MBA Research Methods Guide

Business Research
Methods For MBA
Dr.KOKOBE SEYOUM

Outline
1. The Nature of research
2. The Research Problem
3. Research design
4. Data collection and Sampling
5. Data Analysis
6. Writing a Research Proposal
7. Thesis Writing

CHAPTER 1
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

What is research?
 The systematic method consisting of
enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the data, analyzing the
data and reaching certain conclusions either
in the form of solutions towards the
concerned problem or in certain
generalizations for some theoretical
formulation.
 Investigating using scientific procedures, by
4

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it (Exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (Descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs
or with which it is associated with something else
(Diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables (Hypothesis-testing research studies).

Motivation in Research
Class Discussion
What makes people to undertake research?
6

Type of Research
Research can be classified based on
The type of information sought
Research Purpose
Their application

11
Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive Research
 Is description of the state of affairs as they are at
present
 The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables
 It encompasses surveys and fact-finding enquiries
of different kinds.
 called Ex post facto research in social and business
researches
Example: frequency of shopping, preferences of people,
or similar data.
◦ The average trade deficit between Ethiopia and US

Analytical research
 Descriptive research asks “what?” It describes
something. Meanwhile, analytical research asks
“why?”. It focuses on cause and effect.
 In analytical research, the researcher uses facts or
information already available and the reason for
their existence
 You need critical thinking skills and careful assessment
of the facts.
◦ For example, analytical research can explore why the value of
the Ethiopian birr has fallen against Us dollar.

 On 1st of September 1939 the German army under the
direction of Adolf Hitler invaded Poland.
◦ This sentence only contains details of what happened. It does not
interpret this significance of these events of these specific places of
this specific people involved. It just states who, what and where it
doesn't go beyond and say why or how this matters happen.
 The German Army's invasion of Poland on 1st September
1939 instigated the Second World War as Adolf Hitler began
his ruthless military campaign to invade all of Europe
◦ It states why this event matters and it matters because it began the
Second World War. So, it's interpreting the significant of these
specific events rather than merely stating the details of the events

15
Applied Vs. Fundamental
Fundamental research (pure or Basic)
 Is mainly concerned with generalizations
and with the formulation of a theory
 Finding information that has a broad base
of applications and thus, adds to the
already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.
 Basic research is directed towards finding
information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific

Applied Vs. Fundamental
Applied research is action research.
 Aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/
business organization,
 Thus, the central aim of applied research is
to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem.
Example: A study that attempts to determine the
impact of mining on the socio-economic life of the
indigenous people at Shakiso

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Conceptual research
 Conceptual research is that related to
some abstract ideas or theory.
 It is generally used by philosophers and
thinkers to develop new concepts or to
interpret existing ones.
Conceptual vs. Empirical

Conceptual vs. Empirical
Empirical research
 Relies on experience or observation alone, without
due regard for system and theory
 It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions
which are capable of being verified through observation
or experiment,
 In such a research, the researcher must first provide
himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results.
 He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or
disprove his hypothesis.
 He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will
manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as
to bring forth the desired information.
 Appropriate when proof is sought that certain

Criteria of Good Research
 Whatever may be the types of research works and
studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet
on the common ground of scientific method employed
by them.
 One expects scientific research to satisfy the following
criteria.
1.The purpose of the research should be clearly
defined.
2.The research procedure used should be described in
sufficient detail
3.The procedural design of the research should be

4. The researcher should report with complete frankness,
flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects
upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to
reveal its significance and the methods of analysis
used should be appropriate.
 The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by
the data of the research and limited to those for which
the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the
researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in
research and is a person of integrity

Chapter 2
The Research Problem

Defining Research Problem
Defining a research problem is the FIRST STEP in
research.
It lays the foundation for all the rest of activities in
a research
An ill-defined problem renders the whole
research project a futile exercise.
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Defining Research Problem
A research problem, in general, refers to
◦ Some difficulty which a researcher experiences
in the context of either a theoretical or practical
situation and wants to obtain a solution for the
same.

Defining Research Problem Cont…
Sources of a RESEARCH PROBLEM
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Individuals, Organizations, Groups,
Communities etc.
Issues, Situations, Associations, Needs, Profiles,
etc.
Contents, Structure, Outcomes, Attributes,
Satisfaction, etc.
Cause and Effect, Relationships, Study of
Phenomena, etc.
Phenomena
Program
Problem
People

CONSIDERATIONS:
 Interest: Are you REALLY interested in it?
 Magnitude: Is it manageable within the
available time and resources?
 Measurement: Can the concepts be
measurable?
 Level of expertise: Do you have the
necessary expertise?
42

CONSIDERATIONS…
Relevance: Is it relevant to you as a professional?
Does it add knowledge?
Does it bridge the existing gap?
Is it useful for policy formulation?
Availability of Data: Is the necessary data
available?
Ethics: Are there ethical issues that may affect the
study population?
How can you overcome them?
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Precautions to problem Selection
 In selecting research problem the following needs to be
taken into account.
Subject which is overdone should not be normally
chosen,
 Controversial subject should not become the choice
of an average researcher
Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
The subject selected for research should be familiar
and feasible
The importance of the subject, the qualifications and
the training of a researcher, the costs involved, the
time factor

 Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a
crucial part of a research study and must in no case be
accomplished hurriedly.
◦ However, in practice this a frequently overlooked which
causes a lot of problems later on.
 Hence, the research problem should be defined in a
systematic manner, giving due weightage to all relating
points.

Necessity of defining the problem
 A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved.
 The problem to be investigated must be defined
unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data
from the irrelevant ones.
 A proper definition of research problem will enable the
researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem
may create hurdles.
Questions like:
 What data are to be collected?
 What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied?
 What relations are to be explored?
 What techniques are to be used for the purpose? and similar other
 Thus, defining a research problem properly is a

Steps in defining Research
Problem
Select your field of interest
47

STEPS: 1
Identify a broad field/subject area
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Management
Marketing
etc

Marketing
STEPS: 2
Divide the broad subject area into sub areas
49
Customer
preference
product
pricing promotion
satisfacti
on
Advertising
E-marketing

Marketing
STEPS: 3
Select the one that interests you the most
50
Customer
preference
product
pricing promotion
satisfacti
on
Advertising
E-marketing

STEPS: 4
Raise Research Questions
51

STEPS: 5
Set Research Objectives
General objective:
 to identify the effect of ------------------
Specific objectives:
 to determine -----------
 to ascertain ----------
 to find out -----------
52

STEPS:6
Check & double check your research objectives
 How much work is involved?
 Do I have time?
 Do I have the resources?
 Do I have the technical expertise?
 Am I really interested?
 Do I agree with the objectives?
53

The title
• The function of the title is to encapsulate in a few
words the essence of the research.
• Ideally it should contain all the essential key
words that someone might use in an attempt to
locate the kind of study you are proposing.
• These words are likely to include the main
concept and variables, and limits to the scope.
• You can leave out such phrases as ‘an
investigation into’, ‘a study of’, ‘aspects of’, as
these are obvious attributes of a research project.

 Take for example the title
“The implication of the present labor and conservative
policies on what is taught in primary schools in
England”
 The independent variables are labor and conservative
policies, and the dependent variable is what is taught
 The type of the research task is implied as comparative
study.
 The theoretical bases is one of prediction of effect of
policies
 The purpose of the study is to predict their effect on the
curricula of the primary schools.
 Also important is the words which limit the scope of
research. Eg. Only present policies, only those of labor

Research design
• Research design is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.
• Is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted;
• Constitutes the blueprint for the
• Collection,
• Measurement and
• Analysis of data.
• Includes an outline of what the researcher will do from
writing the hypothesis and its operational implications

In general, Research design is:
 A plan that specifies the sources and types
of information relevant to the research
problem.
 A strategy specifying which approach will
be used for gathering and analyzing the
data.
 Also includes the time and cost budgets
since most studies are done under these
two constraints.

More explicitly, the design answers

Why Research design?
 Facilitates the smooth sailing of the various
research operations
 As map of the house is required for house construction
research design/plan is needed in advance of data collection
and analysis for our research project.
 Research design stands for advance planning(methods to
be adopted for collecting and analysis of data, keeping in
view the objective of the research and the availability of
staff, time and money).
 Efficient and appropriate design must be prepared before
starting research operations. Otherwise I would lead to wrong
conclusion

Features of a good design
A good design is
 Flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical.
 Minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of
the data collected and analyzed
 One single design cannot serve the purpose of all
types of research problems.

Important concepts relating to research design
1.Dependent and independent variables:
 If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the
other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable,
 The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is
termed as an independent variable.
2.Extraneous variable:
 Independent variables that are not related to the purpose
of the study, but may affect the dependent variable.
 Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result
of extraneous variable is technically described as an
experimental error
3.Control:
One important characteristic of a good research design is

4. Research hypothesis:
The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that
relates an independent variable to a dependent variable.
 Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one
independent and one dependent variable.
5. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research:
 Research in which the independent variable is
manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing
research’ and
 Research in which an independent variable is not
manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-
testing research’.

6. Experimental and control groups:
 In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a
group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control
group’, but
 when the group is exposed to some novel or special
condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’.
7. Treatments:
 The different conditions under which experimental and
control groups are put are usually referred to as
‘treatments’.
8. Experiment:
 The process of examining the truth of a statistical
hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known

Mixed Approach
 It is useful to capture the best of both quantitative
and qualitative approaches.
 For example, a researcher may want to both –
◦ Generalize the findings to a population and
◦ Develop a detailed view of the meaning of a
phenomenon or concept for individuals.

Criteria for Selecting An Approach
I. Research problem
II. Personal experiences
III. Audience (s)
 What factors affect a choice of one approach
over another for the design of a proposal?
 The considerations play into this decision
the:

Type of research
design
Exploratory
research
Descriptive
research
Correlation
research
Explanatory
research

Exploratory Study
 Undertaken when not much is known about the situation
at hand, or no information is available.
 Extensive preliminary work needs to be done to gain
familiarity with the phenomena in the situation.
 Undertaken to better comprehend the nature of the
problem
 Extensive interviews with many people might have
to be undertaken
 Some qualitative where data are collected through
observation or interviews, are exploratory in
nature.
 This investigation is generally carried out when the

 When the data reveal some pattern regarding the phenomena of interest,
theories are developed and hypotheses formulated for subsequent testing.
 For example, Henry Mintzberg interviewed managers to explore the
nature of managerial work. Based on the analysis of his interview data,
he formulated theories of managerial roles, the nature and types of
managerial activities, and so on.
 These have been tested in different settings through both interviews
and questionnaire surveys.
 Example2. The owner of juice believes that increasing the variety of juices
will increase the number of customers. However he is not sure and needs
more information. The owner intends to conduct exploratory research to
identify whether expanding the juice selection will gain him more customers
or not.
o Following are three different ways in which we can do exploratory research
1. Focused group
2. Case study
3. In-depth interview

Focus group discussion
 In this method a group of people is chosen and
allowed to express their idea on the subject under
study
 However, it is important to answer that when
choosing people in a focus group discussion they
must have common background and comparable
experience

Case study
 Case study research can help researcher to find out more
information by carefully analyzing existing cases that have
experienced similar problem.
 The investigator just need to make sure to analyze the case carefully in
regard to all the variables present in the previous case against his own
case.
 For example
 A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest success rate for
performing knee surgeries. Many other hospitals or doctors have deal
with this case to understand and compare the method in which this
surgeon perform the procedure to increase his success rate.
 The hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be
generalized to many others.
◦ Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is

In-depth interview
 You can get a lot of information from public sources but
sometimes in-depth interview can provide detail
information on the topic being studied
 Interview with the subject matter expert will give you a
valuable information that a general public source will not
be able to provide.
 Is conducted in person or by phone which have open
ended questions to obtain meaningful information on the
topic.
 For example
 The interview with employee will give you more
insights to find out the degree of job satisfaction.

2. Descriptive research
 A descriptive research is a type of research that provide
an in-depth description of the phenomenon or population
understudy
 Undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe
the characteristics of the variables of interest in a
situation.
 This methodology focuses more on the what of the
research subject and then the why of the why of the
research subject
 Descriptive research is a good option if you want to know
a trends in a particular field or the frequency of an event
®For example: A clothing brand that wants to know the
fashion trend among Ethiopian shopper will conduct a

 For instance, a study of a class in terms of the
percentage of members who are in their senior and
junior years, sex composition, age groupings, number
of semesters left until graduation, and number of
business courses taken, can be considered as
descriptive in nature.
 The goal of a descriptive study, hence, is to offer to the
researcher a profile or to describe relevant aspects of
the phenomena of interest
 We can use
1.Cross sectional design
2.Longitudinal design

Cross sectional design
 Is a type of research design in which data is collected from many different
people at one time
 The data collected comes from a group of participants with varied
characteristics and demographics known as variables Eg. Age, gender,
income, education, geographic location
 Eg. Health care industry scientist might use cross sectional research to
understand how children between 2-12 across Ethiopia are prone to
calcium deficiency
Longitudinal design
 In a longitudinal design a research repeatedly examine the same
individuals for any changes that may over a period of time
 Longitudinal study is a type of correlational research in which
researcher observes and collects data on a number of variables
without trying to influence them. This type of study can take
place over a period of weeks, months, or even years.
 In some cases longitudinal research can last several decades
 Eg. A longitudinal study of children with down syndrome could

3. Explanatory
 Which attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between
two or more aspects of the situation.
 Its primary purpose is to explain why the event occurs and try to build
extent
 Usually explain the nature of certain relationships, or establish the
differences among groups or the independence of two or more
factors in a situation.
 Explanatory is study undertaken to explain the variance in the
dependent variable or to predict organizational outcomes. Example

4. Causal research
 Causal research may be defined as a research method used to
determine the cause and effect relationship between two variables.
 This research is primary used to identify the cause of the given
behavior
 Using causal research, we decide what variations take place in an
independent variable with the change in the dependent variable.
 Eg. A cereal brand owner wants to know if he get more sales with
his new cereal box design. He would set up an experiment in two
separate stores. One will sell the cereal only in its original box and
the other with the new box. They would then measure the
difference between the sales based on the packaging of the cereal.
Following are three different ways through which we can do casual
research.
1. One shot study
2. Before after with controlled group

One shot study
 Is a research design in which a single group is
observed on a single occasion after experiencing some
event, treatment, or intervention.
Eg a researcher wants to evaluate the effect of
counselling sessions on the attitudes of the school
children

Before after without controlled group
 In this design, a single group or test area is selected
and the dependent variable is measured before
introduction of treatment.
 Then the treatment is introduced and the dependent
variable is measured again after the treatment has been
introduced.
 Eg we know the sales made by the sales people for
specific period. Now we provide them training for a
specified period and then we measure sales. Therefore
the comparison of sales made after training with sales
made during the corresponding period before training.

Before after with controlled group
 In controlled before-after studies, outcomes are measured
before and after a treatment in a group, that receives the
treatment, and in other group, that does not receive the
treatment, or that receives a different treatment. The idea is
that any confounding factor would impact both groups equally,
and therefore any difference in the data drawn from the two
groups can be attributed to the experimental variable.
 Eg. Measurement of impact of a sugar beet seed promotion
on brand awareness. First two groups would be matched.
Attributes such as types of farms, dependency ratio for hand
tools etc would match with each group. So that the group are
interchangeable for the purpose of the test.

Chapter Four
Data collection and Sampling

Data Collection
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Process of preparing and collecting data
Originates from the research design.
Data Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources

Sources of Data Collection
Secondary Sources
Documents
Govt.
publications
Earlier
Researches
Census
Personal Records
Primary Sources
Observation Interviewing Questionnaire
Participant
Non-Participant
Structured
Un-structured
Mailed
Collective
or
Direct
Semi-Structured
Data Sources
92

Primary Data Collection Instruments
The following are primary data collection tools or instruments:
Observation
Interviews
Questionnaires
A. Observation:
 Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of
watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it
takes place.
 Observation can take place in a laboratory setting or in a
natural setting.
Types of Observation:
There are two types of observation:
Participant
Non-Participant 93

 Narrative description of the interaction.
 Develop a scale to rate various aspects of the interaction.
 Recording on mechanical devices - e.g. Video tape, camera,
mobile camera phone
 Hawthorne effect/expectancy bias- when individual/group
is aware that they are being observed
 Observer bias
 Difference in interpretations
94
Limitation of Observation
Recording of Observation

Interviews can be undertaken on –
 a one-to-one basis or
 in a group.
Classification of Interviews
Interviews can generally be classified into:
a) Face-to-face (Personal)
b) Electronic (Telephone, Internet )
95
B. Interviews

Interviews
(a) Face to Face (Personal) Interviews: Face-to-face
interviews can be conducted in the following
manner:
I. Structured Personal Interview-mostly used to generate
quantitative data.
II. Semi-Structured Personal Interview
III.Unstructured / Informal Personal Interview
(b) Electronic (Telephone, E-mails): Involves
contacting respondents through the telephone.
NOT widely used method but plays an important
part in counter- checking collected data.
96

Principles of Interviews
1. Getting the respondent to cooperate and to provide the desired
information. Three things should be fulfilled:
a) The respondents must feel that their interaction with the interviewer will
be pleasant and satisfying.
b) The respondent needs to see the study as being worthwhile.
c) Barriers to the interview in the respondent's minds needs to be
overcome.
2. The interviewers should explain, in briefly, the purpose of the
study, the method of selecting respondents, and the confidential
nature of the interview.
3. All the questions should be asked exactly as worded in the
questionnaire.
4. Questions should be presented in the same order as in the
questionnaire.
5. Misinterpreted or misunderstood questions should be clarified 97

Conducting an Interview
Beginning to the end
98
Speak slowly, audible Control body
Language Ask relevant questions
Personally
At the Start
The questions
Responses
At the end
Arrive on time Be smart Smile
Introduce yourself Confirm the
Purpose Assure confidentiality
Record if possible Have
written questions
Ask for more information
Thank the respondent

C. Questionnaires
 A questionnaire is a list of carefully structured
questions chosen after considerable testing (both pre-
tests and pilot studies), with a view to eliciting reliable
and operationally valid responses from a chosen
sample.
 Not comprehensive means of evaluation and should
be used to support and supplement other procedures.
Designing Questionnaires
 Before you start to design a questionnaire,
 identify the study objectives. More specifically, identify
what kind of information you want to obtain.
 Then brainstorm – write down all possible questions
for incorporating in the questionnaire. 99

Constructing Questions
This is the most difficult part of developing a
questionnaire. Here are some useful rules of thumb
to follow:
 Keep the questions short, simple and to the point;
avoid all unnecessary words.
 Avoid leading questions that imply a certain answer.
For example, by mentioning one particular item in the
question,
Do you agree that Colgate toothpaste is the best
toothpaste?’
 Questions should only address a single issue.
For example, ‘Do you take annual holidays to Spain?
Firstly find out if the respondent takes an annual holiday,
and then secondly find out if they go to Spain. 100

Constructing Questions
 Do not ask two questions in one by using ‘and’.
(Avoid double barreled questions)
For example, ‘Did you watch television last night and read
a newspaper?’
 Avoid double negatives.
For example, ‘Is it not true that you did not read a
newspaper yesterday?’
 State units required but do not aim for too high a
degree of accuracy. For instance, use an interval
rather than an exact figure:
For example, ‘How much did you earn last year?’
More than £10,000 but less than £20,000
 Avoid emotive or embarrassing words – usually
connected with race, religion, politics, sex, money.
101

Questions Formulation
There are two type of questions:
1- Closed Questions
2- Open-ended Questions
1- Closed Questions
Closed questions should be used where alternative replies
are known, limited in number and are clear-cut.
Closed questions are questions in which all possible
answers are identified or provided to the respondent. It is
useful in obtaining factual Information.
 For example, Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]
Multiple closed questions
 For example, What was your main way of traveling to the hotel?
Car [ ] Coach [ ] Motor bike [ ] Train [ ] Other means [
] 102

Questions Formulation
2- Open-ended Questions
Open-ended questions are used where the issue is
complex, where relevant dimensions are not
known, and where a process is being explored
(Stacey, 1969).
Open ended questions are questions that allow the
respondents to answer in any way they wish.
 For example, What do you think is the best thing (s) about the course?’
(Note: Mixed use of the two questions is the best
approach)
103

Secondary Data Collection Methods
Secondary data is collected by others but utilized or used by the
researcher.
Sources of Secondary data:
Internal data source:
•Sales and marketing reports.
•Accounting and financial records.
•Miscellaneous reports.
External data sources:
•Federal / Provincial / State governments
•Statistics agencies and Trade associations
•General business publications, Annual reports, Magazine
and newspaper articles
•Academic publications, Library sources
•Computerized bibliographies and syndicated services.
105

What is Sampling?
Sampling is the process of selecting a small number of
elements from a larger defined target group of elements such
that the information gathered from the small group will allow
judgments / inferences to be made about the larger group.
 Sampling seeks to answer the following questions:
What is your target population?
Is the sample appropriate?
Is the sample available?
What sampling method will you use and why?

Reasons for Sampling
Cost – saves time and money as opposed to
census.
Timeliness – results needed quickly vis-à-vis time
constraints preventing survey of entire population.
Finite Population – impractical to survey the
overall population if populations infinitely large.
Accuracy – usually enables more accurate
measurements since sampling conducted by
trained and experienced investigators.

Criteria for determining an appropriate
Sample and Sample Size
 Optimum sample size relative to target population size
neither excessively too large nor too small,
however, the larger the sample size the better.
 The level of confidence or risk – There is always a
chance that the sample you obtain does not represent
the true population value therefore risk of selecting
a "bad" or unrepresentative sample must be
avoided.
 The degree of variability in the attributes being
measured - allowable sampling error – i.e. small
sampling errors affecting degree of variability. The
more heterogenous a population the larger the
sample size and vice versa.

Sampling and Non-sampling Errors
Sampling error
Difference between sample characteristics (e.g.
sample mean) and actual population characteristics
(e.g. population mean) can be attributed to errors in the
sampling process.
Sources: Imperfect sample or size, variations in the
population, sample omissions, inappropriate
sampling methods.
Non-sampling error
An error attributed to sources other than sampling and
that can be random or non-random.
Sources: Data preparation errors, invalid or biased
questions, inaccurate answers provided by
respondents, inappropriate interview methods and
administration, definitional and response differences.

Types of sampling methods
PROBABILITY
Sampling
NON-PROBABILITY
Sampling
1. Simple Random
2. Systematic
3. Stratified
4. Cluster
(Multi-stage)
1. Convenience
2. Purposive
3. Snow Balling
4. Quota

A. Probability sampling
Probability sampling is a sampling technique
where the chance of a unit /element being
selected for the sample is ‘known’ (by its exact
probability or by statistical estimates).

1. Simple Random Sampling
 A basic probability sampling design.
 Every member/element of the population has an
equal and independent chance of being selected.
 It requires a listing of the total research
population.
 Randomness can be accomplished by either
lottery or table of random numbers. Mechanical
process could also be used.

How to Select a Simple Random Sample ?
Objective: Each has an equal chance of being selected.
For example:
Suppose you would want to chose 60 businesses out
of 300 businesses in Ambo
Number all the 300 units in the population.
Place corresponding numbers on slips of paper.
Place all slips in a container or box and mix thoroughly.
Draw a slip and record the number on the sheet.
The process can be repeated till the required sample
is obtained.
Random number generator/computer can also be used.

2. Systematic Sampling
The sample is arrived at by first selecting a random starting point
and then picking every ith element in succession from the
sampling frame.
 Starts with a randomly selected element, thereafter,
 Every ith element in a randomised population frame
is selected for inclusion in the sample.
 Rule of thumb in deciding sampling interval is to
divide the total population by the sample size. K =
N/n
 Easy, convenient and less costly sampling method.
 Not convenient for hidden cases i.e. study of
criminals.

3. Stratified Sampling
involves a two-step process:
 Divide or partition the population into homogenous
subgroups, strata or layers.
 Elements are selected from each stratum by a random
procedure. The population can be divided according to
age / income, intelligence or sex.
 Having done that, a simple random sample can be
drawn from each stratum or layer.
Objective: Divide the population into non-overlapping
groups (i.e., strata) N1, N2, N3, ... Ni, such that N1 +
N2 + N3 + ... + Ni = N. Then do a simple random
sample of f = n/N in each stratum.
 Combine the samples from each stratum into a single
sample of the target population.

How to Select a Stratified Sample?
The number of subjects drawn from each stratum depends on
whether the sample is done proportionately or dis-
proportionately.
Proportionate stratified sampling requires that the proportions
of subjects in the sample should reflect the sample in the
population.
e.g.
10,000 voting age adults in a “kebele” 20% illiterate, 60%
primary school, 20% school graduates.

4. Cluster Sampling – One-stage & multi-stage
 Involves dividing target population into a sample of
“clusters” or sub-populations that are mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive in terms of
diversity of respondents (i.e. one-stage).
 Two-stage cluster sampling - elements in each
cluster are then selected probabilistically in proportion
to sample size or using simple random sampling.
 Area sampling – a common form of cluster sampling
in which clusters comprise geographic areas such as
residential blocks, districts, regions and all elements
are included in the sample (i.e. one-stage).
 Multi-stage cluster sampling - when sampling very
large populations, e.g. survey impact of HIV/AIDs on
education sector (provinces, districts, urban-rural,

How to Select A Cluster Sample?
If we wish to sample residents
of a large city to obtain opinion
data we can be certain that no
one can identify every
individual in order to construct
a sampling framework of
individuals by increasing
sampling efficiency through
decreasing costs.
The researcher could use
voting constituencies or
suburbs as sampling
framework and these
are clusters.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 Also known as ‘deliberate’ sampling because items are
selected deliberately by the researcher.
 The probability of selecting an element into a sample may
not be the same for each element.
 Most qualitative studies use non-probability samples
because the focus is on in-depth information and not
making inferences or generalisations.
 Has the advantage of time and economy.

1. Convenience Sampling
 Also called accidental, haphazard or volunteer
sampling seeking to select elements primarily
convenient to the researcher in explorative studies.
 The researcher selects those respondents that are
close at hand thus saving money, time and effort.
e.g. use of students, street respondents, internet
surveys, tear-out questionnaires in newspapers.
 Convenience samples not representative of any
definable populations so what is lost in accuracy is
gained in efficiency.
 There is no basis for arguing that the sample is
representative.
e.g. use of college students in psychological studies,
street interviews, internet surveys.

2. Purposive / Judgemental Sampling
A form of convenience sampling in which population
elements are selected based on the judgement or expertise or
creativity of the researcher.
Hand picking of typical cases with a purpose in
mind.
Use of cases / elements that have the required
information with respect to the objectives of the
study or elements which are judged to be
representative of the population by researcher.
Criteria for choosing the particular elements should
be stated.
The disadvantage is that the results can be biased or
skewed.
Appropriate for small universe whose
characteristics are well known.

3. Snowball / Referral Sampling
 Used in circumstances where only very little
information about the subject to be investigated is
known or sensitive.
 Referrals have demographic and psychographic
characteristics more similar to the persons referring them
than would occur by chance.
 The researcher picks a small sample which grows bigger
and bigger as the information-flow through referrals to the
researcher increases.
 Commonly used in observational research and community
studies.
i.e. hidden or obscure studies such as fraud, smuggling and
land speculation.

4. Quota Sampling
 Similar to stratified sampling since homogeneous sub-
groups or strata within the research population are sampled.
 Objective is to include various sub-groups or quotas of the
sample elements proportionate to and reflecting the
characteristics of the target population such as age,
gender, political affiliation or socio-economic status.
 Allows for researcher's judgement or convenience or both.
 Very convenient and relatively inexpensive.
 Inferences drawn on the basis of this sampling technique
can not be subjected to statistical analysis.

Introduction
 Data analysis is an important stage
of the research process.
◦ Qualitative Data Analysis
◦Quantitative Data Analysis

How do I summarize and make sense
of all these words?
Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative Analysis
 Qualitative analysis refers to ways of - examining,
comparing and contrasting, discerning, and
interpreting meaningful patterns or themes in
your data.
 Qualitative analysis is not standardized as
statistical analysis, but there are general
tactics that often prove useful for the purposes
of your analysis.

Qualitative or Narrative Data
may come from…
 Open-ended questions and written comments on
questionnaires
 Testimonials
 Interviews
 Focus groups
 Logs, journals, diaries
 Observations,
 Documents, reports, news articles
 Stories

Qualitative Process of Data Analysis

Conveying Personal Reflections
Because qualitative researchers
believe that personal views can never
be kept separate from
interpretations, personal reflections
about the meaning of the data are included
in the research study.

Providing Visual Data Displays
 Qualitative researchers often display their
findings visually,
◦ Comparison table or matrix,
◦ Hierarchical tree diagram that represents
themes and their connections,
◦ Boxes that show connections between themes,
◦ Physical layout of the setting; and
◦ Personal or demographic information for each
person or site.

The narrative responses may be brief or
very long and detailed.
Your job is to make sense of these data
and to make them understandable for
others.

How do I summarize and make
sense of all these words?
Quantitative Data Analysis

Quantitative Analysis - Issues of Analysis
Types of Data
 Think about any collected data that you have
experience of;
For example: weight, sex, ethnicity, job grade,
and consider their different
attributes.
 These variables can be described as categorical
or quantitative.
 The table summarises data types and their
associated measurement level,
 This is also true for ensuring the appropriate
statistical test is employed. 134

Quantitative Analysis - Issues of Analysis
Types of Data …
135
Type of Data Level of Measurement Examples
Categorical
Nominal
(no inherent order in categories)
Eye colour, ethnicity, diagnosis
Ordinal
(categories have inherent order)
Job grade, age groups
Binary
(2 categories – special case of above)
Gender
(Interval/Ratio)
(NB units of
measurement used)
Discrete
(usually whole numbers)
Size of household (ratio)
Continuous
(can, in theory, take any value in a
range, although necessarily recorded to
a predetermined degree of precision)
Temperature °C/°F (no absolute
zero) (interval)
Height, age (ratio)

136
Quantitative Data Analysis
 Data processing implies - editing, coding, classification
and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to
analysis.
 This is the process of presenting and
interpreting numerical data is known as
Quantitative data analysis .
 Quantitative data analysis often contain –
Descriptive analysis; and
Inferential analysis / statistical analysis.

Chapter 6
Writing a Research Proposal

138
Where do I
start from?
Can I write a good
proposal?

139
Proposal
 proposal should consist of the first three chapters of the
thesis.
1. Begin with a statement of the background/problem
information (typically Chapter 1 of the thesis),
2. Move on to a review of the literature (Chapter 2 ),
3. Conclude with a defining of the research methodology
(Chapter 3).
 The proposal is generally written in the present and future
tenses.

140
How to Start?
 Familiarize yourself with research proposal and thesis guidelines.
 Work closely with your advisor in refining your topic and proposed
approach.
 Check out available resources:
– review thesis proposals in your field
– review several theses in your field
 A substantial amount of work has to be done before starting to
write a proposal.
 Seek advice on your draft from your peers and advisor.
 Outlines are a good place to start.
 A research proposal and thesis writing is an iterative (repeating
again and again) process.

141
Before You Start Writing
Read, read and read
 Theses and other scholarly reports which have been done recently in
your field.
 Get the "feel" of it.
 Understand how they are structured and learn to recognize the flow
from introduction through conclusion.
 Study the state-of-the-art of the issue under study.
Reading strategies
 Understand that you are not going to know exactly what you are looking
for in the beginning.
 Read to explore.
 Then read to focus.
 Finally read to understand all the details of previous relevant work.

142
Proposal Ingredients
Title page
Table of contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction/ Background
1.1 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 General Objective
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
1.3.3 Research Questions
1.3.4 Study Hypothesis (optional)
1.4 Significance of the study
1.5 Scope of the Study
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Description of the Study Area
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Data Sources
3.3 Sampling Techniques
3.4 Data Collection Methods
3.5 Data Analysis
• TIME SCHEDULE and BUDGET
• REFERENCES

1.0 Introduction
 Introduction helps to highlight the concept/phenomenon under
study.
 This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to
motivate your reader to read the rest of the thesis.
 The next paragraphs in the introduction should cite any
previous research in this area.
 It should cite those who had the idea or ideas first, and should
also cite those who have done the most recent and relevant
work.
 You should then go on to explain why your work is necessary.
 The introduction is in essence, a verbal "road map" or verbal
"table of contents" guiding the reader to what lies ahead – it
should give the reader a glimpse into your ideas and your
143
Introduction

144
1.1 Statement of the Problem
 This section narrows down the focus of the research
problem.
 Answers the questions:
What is the gap that needs to be filled? and/or
What factors make the problem critical to warrant research?
 State the problem clearly.
 Limit the variables you address in stating your problem or
question.
 Statement of the problem should be brief and precise.

145
1.3 Objectives of the study
 Objectives should be closely related to the statement of
the problem.
 Objectives provide a link between the problem and the
findings of the research.
1.3.1 General Objective
 The general objective should be in line with your
title/topic.
 The general objective of a study states what researchers
expect to achieve by the study in general terms.
 It is the aim of the study.
 The general objective must be as brief as possible.

146
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
 Must be linked to the main objective in a logical way.
 Usually numbered between 3 and 5 and so that each objective reads
as an 'individual' statement to convey your intentions.
 Must be: specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time bound
(SMART)
 Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as: to appreciate, to
understand, or to study, to see, to know, to find , to study, to show
etc.
 Use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated such as: to
determine, to compare, to verify, to calculate, to describe, to
establish , to evaluate, to ascertain, to analyse, to investigate , to
examine and to explore etc.

147
 It should be written in the present tense.
 Theses are concise questions that your thesis tackles.
 Use Why, What, How, Who, Which, When and Where ? etc. in
phrasing research questions.
Phrases not suitable for research questions;
“Does” is not a research question but used in questionnaire.
“is” is not a research question.
“Are’’ is not a research question.
1.4 Research Questions

148
1.5 Research Hypotheses
 A hypothesis is a tentative conjectural statement of
relationship between or among variables - a sort of
intellectual (informed) guess.
 It must be statistically testable and related to observable
and natural phenomenon.
 The relationship being tested must be clear, specific and
unambiguous.
 Deciding to whether to use research Hyphothesis depends
on the factors such as the purpose of the study, nature of
the research design and methodology, and nature of the
audience as well as the research approach.

149
1.6 Significance of the Study
 Highlight the reasons why it is worthwhile conducting
the research.
 Show what could happen to society or theory if this study
is done or not done.
 State how your study is distinct from all other studies that
might have addressed the same topic.
1.7 Scope of the Study
 Specify the limits of the research in a way which makes it
clear what is and is not to be studied.

2.0 Literature Review
 Provides background information on the matter under
study.
 The purpose review of literature is to enable one to develop
documented, logical rationale for a problem, research
question or hypothesis to ensure that there is some flow
from what is already known about the topic to what is
attempted to be studied.
 Review should include theoretical insight,
methodological construction, literature and a window
view of existing practices.
 Past initiatives, dialogue reports, plans, failures &
successes on related issues could be incorporated to

Literature Review
 The following questions could be useful:
◦ Has the problem been analyzed before?
◦ Are there any leading thoughts on the issue or problem?
◦ Are there any comparative conditions around the problem?
◦ What strategies or formulae have been attempted?
◦ What results have been obtained in previous attempts?
◦ Therefore, what gaps or shortfalls are there in past studies?
◦ To what extent will your research refine, revise, or extend what
is now known?

3.0 Research Methodology
 This section must present details regarding the
methods you are going to apply to meet your
research objectives.
 It is advisable to start by considering the overall
research approach.
 Each research approach has its own
research methods and each method has its
own techniques.

3.1 Research Design
 chosen based on the type of research and nature of the
problem.
 This involves methodological steps taken to answer
every question or to test the hypothesis illustrated in the
questions / hypothesis section.
 It shows detailed description of how the research is to be
carried out.

3.2 Data Sources/Types of Data
 This involves primary and secondary data.
 In the proposal, the researcher must indicate
prospective sources and types of data to be
used in the study.
 Perhaps more important is to indicate why the
chosen types and sources are deemed
appropriate for the study.

3.3 Sampling Techniques
 This section describes the proposed population of
interest, the sampling frame, the method for
selecting the sample, and the sample itself.
 Once again, in a proposal, the entire approach to
sampling must be fully justified.

3.4 Data Collection Methods and
Techniques
 The choice of data collection methods is determined by the general
research approach.
 In the best research dissertations, the method is clearly indicated
and the appropriate techniques described.
 For example, the questionnaire is a method of data
collection applicable in quantitative research

Cont…
 In the proposal, outline the general plan for
administering and collecting the data.
◦ This includes administrative procedures, interviews,
observation procedures.
 In your proposal, it is expected that you will clearly
proposed and justify the method and then apply
the same to the techniques you propose to use.

3.5 Data Analysis
 Data processing begins with analysis.
 Editing, coding and tabulation process are necessary to
be done prior to analysis.
 Appropriate procedures for analysis such as ANOVA,
MANOVA, Ethnography, etc. can be used.
 Indicate briefly any analytic tools (such as SPSS,
SYSTAT, STATA, Epi-Info) that were employed.
 Provide a well thought out rationale for making decision
on the analytic tools selected.

Cont…
 Both primary and secondary data are analyzed and
presented using statistical tools like tables, bar charts,
line charts, pie charts and others to facilitate the
interpretation of the result of the data analyzed.

References
 How the Reference list is compiled and presented
depends on the citation style that you use.
 If you cite publications using the name-year system, the
references should be listed alphabetically.
 Following are the main Research, Writing, and Style
Guides:
- APA ( American Psychological Association)
- Harvard system
- Chicago manual of style

162
Where do I
start from?
Can I write a good
Thesis?

163
Proposal and Thesis Relationship
Proposal
 A proposal should consist of the first three chapters of the
thesis.
 The thesis or dissertation is always written in past tense.
 Your thesis is a report of a completed study.

164
Thesis Writing and Anxiety: General
Advice
 Establish a writing schedule with dates and output.
 Begin by free-writing.
 Keep a small notebook with you to write down relevant thoughts.
 Start with more “clear cut” sections first.
 Every time that you have a good idea for a section of the thesis that
you are not working on at that moment, write it quickly in the
appropriate page.
 Leave time for revising the thesis.
 Ask people to revise it.
 Talk to your advisor, he/she is there for you.

165
Thesis Ingredients
Cover page
Declaration on plagiarism
Approvals
Dedication (optional)
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Table of contents
List of tables
List of figures
List of appendinces
List of acronyms/abbreviations
CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER THREE - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER FOUR - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CHAPTER FIVE - CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDA TIONS
5.1 Conclusions
5.2 Recommendations
References
List of appendinces

CHAPTER FOUR:
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 This section details the main findings of the research with
summary explanation.
 This should be detailed and based on established
evidence.
 The data presented in tables and figures should have been
analyzed and condensed beforehand.
 Results should be presented in a sequence that follows the
logic of the research questions that are being answered, or
the hypothesis being tested.
 This generally means following the order in which the
objectives have been listed in the first chapter. 166

CHAPTER FIVE:
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
 This chapter must have sub-divisions as shown and
explained below.
5.1 Introduction
◦ Summarize the main substance of the chapter.
5.2 Conclusions
◦ State and briefly discuss the main conclusions of your study.
◦ The conclusions must be related to –
 research questions/objectives or hypotheses of your
study.
◦ Thus, it is expected that if you have five research objectives /
questions, you will have five conclusions.
◦ Try to keep conclusions concise, avoid unnecessary
repetition of information stated in previous chapters or sections. 167

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS…
5.3 Recommendations
 The recommendations should be logically linked to –
◦ your research questions; and
◦ conclusions.
 Thus, on the basis of your conclusions, what further
actions do you suggest?
 This means that if you have four conclusions, you must
have four recommendations.
 However, in certain circumstances, you may have more than
one recommendation per conclusion.
168

REFERENCES
 References must be presented in the manner indicated in the
proposal writing section.
169
LIST OF APPENDINCES
 Attach additional information related to your research in this
section as a collection of separate material at the end of a thesis.

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