of
textual borrowing ethics are cultural-bond and it is inter-
preted differently across cultures (Sowden, 2005).
A number of factors have been identified that might
explain why developing writers, who write in their native
language or in ESL, copy from source texts. In the case of
second language writers, differences in cultural attitudes
regarding the use of source texts and language proficiency
are often discussed as likely explanations for students’copy-
ing (Bloch, 2008, 2012; Currie, 1998; Keck, 2014; Pecorari,
2003). Surveys of Asian students have also found that the
students receive limited exposure to writing from sources,
and little instruction in summary, paraphrase, and citation
(Keck, 2014; Shi, 2006). There was also evidence that inap-
propriate use of citations was tied to students’ confusion
about how to cite, underdeveloped skills of reading compre-
hension, lack of critical thinking in relation to the authors’
points of view, and limited content knowledge that hindered
them from selecting relevant and important references
(Bloch, 2012; Shi, 2008; Spack, 1997). Hence, numerous
educators’ encounters with student plagiarism have
prompted them to conclude that university student plagia-
rism is “widespread,” and is a problem that must be
addressed in academic institutions (Hu & Sun, 2017;
Pecorari, 2003, 2008, 2013)
As a way out, Pecorari (2003) suggests the teaching of
microskills of using sources. These include choosing the
most relevant parts of source texts when quoting, that is,
using quotation marks and rewriting the source text pre-
cisely; paraphrasing, that is, extensively rewording the
source text, and not just sufficing with altering one or two
words; and selecting suitable reporting words to introduce a
source. Students should find a chance to scrutinize how other
writers follow such techniques and to distinctively practice
these skills before they are required to present all of them
together. Debnath (2016) examines plagiarism in the medical
fraternity and discusses its various types, reasons for the
growing number of reported occurrences of plagiarism,
advantages and disadvantages of using plagiarism detection
tools for identifying plagiarism instances (also in Y. H.
Zhang, 2016), and role of authors and editors in plagiarism
prevention/avoidance. It has been recommended to use pro-
fessional plagiarism detection tools regularly for similarity
checks to positively support the writers to reduce the risk of
plagiarism in the manuscripts submitted.
One of the most commonly recommended pedagogical
interventions is citation (Keck, 2006; Schuemann, 2008),
which is specified as the focus of this study. It is one of the
distinguishing features of academic writing and has been an
issue that has been of interest to employee assistance pro-
gram (EAP) scholars (Dong, 1996; Hyland, 2000; Pecorari,
2006; Petric, 2007). Shi (2008) acknowledges the impor-
tance of citation by emphasizing that citing a source text is
not merely adding a name and a date; it is a subjective pro-
cedure through which the author determines how to create
new meanings from the existing resources. It is approved
that the main role of citation in English for specific purposes
(ESP) discourse is both acknowledging others’ works and
promoting as well as validating the author’s knowledge
claims. Berkenkotter and Huckin (1995) perfectly demon-
strate this by the title of their article “You Are What You
Cite,” and even liken citations to weapons scientists use to
transform previous literature in the field to work to their
advantage (as cited in Petric, 2007).
In the studies dealing with citation and source use in stu-
dent writing, especially in the second language, researchers
have predominantly focused on the challenging features,
such as students’ difficulties in paraphrasing and summariz-
ing (Campbell, 1990; Petric, 2007), difficulties in expressing
one’s voice including lack of having a trend toward the cited
text, inappropriate criticizing of other authors, tendency to
conveying claims without referring to any previous work,
and imprecise division between one author’s own ideas and
those of others (Dong, 1996; Petric, 2007). Many other
researchers have tried to classify students’ citation strategies
in various disciplines, in different ways (e.g., Abasi &
Graves, 2008; Berkenkotter & Huckin, 1995; Charles, 2006;
Hyland, 2000). To identify effective citation strategies in

3. Fazilatfar et al. 3
student writing, Petric (2007) compares citation strategies in
high- and low-rated master’s theses, classifying the rhetori-
cal functions of citations in high- and low-rated theses into
nine different categories. The findings show that citation use
related to higher grades is characterized by the use of citation
for a greater variety of rhetorical functions as well as by
greater use of citation for functions other than attribution. In
another study, Charles (2006) underlies the importance of
phraseological patterning that occurs in reporting clauses
used to make references to others’research, by drawing upon
two corpora of theses written by native speakers.
Fewer researchers publishing in the library and ESL lit-
erature offer practical tools on teaching proper strategies to
avoid plagiarism. Among them, Garber, Berg, and Chester-
Fangman (2017) in a case study created an online academic
honesty video tutorial, which could notify students about
academic honesty and dishonesty, mainly emphasizing
responsible decision making rather than negative conse-
quences. “Plagiarism: Making the Right Choices” video
tutorial has been embedded in the university’s learning man-
agement system, besides the library’s website, making it
available from a variety of electronic devices. Smedley,
Crawford, and Cloete (2015) also evaluated the change in
nursing student’s knowledge and awareness of plagiarism
before and after an educational treatment in Sydney,
Australia. They concluded that an educational intervention
can enhance knowledge and understanding of plagiarism
among nursing students.
A great deal of the library literature centers around the
ways through which instructors can help combat student
plagiarism by collaborating with faculty members in design-
ing research assignments, teaching information literacy, and
supplying plagiarism prevention resources (e.g., Lambert’s
[2014] Combating Student Plagiarism: An Academic
Librarian’s Guide). Many of the feasible guidelines for
instruction focus more specifically on younger students or
highlight reading and speaking instead of writing. Sowden
(2005), for instance, recommends oral presentations with
the aim of practicing appropriate summarizing skills. Hyland
(2009) focuses on the reading comprehension element of
summarizing. Moniz, Fine, and Bliss’s (2008) research
found no significant differences in a student’s perceptions
about of plagiarism disregarding the specific teaching
method. Hammill’s (2009) research study was based on
class sessions with a pre and post evaluations, including
broad questions about the concept of plagiarism and ques-
tions on whether specific incidents were considered as illus-
trations of plagiarism. In addition, students had to compare
an original piece to rewrites to identify the plagiarized ones
and the underlying reasons. As a final point, it comprised a
survey study to help improve the instruction. Unlike Moniz
et al.’s study, this research project was dedicated predomi-
nantly to having students practice writing summaries of
articles through using correct citation.
In sum, research shows that students have problems in
using sources in academically standard ways and that
research on citation within applied linguistics has predomi-
nantly examined disciplinary variations, cultural differences,
and grammatical changes in citation use (Pennycook, 1996).
Fewer studies have focused on the effects of using an inter-
vention program in the form of instructions and conscious-
ness-raising workshops to EFL learners on improving their
source-use attempts in their L2 academic writing assign-
ments. Aiming to contribute to this growing literature, this
study is interested in investigating the effects of teaching one
anti-plagiarism strategy of citation on inexperienced writers’
use of multiple sources in their writings. The treatment aims
at teaching correct citation rules, while emphasizing the rec-
ognition of these rules at work. Therefore, this study aims to
use empirical data to seek answers to the following research
questions:
Research Question 1: How far does teaching of correct
citation rules and functions through workshop sessions
have any effects on postgraduate and undergraduate stu-
dents’ academic writings across different time intervals
throughout the course?
Research Question 2: How far does teaching of correct
citation rules and functions through workshop sessions
have any effects on students’ academic writings across
different levels (i.e., postgraduate and undergraduate)?
Research Question 3: How far does teaching of correct
citation rules and functions through workshop sessions
have any effects on postgraduate and undergraduate stu-
dents’ academic writings across different genders?
Research Question 4: How far does teaching of correct
citation rules and functions through workshop sessions
have any effects on postgraduate and undergraduate stu-
dents’ confidence in their academic writings, in terms of
students’ perceptions?
Method
The objectives of this study were achieved through follow-
ing different stages. At first, the effect of teaching one anti-
plagiarism strategy of citation on inexperienced writers’ use
of multiple sources in their writings was explored. The
course which was conducted in 30 min per week for seven
sessions, aimed at teaching correct citation rules and skills,
while emphasizing the recognition of these rules at work.
The activities in the classroom were conducted along with
teacher’s feedback and revisions of the students’ writings in
the classroom.
Then the writing samples of the students were analyzed
before, during, and after the treatment to find improvements in
their citation skills. In fact, the study used a test–retest design.
The pre-, mid-, and post-test were three testing tasks at each

4. 4 SAGE Open
stage checking the citation skills (see Table 1). The citing
behaviors of the students were analyzed based on the stan-
dards and mechanics of documentation proposed by Sharpe
(2013) and Petric (2007). Hughes (2003) and O’Malley and
Valdez Pierce (1996) lay out components for testing writing;
these components, scoring guides, and sample rubrics were
addressed in the assessment sections.
Finally, the students perceived improvements in their self-
confidence in writing, after the treatments was also surveyed.
The participants of the study were asked a question about
how much they thought the course was helpful for them to
improve their confidence in writing. In fact, this was aimed
to reveal some information about students’ conceptual per-
ceptions about the effectiveness of the courses on students’
appropriate textual borrowing, in this academic context.
Participants
The data of this study were collected from 53 students (19
postgraduate and 34 undergraduate), who were studying in a
spring term at the English department of Yazd University,
Iran. The postgraduates were doing their studies for an MA
degree in teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL).
Due to the nature of their studies and assignments (e.g., pub-
lishable term papers), these students were more dealing with
academic texts and more in need of academic writing skills.
The undergraduates were selected from junior students of
English language and literature who were taking their essay
writing course and were still in their early stages of learning
how to write research papers. All 53 students (43 females, 10
males) were from different cities of the country, aging from
21 to 30 years, learning English as their L2 in an EFL
context.
Procedure
The course of treatment was conducted in 30 min per week
for seven sessions. The aim was to teach correct citation
rules and the different functions of citation. Based on the
method used by Sharpe (2013), the researcher focused on
many different issues including (a) how to introduce the
source before quoting or paraphrasing and how to mark
quotations, (b) how to apply different functions of citations
in writing, (c) how to use verbs to report ideas, and (d)
finally, how to mention the source appropriately. In addi-
tion to these issues, the syllabus also included some intro-
ductory definitions as well as general remarks about
plagiarism-related issues, for example, cultural issues, pen-
alties, plagiarism checker software, and so on. Course
handouts in 40 pages (see sample classroom notes and exer-
cises in Appendix A), adopted from different academic
writing resources, were prepared and submitted to students
during the treatment. The underlying reasons and benefits
of adapting TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language)
exercises and other sources included assuring a measure of
structure, consistency, and logical progression in the class;
allowing the learners to review material or preview other
lessons; meeting a learner’s needs or expectations of hav-
ing something concrete to work from and taking home for
further study; providing multiple resources, such as self-
study exercises, illustrative examples, and so on; and pro-
viding the instructors with a comprehensive, step-by-step
procedure.
As it was presented in Table 1, after an introduction to the
course in which plagiarism-related issues and the importance
of correct citation was emphasized, it was pointed out that
citation is a means through which we give credit to the
source. When we want to cite other people’s ideas, particu-
larly when they are definitions, opinions, unique expres-
sions, or research data, which are not considered as common
knowledge, we need to introduce the source correctly. In this
regard, a lot of information was provided for the students
about the mechanics of citation, direct/indirect quotations,
and referencing.
As an example, several phrases and clauses like “accord-
ing to X,” “in the words of X,” “to quote X,” “as X puts it”
Table 1. Weekly Schedule.
Week Topic Description
1 Pretest (Time 1)
Introduction (Session 1)
Citation test
Introduction to the course
2 Citation (Session II) Plagiarism-related issues
3 Citation (Session III) Citation skills and referencing, common knowledge, citation guidelines, APA style
4 Midtest (Time 2)
Practice (Session IV)
Citation test
Examples and practice
5 Citation (Session V) Rhetorical functions of citations
6 Quotation
(Session VI)
Tips to help with quoting, when and how much to quote, how to quote, how to
incorporate quotation into writing, further in-class practice
7 Citation (Session VII)
Posttest (Time 3)
Concluding remarks
Citation test
Note. APA = American Psychological Association.

5. Fazilatfar et al. 5
and others were introduced, which can be used to cite appro-
priately the source before paraphrases or quotation marks.
Example 1.
Original: Professor Brown (2001): “A mirage is an optical
illusion in the atmosphere” (p. 22).
Written quote: To quote/According to Professor Brown (2001),
“A mirage is an optical illusion in the atmosphere” (p. 22).
Another part of the discussions during the course, for
example, aimed to present information about indirect quota-
tions. Using strong “verbs” to report the idea and convey the
meaning was emphasized and practiced. The writers had to
choose verbs that expressed certainty (e.g., argue, assert,
conclude, confirm, etc.), neutrality (e.g., indicate, illustrate,
mention, note, etc.), or doubt (e.g., suggest, propose, assume,
believe, etc.) in their reports (Sharpe, 2013).
Example 2.
Quotation: Computer entrepreneur Gates (2005) said, “The key
for Microsoft has always been hiring very clever people” (p. 10).
Neutral report: Computer entrepreneur Gates (2005) indicated
that the important factor in Microsoft’s success had always been
employing very smart people. National Museum of American
History, January 11, 2005.
During the treatment, appropriate and proper citations
were also presented and discussed. For example, the appro-
priate pattern to mention the source more than one time was
highlighted in the presentations and handouts. The point is
exemplified in the following citation:
Example 3.
Source: Maria Montessori (2011)
-proposed educational model
-not transmission knowledge
-free to develop
-success child working independently
The above parts can be rewritten as the following excerpt:
“Montessori (2011) proposed an educational model that has
become known as the Montessori Method. Montessori insisted
that education should not be merely the transmission of
knowledge but the freedom to develop as person. She felt her
greatest success was achieved when a child began working
independently” (p. 124).
A lot of information as well as many examples were also
presented in the classroom discussions to raise students’
consciousness about different rhetorical functions of cita-
tion. It was emphasized that the best academic writings
are judged according to their use of citation for a higher
variety of rhetorical functions based on Petric (2007).
Working examples were provided to show how citation
is used for different functions including presenting the
literature in the field, comparing the existing views, and
supporting the writer’s view. The treatment also provided
examples of correct citation and how to properly integrate
someone else’s writings into a research paper from other
sources, such as The Everyday Writer (Lunsford, 2005). In
The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Writing (Ramage, Bean, &
Johnson, 2014), a complete chapter is dedicated to using,
citing, and documenting sources. An article was selected
from that chapter, and students are asked to reflect on how
the material could be incorporated in a research article.
Furthermore, some of the activities asked the students to
read an article and write an acceptable summary including
appropriate quotations of the article.
Instruments
Three citation tests, adopted from TOEFL (iBT) guidebook
(Sharpe, 2013), and survey questions inquiring about stu-
dents’ confidence in writing (adopted from L. Zhang, Sheng,
& Li, 2014) were used for the collection of the data. The tests
were assigned to the learners on three occasions, to check for
students’ achievements at different time intervals across the
course: first, just prior to the beginning of the treatment
(Time 1); in the middle of the course, after 3 weeks (Time 2);
and 6 weeks later, toward the end of the treatment (Time 3).
Therefore, the items of each citation test were based on
materials covered in the treatment. Based on the table of spec-
ifications of the course and to ensure content validity of the
tests, in each 25-item test (see sample test items in Appendix
B), five items referred to citing direct quotations and the use
of phrases or clauses like “As X puts it” or “According to X.”
Seven items of each test were related to the use of “doubtful,
neutral, and certain” categories of reporting verbs in indirect
quotations to convey the meanings that students wished to
attribute to the idea. Seven items of the test covered the teach-
ing material of the course that required the students to form a
meaningful mini passage and note how to appropriately men-
tion the source more than one time (see Example 3 above).
The final six scores were considered for citation summary
tasks in which the students were asked to provide a brief sum-
mary of a passage by attending to the original (primary and
secondary) sources. The passage included different quota-
tions from different authors. In these tasks, phrases conveying
acknowledgment and source citations, such as “(Singer,
1983),” were scored for their presence/absence and for
whether they observed citation conventions properly. Also,

6. 6 SAGE Open
the effective citation strategies of students, before and after
the treatment, were analyzed and scored according to their
use of citation for a high variety of rhetorical functions and
following the standard citation style. Therefore, the three tests
were conducted based on (1-25) score system. Two indepen-
dent raters rated the three citation tests to ensure interrater
reliability of the tests results. High interrater agreement was
found for ratings of the citation tests (k = .86).
The survey questions were adopted from the second part of
questionnaire that originally was composed of three parts. Part
2 was composed of 12 items about the students’perceptions of
their improvement in different aspects of writing after taking
the course. Four related items were chosen that were in line
with the targets of the treatment in this study. Items in this part
were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1-strongly disagree,
2-mildly disagree, 3-neutral, 4-mildly agree, 5-strongly agree).
The survey questions were included in the third citation test
to measure the students’ perceived level of confidence toward
writing in academic contexts. The questions read as follows:
1. I am more confident in writing after this course.
2. I can write academically (academic writing
conventions).
3. I develop research skills by writing the research
paper.
4. This course helps me complete writing assignments
of other subjects.
Classroom observation was made throughout the course
to get more knowledge of how learners used citations in their
source-based writings, or to generate explanations for some
unusual phenomena occurring in the course.
Two independent raters rated six randomly chosen tests
at first. An interrater reliability check on scoring students’
citation practices in these essay-type tests, based on six
randomly chosen tests, yielded 90% interrater reliability
on citation scores in the first six citation tests (Cohen’s
kappa = .90).
The results of these three citation tests were analyzed using
ANOVA and chi-square. The ANOVA analyses provide infor-
mation about the differences between the students’ perfor-
mances in different groups (postgraduate and undergraduate,
male and female) and for the citation tests, at different time
intervals: pretest (Time 1), midtest (Time 2), and posttest (Time
3). The chi-square analysis could furnish us with information
about the differences between the students’ perceived growing
confidence in source-based writing after the treatments.
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of the Students’ Performances on the Three Citation Tests.
n M SD SE
95% confidence interval for M
Lower bound Upper bound
Pretest 53 15.6509 1.64312 .22,570 15.1980 16.1038
Midtest 53 20.1817 2.07935 .28,562 19.6086 20.7548
Posttest 53 20.9085 3.04905 .41,882 20.0681 21.7489
Total 159 18.9137 3.28882 .26,082 18.3986 19.4289
Table 3. One-Way ANOVA Results of the Three Citation Tests.
Sum of squares df Mean square F Significance
Between groups (Combined) 860.327 2 430.164 79.073 .000
Linear term Contrast 732.508 1 732.508 134.650 .000
Deviation 127.819 1 127.819 23.496 .000
Within groups 848.651 156 5.440
Total 1,708.979 158
Table 4. Within-Subjects Factors.
Value label No.
Level
1 Undergraduate 34
2 Graduate 19
Gender
1 Boy 10
2 Girl 43
Table 5. Between-Subjects Factors.
Factor 1 Dependent variable
1 Citation pretest_1
2 Citation midtest_1
3 Citation posttest_1

7. Fazilatfar et al. 7
Results
A Comparison of Students’ Citation Scores at
Three Different Time Intervals
The analysis was conducted to reveal information about the
first research question that aimed at exploring the effects of
teaching correct citation rules and functions on postgraduate
and undergraduate students’ academic writings. The descrip-
tive statistics of the students’ performances and the results of
one-way ANOVA comparing all 53 students’ performances
at three citation tests (pretest, midtest, and posttest) are pre-
sented in Tables 2 and 3.
Table 2 shows that the students’ mean score (M = 15.65)
at pretest (Time 1) is much lower than the mean scores at
midtest (Time 2) and posttest (Time 3), which are 20.18 and
20.90, respectively, indicating students’ achievements in
their citation skills in the course of treatments.
As it is shown in Table 3, the results of a comparison
between all of the 53 students’performances at the three cita-
tion tests show that their performances were significantly
different (F = 79.07, df = 2) at p = .000, which is much lower
than p < .05 set for the study. It shows that the treatment
could significantly affect the students’ citation skills.
A Comparison of Students’ Performances at
Different Gender and Level Groups
In a further more complete analysis, running the ANOVA with
repeated measures, a comparison was drawn between different
gender and different level groups of the students’ perfor-
mances at the three tests (see Tables 4, 5, and 6). The results
show that the treatments could considerably affect all the dif-
ferent groups, regardless of the gender and graduate levels (F
= 56.29, df = 2) and p = .000, which is significant at p < .05.
Therefore, there was no significant difference between the
performances of different genders at three tasks, nor at the two
levels (postgraduate and undergraduate) of the three tasks.
As can be seen from Table 6, the difference between the
effects of the treatment on improvement of citation skills of
different levels (undergraduate/postgraduate) of the students is
not significant (F = 1.93, df = 2) at p < .05, because probability
level in this case is .149. This shows that the students’ educa-
tion level as a moderating factor, though they might have dif-
ferent motivation levels in learning to write source-based
assignments, has had no effects on their achievements from the
treatment. The same result was revealed with regard to gender
factor in the analysis. As it is shown in Table 6, the interaction
between gender and treatment factor was not significant.
Analysis of the Students’ Answers to the Survey
Questions About the Course Effects
To obtain information about the last research question, chi-
square test was run to analyze students’ answers to the ques-
tion about their perceptions regarding the effectiveness of the
course and how much it could succeed in increasing students’
self-confidence in their attempt to write good academic writ-
ings. The students, either positive or negative, generally had
similar ideas about all of the questions.
Table 6. Comparison Between Different Gender and Level Groups (Tests of Within-Subjects Effects Measure).
Source
Type III
Sum of squares df Mean square F Significance
Factor 1 491.780 2 245.890 56.299 .000
491.780 1.738 282.947 56.299 .000
491.780 1.907 257.913 56.299 .000
491.780 1.000 491.780 56.299 .000
Factor 1 × Level 16.928 2 8.464 1.938 .149
16.928 1.738 9.740 1.938 .156
16.928 1.907 8.878 1.938 .152
16.928 1.000 16.928 1.938 .170
Factor 1 × Gender 12.754 2 6.377 1.460 .237
12.754 1.738 7.338 1.460 .238
12.754 1.907 6.689 1.460 .238
12.754 1.000 12.754 1.460 .233
Factor 1 × Level × Gender 0.006 2 0.003 0.001 .999
0.006 1.738 0.004 0.001 .998
0.006 1.907 0.003 0.001 .999
0.006 1.000 0.006 0.001 .979
Error (Factor 1) 428.020 98 4.368
428.020 85.165 5.026
428.020 93.432 4.581
428.020 49.000 8.735

8. 8 SAGE Open
As it can be seen from Tables 7 and 8, chi-square is 43.64,
with df = 3, which is significant at p = .000. The significant
result shows that while most of the students believed the
course could successfully help them very well to improve
their self-confidence in academic writing, few students
thought that the course could not help them very much. None
of the students had a negative view in answering this ques-
tion, for nobody chose the choice strongly disagree among
their answers. Not only did they believe they were more con-
fident in writing after this course and that they could write
academically (following academic writing conventions) but
they also had developed research skills by writing the
research paper. Moreover, most of the learners assumed that
this course could help them complete writing assignments of
other subjects as well.
Discussion
A comparison of the analytic scores given by the raters on
each criterion used to assess the tests at pretest/posttest indi-
cates an improvement in students’ skills in their writings
from sources and higher levels of cautiousness about cita-
tions and attributions in their source-based writings. They
followed correct rules and standards of citation, after the
treatment at the second and third citation test times. It seems
that a significant improvement was achieved over the 7
weeks of treatment. It may be that extensive practice in writ-
ing assignments was sufficient, during a period of almost one
semester, to improve the learners’ knowledge of academic
citation skills. These major findings are inconsistent with
Moniz et al.’s (2008) research that had resulted in no signifi-
cant differences in a student’s general understanding of pla-
giarism disregarding the teaching method. However, they are
in line with Hammill’s (2009) findings that was based on
class sessions with a pre- and post-assessment and revealed
improvements in students’ practice of writing summaries of
articles using proper citation. The positive results of an inter-
vention program in this study were also consistent with
Garber et al. (2017) and Smedley et al. (2015) studies.
Analysis of students’ performances at the citation pretest
(Time 1) shows that most of the attributions or citations were
integrated into the students summaries of the mini passages,
without an accompanying reporting phrase or clause, and
this was the case for both the postgraduate and undergradu-
ate writers. This suggests that while most students did not
feel it was necessary to cite the source text author every time
they borrowed his or her language (i.e., each time they
selected an excerpt for copying or paraphrase).
Itisimportanttonote,however,thatwhileindividualselections
observed in this study were typically not accompanied by attribu-
tion at Time 1, most postgraduate and undergraduate writers men-
tioned the source text author at least once in their summaries at
Time2andTime3afterthetreatment.Infact,manyofthestudents
appropriatelyattributedthesourcesandaddedreportingphrasesor
clauses to excerpts they had selected later in the course, when they
wereexplicitlyinstructedaboutthemechanicalrulesandstrategies
of citation. It can be implied that these results may be due to the
fact that the mere consciousness-raising activities conducted at the
beginning sessions were sufficient enough to lead to the prime
effects on the students’ performances. Generally speaking, stu-
dents benefited from the course. Likewise, in L. Zhang et al.’s
(2014) study, a large majority of students held the perception that
they became more confident in writing and their writing compe-
tence had been improved academically. The instructions could
draw the students’ attention to the importance of attending to the
standards and rules of academic integrity, something that might
have been disregarded by them beforehand. This result may sup-
port the assumption that many of the international students may
commit plagiarism unintentionally, due to their lack of knowledge
about standard citational acts or because of their different cultural
perceptions about the conventional citing forms.
The finding that, despite great improvement in their
scores in the midtests (Time 2) and posttests (Time 3), some
of the citations were still incorrect at Time 3 was to some
extent surprising considering the emphasis on correct cita-
tions in the course handouts. Pecorari (2006) suggests that
low possibility of the learners’ receiving of sufficient feed-
back on their incorrect citations from their instructors may
lead to a wrong assumption that their citations are correct.
Table 7. Descriptive Statistics About Students’ Perceptions Expressed in the Survey Questions.
Degree of confidence Observed no. Expected no. Residual
Strongly disagree 0 30 −3.5
Mildly disagree 28 30 16.5
Neutral 0 30 −3.5
Mildly agree 64 30 −5.5
Strongly agree 56 30 −7.5
Total 148
Table 8. Results of Chi-Square Test About Students’
Perceptions Expressed in the Survey Questions.
Survey questions
χ2
43.64
df 3
Asymp. Sig. .000

9. Fazilatfar et al. 9
She suggests that learners should be provided with explicit
feedback on inappropriate source use, and this was tried to be
attended to in the course of treatments in this study. All in all,
this study confirms the importance of citation as one of the
distinguishing features of academic writing, which is consis-
tent with other researchers’ ideas (e.g., Berkenkotter &
Huckin, 1995; Dong, 1996; Hyland, 2000; Pecorari, 2006;
Petric, 2007; Schuemann, 2008; Shi, 2008).
In addition, with respect to students’ performances in dif-
ferent groups, the findings suggest the girls performed
slightly better, but not statistically significant, compared
with the boys, which may be due to the unequal number of
the boys and the girls in the population. Although the post-
graduate students received slightly higher scores compared
with the undergraduates, the differences were not statisti-
cally significant. In fact, in some of the tests, these two
groups performed almost equally, which implies the impor-
tant fact that there is an urgent need in higher education, to
address these issues more seriously in the classrooms at dif-
ferent levels, that is, the EFL students genuinely need greater
focus on the rules of textual borrowing and intertextuality to
be included in their research curricula, not only at BA levels
but also at MA levels where the students will considerably
require to learn more about the conventions of academic
writing, due to the nature of their practices.
Furthermore, the results confirm students’perceived grow-
ing confidence in attempting academic writings. The fact that
more than 80% of the EFL students, both undergraduate and
postgraduate, considered the course as very helpful and effec-
tive in increasing their confidence in writing from the sources
can considerably guide the academic writing course designers
to detect which problematic areas are perceived as somehow
more confusing for the learners and need to be highlighted in
the writing courses. On the contrary, the problem even may
lie in the fact that focusing on these citation rules and strate-
gies and academic literacy on the whole have not been dealt
with explicitly and well enough by the writing courses and
instructors; hence leaving the EFL writers with confusion and
no other choice except committing unintentional plagiarism.
In conclusion, this study mainly aimed at expanding our
understanding of EFL students’ citation problems and strate-
gies including both postgraduate and undergraduate writers.
In particular, the study has tried to demonstrate that, though
much of our attention has recently been focused on instances
of copying in students’ work, copying without proper
acknowledgment is still one of the most common errors that
students, especially international writers, make when
attempting to use within text citation. A continuum of a wide
range of strategies, including major grammatical and lexical
changes as well as citation skills can be offered to the stu-
dents to help them in their writing assignments. The signifi-
cant results of this study are drawn from explicit focus on
instruction of citation rules and skills that can shed more
lights on what the writing instructors can rely on more to
help students avoid committing plagiarism in their writings.
Appendix A
Sample Classroom Notes and Exercises
Citation and quotation. When citing or quoting other literature,
please use proper citation format and bibliographic style.
There are many legitimate formats. Here are a few APA
(American Psychological Association) style options:
How is citation used? (Rhetorical functions of citation) The
different purposes for which citation can be used are numer-
ous and too complex to go into exhaustively, but a few exam-
ples are mentioned here:
1. Presenting the literature in the field
EXAMPLE: Britten (1998), in discussing preliminary train-
ing for non-native speaker teachers, argues for a progression
from an initially . . . self-help approach. (p. 33)
1. If citing text from an outside source, place source
text inside quotation marks.
1a. (Author, year, page), with bibliography at end of
document
As Michael Teitz observes, “Land-use planning has proved more
durable than its critics and, more importantly, has shown a new
burst of creative energy in the past decade” (Teitz, 1996, p. 652).
-----
Bibliography [placed at the end of the document]
Teitz, M. B. (1996). American planning in the 1990s: Evolution,
debate and challenge. Urban Studies, 33(4/5), 649-71.
2. If referring to specific idea from an outside source
(without directly quoting text), summarize in your own
distinctive words and cite the source. (Note: do not use
this format if you are directly quoting the text. You
must use format 1a from above.)
2a. (Author, year, page), with bibliography at end of
document
Klosterman identifies four distinct justifications for planning
(Klosterman, 1996, p. 151).
Note that the period comes after the citation. Also, for
chapters in edited books, please cite the actual author of
the piece (Klosterman), NOT the editor(s) of the collection
(Campbell and Fainstein), who are simply listed in the complete
reference below.
-----
Bibliography [placed at the end of the document]
Klosterman, R. (1996). Arguments for and against planning. In
Readings in planning theory, (eds.) S. Campbell & S. S. Fainstein
(pp. 141-157). Cambridge, MA and Oxford,
UK: Blackwell.

10. 10 SAGE Open
Here, the writer is simply presenting an argument put forward
by an established author. The word “argues” tells us that this is
Britten’s main idea and that he might therefore be assumed to be
an authority whose opinion must be considered. Several lines
later, in fact, the writer goes on to say that Britten’s approach is
suitable to apply to his (the writer’s) particular situation.
2. Comparison of existing views
EXAMPLE: One of Schön’s key arguments in his critique of
the applied science model is . . . (several lines omitted) . . .
This view is not at odds with Widdowson’s (1984, p. 89)
comment that teachers who do not analyze . . . methodology.
On the contrary, Schön’s second requirement for effective
education (1983, p. 50) is precisely that . . .
Again here in comparing two views of established authors
and showing how they complement each other, the writer is
adding authority to his argument. Note the phrases in (added)
italics which the writer uses to make the cited authors, Schön
and Widdowson, “do what he wants”—in other words, it is in
these phrases that we can hear the writer’s own voice.
3. Support of the writer’s view
A common lexical marker in using sources for support of your
own view is the word “as” before the cited author’s name:
EXAMPLE: This traditional teaching cannot, moreover,
serve . . . in their own classes; on the contrary, as Britten
points out (1988, p. 3), it is more likely . . . to encourage
student teachers to go out and teach the way they were taught.
By using “as,” the writer claims ownership of the idea
expressed but uses a citation of Britten who has said the same
thing to lend greater authority.
4. Referring
It is common for researchers not to reiterate the basic details
of a study related to what they are writing about, but simply
to refer the reader to read the study themselves if they want
more information. In these cases, the reference is often pre-
ceded by “see” or “cf.”
EXAMPLE: Thus, Americans speaking at normal volume
might be considered rather quiet in some parts of Africa and
rather loud in some parts of the Far East (cf. Applegate, 1975).
5. Exemplifying/providing evidence
Often a writer will present an argument or outline a general
position, then follow it up with evidence from the research of
others.
EXAMPLE: Critics also question whether . . . According
to Horowitz (1986a), the approach “creates a classroom situ-
ation that bears little resemblance to the situations in which
[students’ writing] will eventually be exercised” (p. 144). He
goes on to suggest that . . .
Thus, the first sentence is the writer’s own assessment
that (many or at least some) critics question the approach. In
the second sentence, Horowitz is then brought in as one
example of a critic, and his criticisms of the approach under
discussion are outlined. Having started like this, the writer
could now easily go on to mention other authors and their
criticisms, so as to fully show the weaknesses of the approach.
The exact role of citation and its interrelation with voice
in academic writing is very complex, and limited research
has been done. The best way to improve your understanding
of how to use citation without losing your own voice as
writer is to pay attention as you do your reading to how
established writers cite others, and how they distinguish the
ideas of other authors from their own so as to maintain their
own voice.
To quote or not to quote? Having decided that research you
have done is helpful in presenting your position, and that you
want to cite that author, you still have to make a choice as to
the best way of doing this. There are basically three issues to
consider when using the work of others writers:
•
• whether or not to quote a writer’s words
•
• how to paraphrase or summarize a writer’s words if
you decide not to quote
•
• whether or not to use the writer’s name in your sen-
tence, together with a reporting verb such as “notes”
or “suggests” to distinguish their ideas from your own
Using direct quotation. In general, when writers choose to
quote rather than paraphrase, they usually do so because the
language in the text is vivid, provocative, unusual, or because
the exact wording is historically or legally important; and
this could possibly be lost in a paraphrase or summary.
EXAMPLE: “Life is not determined by consciousness,
but consciousness by life.”
In such cases, especially where the original to be quoted
is short and pithy, it is probably better not to paraphrase.
How do you know when and how much to quote? Research
into the use of citation in research articles suggests that quo-
tations are relatively rare compared with summary or para-
phrase. Hyland’s (2000) figures suggest that even in the
humanities, only 8% to 12% of citations involve quotation.
If your paper focuses on some primary source such as a sig-
nificant speech, an important manuscript, or some govern-
ment document or legislation, you may need to quote more
extensively from the original, explaining such matters as the
content, tone, wording, and structure of that work. Second-
ary sources, however, such as critics who have commented
on the primary source or experts in related fields, should be
quoted much less frequently. Again, to maintain your own
voice, if you quote someone, do not just leave your reader to
work out for themselves why you quoted that person; follow

11. Fazilatfar et al. 11
up the quotation with a comment of your own which ties it
into your argument.
How to incorporate quotation into your writing
a. Enclose all quoted material in quotation marks (“ ”)
and cite the exact source immediately after the quota-
tion, even if you have mentioned this source earlier.
If you need to quote longer passages (usually more
than four lines), set the quotation off in an indented,
single-spaced block (called a “block quotation”). If
you do this, you no longer need to use quotation
marks.
b. Sometimes, for the sake of clarity or length, you may
want to alter a direct quotation in some way to elimi-
nate unnecessary detail. If so, enclose any changed or
added words in square brackets [ ], and indicate any
deletions with three ellipsis points (. . .). Be especially
careful that any changes you make in a quotation do
not alter its essential meaning. In addition, use these
marks sparingly: too many brackets and ellipsis points
make for difficult reading.
Plagiarism using a citation:An example
•
• Here although the real author is acknowledged, pla-
giarism takes place because the original text is repro-
duced with only minor changes without using either
quotation marks or footnotes:
•
• Original:
But Hertzog recognized the danger and . . . The politics of the
nationalists, were in the view of Het Westen, unquestionably
Christian. The Afrikaner People were Christian people,
therefore . . . (1)
(1) Irving Hexham, The Irony of Apartheid (Lewiston:
Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 185.
Plagiarism:
Professor Hexham brilliantly observes that Hertzog rec-
ognized the danger and . . . The politics of the nationalists,
were in the view of Het Westen, unquestionably Christian.
The Afrikaner People were Christian people, therefore . . .
•
• Correct usage:
Professor Hexham (1981) observes that “Hertzog recognized
the danger and . . . The politics of the nationalists, were in the
view of Het Westen, unquestionably Christian. The Afrikaner
People were a Christian people, therefore . . .” (p. 185) (1)
(1) Irving Hexham, The Irony of Apartheid (Lewiston:
Edwin Mellen, 1981), p. 185.
Correct citation and quotation. To avoid plagiarism it is nec-
essary to know how to cite works correctly and use quota-
tions: 1-Ideally, authors of works of original scholarship
present their arguments in their own words. 2-Whenever
authors paraphrase or quote from sources directly, they
should give credit to the words and ideas taken from others.
3-Commonly known facts, available in numerous sources,
should not be enclosed in quotation marks or given a source
citation unless the wording is taken directly from another.
Also not treated as quotations are proverbial, biblical, and
well-known literary expressions used as part of the author’s
text. (The Chicago Manual of Style, 1982, p. 282)
Although these comments are very helpful, many people
might be left wondering when they ought to use quotation
marks. The accepted rule of thumb is after four words. That
means you must use quotation marks for any passage copied
from another work containing five or more words. To help
students avoid such problems many university departments
publish essay guides or APA style manuals. These should be
carefully read.
Appendix B
Sample Citation Test Items
I-Try to report each quotation. The first one is completed to
give you an example.
EXAMPLE: Original: Professor Brown: A mirage is an
optical illusion in the atmosphere.
Written quote: To quote/According to Professor
Brown (2001), “A mirage is an optical illusion in the
atmosphere.”(p. 22)
1. A study by Professor Carter (2004): Patients can
lower their blood pressure by losing weight and
decreasing their intake of salt. (p. 166)
2. Davison (1998): Ben Johnson may be the author of
several plays attributed to William Shakespeare. (p. 58)
II-Try to report each quotation. Choose a verb to express
doubt (e.g., suggest, propose, assume, believe, etc.), neutral-
ity (e.g., indicate, illustrate, mention, note, etc.), or certainty
(e.g., argue, assert, conclude, confirm, etc.). The first one is
completed to give you an example.
EXAMPLE: Quotation: Psychologist Rogers (2008) said,
“Negative feedback causes people to develop a poor self-
concept.” (p. 68)
Certain Report: Rogers (2008) argued that negative feed-
back caused people to develop a poor self-concept.
Also correct: Rogers (2008) maintained that negative
feedback caused people to develop a poor self-concept.
1. Astrophysicist Carl Sagan said, “Even a relatively
small nuclear war may be capable of producing a
global climatic catastrophe.” Speech before the com-
monwealth Club, February 8, 1985. (p. 89)

12. 12 SAGE Open
Certain report:. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .
.. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .
2. Computer entrepreneur Bill Gates said, “The key for
Microsoft has always been hiring very smart people.”
Transcript of video history interview (p. 10), National
Museum of American History, January 11, 2005.
Neutral report: . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ..
. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ..
3. Geneticists James Watson and Francis Crick (1953)
said, “DNA structure has two helical chains each coiled
around the same axis.” “A Structure for Deoxyribose
Nucleic Acid,” Nature, 171 (April 2), p. 7337.
Doubtful report:. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ..
. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .
III-Try to report the information in the notes. Cite the source
appropriately. The first report is completed to give an example.
EXAMPLE: Source: Edwin Hubble (man) astronomer
(1995)
•
• demonstrated Andromeda nebula located outside our
galaxy
•
• established the islands universe theory = galaxies
exist outside our own
•
• study resulted in Hubble’s constant = standard relation-
ship/galaxy’s distance from Earth and speed recession
Astronomer Hubble (1995) demonstrated that theAndromeda
nebula was located outside our galaxy. Hubble established the
islands universe theory, which states that galaxies exist out-
side our own. He published a study that resulted in what is
now called Hubble’s constant, a standard relationship between
a galaxy’s distance from Earth and its speed of recession.
1. Source: Margaret Mead (woman) (1989)
•
• first fieldwork in Samoa 1925
•
• book Coming of Age in Samoa best seller-translated
to many languages
•
• still one/most well-known anthropologists
•
• people/simple societies provide valuable lessons/
industrialized
2. Source: Peter Drucker (man) author (2011)
•
• “Management Challenges” for the 21st century
•
• introduced five transforming forces
•
• believed trends have major implications for long-term
strategies of companies
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
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Author Biographies
Ali M. Fazilatfar is an associate professor of TEFL in English
Department of Yazd University in Iran. He is the head of English
Department and his main research intersts are teaching methodol-
ogy and teaching language skills.
S. E. Elhambakhsh has recently received her PhD in TEFL and
teaches general English courses at Yazd University. Her main reser-
ach areas are teaching methodology and discourse analysis.
Hamid Allami is an associate professor of Applied Linguistics in
English Department of Yazd University. His main research areas
include sociolinguistics and discourse analysis.