US-China Education Review 2016(3B)

US-China
Education Review
B
Volume 6, Number 3, March 2016 (Serial Number 58)
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DAVID PUBLISHING
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US-China
Education Review
B
Volume 6, Number 3, March 2016 (Serial Number 58)
Contents
Culture and Education
The Effect of Cultural and Creative Industry on Community Colleges and Community
Development Associations in Taiwan 137
Chi-Hsiang Ting, Tain-Fung Wu, Wan-Tran Huang, Nien-Tsu Hou
What Is Culture of College/School/Department 151
WANG Lian-sen
Special Education
Special Eduction Overview in Burundi 157
Victor Barantota
Educational Theory and Principle
Didactic Innovation in Science Teaching: A Qualitative Study on the Framing of an
Educational Museum in a Brazilian Public State High School 173
Guy Barros Barcellos, Ricardo Willian Da Costa Assumpção,
Carin Cristina Borkert Kuchenbecker, Núrfis dos Santos Vargas
Educational Psychology
Adaptation of the Early Childhood Behavior Problem Screening Scale (ECBPSS) to Turkish 186
Songül GİREN, H. Gözde ERTÜRK-KARA, Muhammed ÖZTÜRK
Teacher Education
The Evaluation of Teacher Trainees’ Program of Turkey 197
İsa Korkmaz

US-China Education Review B, March 2016, Vol. 6, No. 3, 137-150
doi: 10.17265/2161-6248/2016.03.001
The Effect of Cultural and Creative Industry on Community
Colleges and Community Development Associations in Taiwan*
Chi-Hsiang Ting, Tain-Fung Wu, Wan-Tran Huang, Nien-Tsu Hou
Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
The study is an exploratory study to investigate interactions between the strategic alliances of community colleges
and community development associations on development of local culture industry. Their strategic alliances are
identified through the methods, such as fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fs/QCA) and social network
analysis (SNA), etc.. According to the resource dependency theory, it was discovered that community colleges and
community development associations are influenced by tripartite resources, such as community empowerment,
lifelong learning, and social citizens in terms of the importance of resources, and of these three, lifelong learning
accounts for a majority. In terms of resource ownership control, community colleges can provide community
development associations with administrative support and assistance. In terms of degree of resource substitution,
community colleges and community development associations are influenced by factors, such as principal attitudes,
environmental change, appearance of alternative institutions, etc..
Keywords: culture industry, strategic alliances, social network analysis, fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis
Introduction
Taiwan officially began the history of community colleges in 1998 and it is an adult education
establishment and lifelong learning institution unique to this nation. At present, there are 83 community
colleges. The lifelong education learning act, promulgated and implemented by the government’s Ministry of
Education in 2002, was for non-formal lifelong learning institutions. An analysis of this country’s community
college education shows that it is more akin to the European Volkshochschule and does not operate in the mode
of the United States (U.S.) community colleges (Wu & Chuang, 2005). Currently, the positioning of Taiwan’s
community colleges is to only allow city and county governments to grant certificates of completion and not
degrees (Chang, 2002).
Currently, modes of operation are focused on the academic, arts and crafts, and association categories.
Arts and crafts courses currently make up the largest portion of the curriculum followed by academic courses.
The initiation of association courses that tend to include higher levels of public affairs is the most
unsatisfactory. In addition, public forums and cultural characteristics are a part of the community college
curriculum. Furthermore, community colleges combine with the overall community to create job promotion
*
Acknowledgment: This paper was supported by Asia University Research Projects (No. 100-Asia51).
Chi-Hsiang Ting, Ph.D. student, Department of Business Administration, Asia University.
Tain-Fung Wu, professor, Department of Business Administration, Asia University.
Wan-Tran Huang, professor, Department of Business Administration, Asia University.
Nien-Tsu Hou, assistant professor, Department of Social Work, Asia University.
DAVID PUBLISHING
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EFFECT OF CULTURAL AND CREATIVE INDUSTRY ON COMMUNITY COLLEGES138
through strategies, such as developing local industrial culture, community participation, socializing courses,
turning associations into courses, etc. (Chen, 2002). The community colleges referred to in this study are
educational institutions self-organized or commissioned by the competent authorities of municipalities and
counties (cities) to provide community residents with lifelong education.
Taiwan’s Community Development Association was established according to the “Community Development
Outline” amended by the Ministry of the Interior in 1999. The goal was to promote community development
organizations and activity areas. Regarding the work of the Community Development Association, it focuses on
the characteristics and resident needs of each community, in coordination with designated government community
development job items, annual items recommended by the government, and self-developed community projects,
to formulate a community development plan and compile budgets and promotion. According to Ministry of
Healh and Welfare (2016), there are currently 6,860 community development associations in Taiwan.
Thus, community colleges play the role of lifelong learning institutions and also require development of
strategic alliances or partnerships (Wu, 2009, pp. 34-43). In research by Wu (2006) on the partnership between
the community colleges and community development associations in Changhua, it was discovered that the two
can form partnerships, assist each other, and share resources.
In 2008, Taiwan government announced that six new key industries for future economic development and
cultural and creative industries were one of them. There were many community development associations of
villages and towns in Taiwan. The association used the characteristics of the community, local, and government
resources for increasing residents’ live and economy. The community colleges assist them to develop their local
culture industry (Wu, 2009, pp. 34-43; Wu, 2006).
The goals of this study are to: (1) establish a resource sharing strategic alliance model for community
colleges and community development associations; (2) construct key indicators for community college and
community development association strategic alliances; and (3) provide community colleges and community
development associations with partnership references during strategic alliance process.
Literature Review
Overall Community Development
The term “General Community Development” in Taiwan is derived from the book, The Concept of
Overall Community Development written by the director of the National Taiwan Craft Research and
Development Institute, Weng Xu De, and Chiba University, professor Miyazaki Kiyoshi. It divides the content
and process of community development into five major portions: (a) full resident participation; (b) further
review of local culture; (c) symbiosis between man and nature; (d) mutual support and friendship; and (e) value
innovation and dissemination of community resources (Weng & Kiyoshi, 1997). Its primary target is
“establishing community culture, building community consensus, and constructing the concept of a living
community entity as a class of new thinking and policy in cultural administration.” Its main goal is to generate
policy terms to integrate the five primary community development orientations of “people, culture, place,
scenery, and production.” Japan’s professor Miyazaki Kiyoshi advocated the division of these issues into the
five major classifications of “people,” “culture,” “place,” “production,” and “scenery.”
Lifelong Learning
Adult education scholar Cropley (1980), explained the implications of lifelong learning through four

EFFECT OF CULTURAL AND CREATIVE INDUSTRY ON COMMUNITY COLLEGES 139
different orientations: (1) from the perspective of time, lifelong learning begins at birth and ends at death; (2)
from the perspective of type, lifelong learning occurs in educational context that are formal, informal, and
unofficial; (3) from the perspective of results, lifelong learning can cause one to update knowledge, skills, and
attitudes; and (4) from the perspective of goals, the ultimate goal of lifelong learning is to promote individual
self-realization.
Huang (1996) proposed to divide the community college curriculum into three major categories: (a)
academic courses; (b) association courses; and (c) life courses. Hu (1997) believed that lifelong learning refers
to the individual as a learner, conducting planned or unplanned learning activities, according to personal
interests and needs, between birth and death at every stage of their lives.
Civil Society
Civil society refers to a domain or system composed of intermediaries of spontaneous organizations in a
system of government. These organizations are relatively independent of public power and families and private
sector production or reproduction, such as corporations (Schmitter, 1996). Cooper (1991) believed that civil
society refers to a public domain where citizens conduct public affairs interactions. In this domain, the public
can participate in complicated political or public activities through dialogue. In the governance process, the
public plays an active role as a participant and supervisor instead of the roles of malcontent or victim. The
public can realize that the freedom to participate in public policy is not a compulsion to participate, but instead,
stems from the personal expression of autonomy and the development of social care responsibility.
In addition, in public society, people learn self-respect, group identity, the ability to deal with public
affairs, the value of cooperation, and civic virtue. Furthermore, everyone needs to comply with community
norms and obligations in order to maintain the existence of a public domain (O’Connell, 2000, pp. 471-478).
Chen (2002) once explored that the very important roles played by civil society and community colleges from
the angle of the three perspectives of the function of community education (education perspective), the practice
of citizen participation (participation perspective), and the shaping of civil society (construction perspective).
According to the aforementioned literary analysis, it was discovered that the strategic alliance model
between community colleges and community development associations is divided into lifelong learning,
community empowerment, and civic education. In addition, resources are mutually shared and mutual
assistance provided in seeking common development cooperation models through methods, such as course
types, holding activities, etc..
Strategic Alliance
A strategic alliance is, “Two of more enterprises, in order to achieve common strategic objectives,
possessing mutual strategic cooperative behavior, and competition. The enterprises still retain independent
autonomy and maintain or enhance competitive advantages through mutually mastering each other’s positive
and negative resources, and mutually sharing responsibilities, risks, and rewards through members” (Carpenter
& Sanders, 2009).
Pfeffer and Salancik (1978) proposed the concept of resource dependence. This concept believes that there
are many resources in the environment and organizations must rely on obtaining environmental resources to
maintain their existence. Viewing resource outsourcing from the perspective of the resource dependence theory,
an organization’s tasking environment (concentration, openness, or connectivity) will determine this
organization’s resource perspectives (importance, prudent allocation, or selectivity) and these resource

perspectives and organization established strategies will mutually influence the strategy of organization
outsourcing functions (Grover & Teng, 1995).
Therefore, it can be discovered through the resource dependence theory: Environmental resources are
limited, if organizations wish to strengthen or maintain competitive advantages, they should not be limited to
internal resources and abilities, but should focus on their core competitive technologies through a professional
division of labor model. Businesses should commission external execution of non-competitive or poor resource
performance manufacturing activities, retrieve complementary external resources, and thus, derive
interdependent partnerships between organizations (Pfeffer & Salancik, 1978; Galaskiewicz, 1979; Bourantas,
1989).
The degree in which organizations rely on outside resources depends on three factors including: (a) degree
of resource importance; (b) control capability of resource ownership; and (c) degree of resource substitution
(Grover, Cheon, & Teng, 1994, pp. 75-103). This study utilizes the three aforementioned factors to measure the
dependencies between each relationship in outsourcing scenarios.
Social Network Theory
The so-called social network refers to the specific relationships between every person in a group. Network
relationships formed by different relationships are different. Thus, the individual’s social behavior in the group
can be seen through link relationships and constituent structure (Mitchell, 1969). Therefore, social networks are
composed of three factors: “actors,” “relationship,” and “ties.” Scott (2000) believed that social network
analysis primarily utilizes dotted line and graphical representations after rendering all kinds of relationships
into values to show the directional and relationship distance of each member in the network. The tightness of
these relationships can divide central indicators into three categories for measurement: (a) degree centrality; (b)
betweeness centrality; and (c) closeness centrality (Freeman, 1979, pp. 215-239).
Fussy-Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis
Fussy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fs/QCA) is a technique, originally developed by Ragin in
1987. It is used for analyzing data sets by listing and counting all the combinations of variables observed in the
data set, and then applying the rules of logical inference to determine which descriptive inferences or
implications the data supports. In the case of categorical variables, QCA begins by listing and counting all
types of cases which occur, where each type of case is defined by its unique combination of values of its
independent and dependent variables (Ragin, 2000; 2008a; 2008b; 2009; Woodside & Zhang, 2011, pp. 13-26).
Cultural Industry
Since 1998, the UK government recognized the creative industries with the distinct economic contribution.
The Taiwanese authorities consider the concept of creative industries and combined cultural industries into the
“Cultural and Creative Industries” (CCI), it would be a new economy. The Taiwanese government proposed the
Challenge 2008: Six-Year National Development Plan, a 6-year policy guideline aimed at generating a new set
of competitive advantages. The one of sub-plan was aimed to construct new hometown communities through
integrating cultural traditions and communities can develop local attractions, offer various employment
opportunities at retaining local talent by refocusing on the roles of local community (Chung, 2012, pp.
340-355). Wang (2013) investigated that nine community industries developed in Northern Taiwan. His
recommendations for Community Development Association (CDA) to promote community industry, is
effectively link and integrate resources within and outside the community, helping communities to promote

industry. In addition to, Wu (2006; 2009) researched the community college and community development
association in terms of locate both playing roles in the processing of community whole construction. They can
share each other’s resource for developing cultural industry.
Research Methods
This study’s first stage of expert interviews utilized the purposive sample method on research subjects to
select two community colleges and four community development associations to conduct semi-structured
interviews. The second stage of focused interviews obtained one community college and five community
development associations for focused interviews (Wu, Hou, & Ting, 2011). According to the data accumulated
through the interviews, key indicators were extracted using the grounded theory. Classification was then
conducted through the resource dependence theory. The third stage involved conducting mail surveys of 83
community colleges according to national community college advancement associations and 500 community
development associations. Lastly, according to the survey data, social network analysis (SNA) was utilized to
conduct an analysis of key indicators to establish a complete architectural model of strategic alliances between
community colleges and community development associations.
Data Analysis
Examination of Community College and Community Development Association Strategic Alliance
Framework
According to the content of stage one expert interviews and stage two focused interviews and after
utilizing grounded theory analysis, it was discovered that the types of mutual strategic alliances between
community colleges and community development associations are the four areas of cooperation of overall
community development, lifelong learning, citizen social education, and administrative support. The
cooperative process was influenced by the factors of degree of resource importance, control capability of
resource ownership, and degree of resource substitution. Divided into three factor categories, according to
Grover, Cheon, and Teng’s (1994) resource theory.
Degree of resource importance. In the area of resource importance, that which community colleges
provide to community development associations can be divided into the following types: (a) lifelong learning;
(b) community empowerment; and (c) social citizen.
Control capability of resource ownership. In the area of control capability of resources ownership,
community colleges provide community development associations with administrative support.
Degree of resource substitution. The influence of community colleges providing community
development associations with a degree of resource substitution can be divided into the following factors:
1. The attitude of the prime mover affects the cooperative relationship: The attitude of the community
college or community development association prime mover will affect the cooperative relationship;
2. Policy affects cooperative relationship: I.e., Ministry of Education supervision requests community
colleges possess interactive and supportive relationships with community development associations;
3. Environmental change: After community college moves, is affected by additional distance, causing
increasing alienation in bilateral relations;
4. Alternative groups: Community development association has already found a suitable management
consulting firm to replace the support status of community college.

Key Indicators of Community College and Community Development Association Strategic Alliances
The third stage mail surveys of 83 community colleges according to national community college
advancement associations were subjected to the grounded theory to conduct key indicator classification to
establish a complete architectural model of strategic alliances between community colleges and community
development associations. This strategic alliance model and critical analysis diagram are shown on Figure 1.
Analysis explanations of key indicators are as follows:
1. The key indicators of community college and community development association strategic alliances in
the area of degree of resource importance (RI) are as follows:
(a) Lifelong learning (LL): beauty studies, catering studies, arts studies, financial seminars, ecological
education, cultivating local culture, and information education;
(b) Community empowerment (CE): community greening, promotion of local cuisine, development of
unique artifacts, festivals, industrial development, environmental protection, and other indicators;
(c) Social citizen (SC): low-carbon movement activities, community care, health education, cultural
festivals and ceremonies, green citizen, civic literacy, and community disaster prevention.
2. The key indicators of community college and community development association strategic alliance
control capability of resource ownership (CO) are: (a) course learning (CL); (b) teacher support (TS); (c) venue
rental (VR); and (d) event organization (EO).
3. The key indicators of community college and community development association strategic alliance
degree of resource substitution (RS) are: (a) influence of prime mover attitude (IA); (b) policy influence (PI); (c)
environmental change (EC); and (d) alternative groups (AG).
Figure 1. Key indicators of community college and community development association strategic alliances.
Sampling and Data Collection
This study was carried out in Taiwan. The authors delivered a total of 583 copies of the questionnaire to
participants, from which they received 250 completed questionnaires from 25 community colleges and 225
community development associations, producing a response rate of 42.8%. To check that the sample of
responses obtained was representative of the population, non-response bias was examined through a
comparison of early and late waves of returned surveys.
Degree of Resource Importance (RI)
Community empowerment (CE): (i.e.) festivals
Lifelong learning (LL): (i.e.) ecological education
Social citizen (SC): (i.e.) citizen forum
Control Capability of Resource Ownership (CO)
(a) Course learning (CL)
(b) Teacher support (TS)
(c) Venue rental (VR)
(d) Event organization (EO)
Degree of Resource Substitution (RS)
(a) Influence of prime mover attitude (IA)
(b) Policy influence (PI)
(c) Environmental change (EC)
(d) Alternative groups (AG)

Fs/QCA Results of Community College and Community Development Association Strategic Alliance
According to fs/QCA, the research constructs including causal conditions and outcomes in this study are
transforming into fuzzy-set scores by using the calibrating function of fs/QCA software and these scores are
ranging from 0.00 to 1.00 based on Ragin (2008b). Ragin (2009) indicated that the threshold for full
membership (i.e., fuzzy score equals to 0.95), cross-over point (i.e., fuzzy score equals to 0.50), and full
non-membership (i.e., fuzzy score equals to 0.05) are three qualitative anchors of fuzzy set. Therefore, this
study set the original values of 5.0, 3.0, and 1.0 from Likert-type 5-points scales to correspond to the full
membership, cross-over point, and full non-membership anchors, respectively.
The intermediate solutions for degree of RI, control capability of CO, and control degree of RS are shown
in Table 1. First of all, the intermediate solutions for degree of RI has three configurations, the solution
coverage is 0.868 and solution consistency is 0.997. The first configuration comprises SC and LL, the row
coverage is 0.721 and consistency is 1.000; the second configuration comprises SC and CE, the row coverage is
0.635 and consistency is 1.000; and the third configuration comprises LL and CE, the row coverage is 0.770
and consistency is 0.996.
Table 1
QCA Output-Intermediate Solution
Factors Conditions
Coverage
Consistency
Solution
Raw Unique Coverage Consistency
RI
SC*LL 0.721 0.091 1.000
0.868 0.997SC*CE 0.635 0.006 1.000
LL*CE 0.770 0.141 0.996
CO
EO*TS*CL 0.625 0.910 0.910
0.932 0.878
VR*TS*CL 0.912 0.912 0.932
RS
PI*IA 0.980 0.658 0.969
0.981 0.969
AG*EC*PI 0.323 0.001 1.000
Secondary, the CO has two configurations, the solution coverage is 0.932 and solution consistency is 0.878. The
first configuration comprises EO, TS, and CL, the solution coverage is 0.625 and consistency is 0.910. The second
configuration comprises VR, TS, and CL, the row coverage is 0.912 and consistency is 0.932. Finally, the
intermediate solutions for control degree of RS has two configurations conditions, the solution coverage is 0.981 and
solution consistency is 0.969. The first configuration comprises PI and IA, the row coverage is 0.980 and consistency
is 0.969. The second configuration comprises AG, EC, and PI, the row coverage is 0.323 and consistency 1.000.
The results of fs/QCA indicate that all configurations are sufficient conditions causing degree of RI, CO, and
control degree of RS (i.e., consistency values exceed 0.865). The consistency indices, can see as significance metrics
in statistical, which measures the degree to which configurations are subsets of the outcome (Ragin, 2008b;
Woodside & Zhang, 2011, pp. 13-26). Table 1 represents that all of the solution consistency values is above 0.878.
High consistency also indicates that a subset relation exists and supports an argument of sufficiency (Ragin, 2009).
Furthermore, the coverage indices can see as the effects size (Woodside & Zhang, 2011, pp. 13-26) that raw
coverage and solution coverage measure the extent to which the configurations account for the outcome (Ragin,
2008b). Table 1 also represents that most of the raw and solution coverage values is above 60%, indicating that the
configurations explain a large proportion of degree of RI, CO, and DS.

SNA of Strategic Alliances
SNA was utilized to analyze the integration and use of resources by community college and community
development association strategic alliances construct. We use the two mode networks method to find the
cohesion and centrality for the community college and community development association strategic alliances.
SNA of degree of resource importance. SNA was conducted on the degree of resource importance of
community colleges and community development associations. The neutral lifelong learning indicator was
highest at degree centrality (0.640), closeness centrality (0.633), and betweenness centrality (0.255). This
shows that in the area of degree of resource importance, community colleges and community development
associations most frequently cooperate in lifelong education. This is followed by social citizen education and
lastly community empowerment. The three elements all have high degree centrality, closeness, shown in Table
2. They have high density of cohesion measure is 0.62 (see Figure 2).
Table 2
Network Centrality of Resource Importance
Degree of resource importance Degree Closeness Betweenness
Community empowerment 0.600 0.608 0.216
Lifelong learning 0.640 0.633 0.255
Social citizen 0.600 0.608 0.236
Figure 2. SNA, gower metric scaling layout of resource importance.
SNA of community empowerment. SNA of community empowerment discovered the highest level of
centrality was development of unique artifacts at degree centrality (0.520), closeness centrality (1.207), and
betweenness centrality (0.107). This is followed by festivals, and thirdly by industrial development, shown in
Table 3. The three aforementioned items are the primary items for cooperation between community colleges

and community development associations in community empowerment. The density of cohesion measure is
0.44 (see Figure 3).
SNA of civil society. SNA of civil society discovered the highest level of centrality was community care
at degree centrality (0.320), closeness centrality (0.902), and betweenness centrality (0.079). This is followed
by green citizen and thirdly by low carbon activities, shown in Table 4. The three aforementioned items are the
primary items for cooperation between community colleges and community development associations in civil
society. The density of cohesion measure is 0.24 (see Figure 4).
SNA of lifelong learning. SNA of lifelong learning discovered the highest level of centrality was arts
studies at degree centrality (0.480), closeness centrality (1.028), and betweenness centrality (0.194). This is
followed by ecological education and thirdly by cultivating local culture, shown in Table 5. The three
aforementioned items are the primary items for cooperation between community colleges and community
development associations in lifelong learning. The density of cohesion measure is 1.0 (see Figure 5).
Table 3
Network Centrality of Community Empowerment
Community empowerment Degree Closeness Betweenness
Community greening 0.400 1.000 0.021
Promotion of local cuisine 0.400 1.000 0.026
Development of unique artifacts 0.520 1.207 0.107
Festivals 0.480 1.129 0.077
Industrial development 0.480 1.129 0.053
Environmental protection 0.360 0.946 0.027
Figure 3. SNA, gower metric scaling layout of community empowerment.

Table 4
Network Centrality of Civil Society
Civil society Degree Closeness Betweenness
Low carbon movement activities 0.280 0.860 0.104
Community care 0.320 0.902 0.079
Health education 0.240 0.822 0.068
Cultural festivals and ceremonies 0.200 0.787 0.087
Green citizen 0.280 0.860 0.075
Civic literacy 0.240 0.822 0.044
Community disaster prevention 0.120 0.725 0.002
Figure 4. SNA, gower metric scaling layout of civil society.
Table 5
Network Centrality of Lifelong Learning
Lifelong learning Degree Closeness Betweeness
Beauty studies 0.240 0.771 0.018
Catering studies 0.240 0.771 0.018
Arts studies 0.480 1.028 0.194
Financial seminars 0.280 0.804 0.062
Ecological education 0.360 0.881 0.094
Cultivation local culture 0.280 0.804 0.032
Information education 0.240 0.771 0.027
SNA of control capability of resource ownership. SNA of centrality of control capability of resource
ownership discovered the highest level of centrality was seminars and courses at degree centrality (0.440),
closeness centrality (0.972), and betweenness centrality (0.205). This is followed by event organization and
thirdly by teachers, shown in Table 6. The three aforementioned items are the primary items for cooperation
between community colleges and community development associations in administrative support. The density
of cohesion measure is 1.0 (see Figure 6).

Figure 5. SNA, gower metric scaling layout of lifelong learning.
Table 6
Network Centrality of Control Capability Of Resource Ownership
Control capability of resource ownership Degree Closeness Betweenness
Teachers 0.320 0.833 0.104
Venues 0.200 0.729 0.006
Equipment 0.200 0.729 0.006
Event organization 0.400 0.921 0.138
Teaching materials 0.200 0.729 0.006
Seminars and courses 0.440 0.972 0.205
Figure 6. SNA, gower metric scaling layout of control capability of resource ownership.

SNA of control degree of resource substitution. SNA of control degree of resource substitution
discovered the highest level of centrality was influence of prime mover attitude at degree centrality (0.923),
closeness centrality (0.905), and betweenness centrality (0.562). This is followed by policy influence and
thirdly by environmental change, shown in Table 7. The three aforementioned items are the primary items for
cooperation between community colleges and community development associations in administrative support.
The density of cohesion measure is 0.62 (see Figure 7).
Table 7
Network Centrality of Degree of Resource Substitution
Degree of resource substitution Degree Closeness Betweenness
Influence of prime mover attitude 0.923 0.905 0.562
Policy influence 0.538 0.613 0.203
Environmental change 0.462 0.576 0.083
Alternative groups 0.385 0.543 0.057
Figure 7. SNA, gower metric scaling layout of degree of resource substitution.
According to the SNA of community college and community development association strategic alliances
construct. We can find lifelong learning indicator was highest at degree centrality (0.640), the degree centrality
of social citizen education was 0.60, and lastly, the degree centrality of community empowerment was the same
value. It conducted degree of resource importance. They are all high degree centrality, like as unique artifacts,
arts studies, seminars, and courses. These indexes influence the development of local culture industry.
Conclusions
Establishment of the Strategic Alliance Model
The strategic alliance model between community colleges and community development associations was
discovered through expert interviews and focus group interviews. Cooperation is conducted in the areas of

lifelong learning, community empowerment, civic education, administrative support, etc.. The perspective of
the resource dependence theory was used to investigate the cooperative relationship between the two.
Investigating from the perspective of resource importance, lifelong learning, community empowerment, and
civic education possess correlations. In terms of control capability of resource ownership, the feasibility of
community colleges providing community development associations with administrative resource abilities will
influence the willingness of the two parties to cooperate. In terms of resources substitution, the influence of
prime mover’s attitude, policy influence, environmental change, and alternative group factors will all lower the
willingness of the two parties to cooperate.
Key Indicators of the Strategic Alliance Model
The surveys taken of national community colleges discovered that the key indicators of mutual strategic
alliances can be divided into four major areas: (1) Key indicators of lifelong learning: beauty studies, catering
studies, arts studies, financial seminars, ecological education, cultivating local culture, and information
education; (2) Key indicators of community empowerment: community greening, promotion of local cuisine,
development of unique artifacts, festivals, industrial development, environmental protection, and other
indicators; (3) Key indicators of social citizen: low-carbon movement activities, community care, health
education, cultural festivals and ceremonies, green citizen, civic literacy, and community disaster prevention;
and (4) Key indicators of administration are: course learning, teacher support, venue rental, event organization,
and equipment rental; and lectures and study courses. This study discovered that the aforementioned key
indicators can generate cooperative partnerships through administrative resources. This exploratory study hopes
to establish a strategic alliance model through the establishment of accumulated interview data.
The findings identify several causal paths, comprising specific combinations of key indicators of degree of
RI, CO, and DS, to achieve successful strategic alliances for community colleges and community development
associations by using fs/QCA to analyze. SNA helps increase understanding of the degree centrality, closeness
and betweenness in configurations. The conditions that associate with strategic alliances for community
colleges and community development associations cooperation relationship include the lifelong learning, social
citizen education, and community empowerment. Accordingly, the three elements for community colleges and
community development associations are critical for successful strategic alliances. Likewise, the facts of mover
attitude, policy, environmental change, alternative groups, they will impact community colleges and
community development associations toward to cooperate or not.
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doi: 10.17265/2161-6248/2016.03.002
What Is Culture of College/School/Department*
WANG Lian-sen
Shandong Women’s University, Jinan, China;
Shandong University, Jinan, China

College culture is university subculture, and a unique organization culture form created, discovered, and developed
from long-term teaching management practice, generally accepted, recognized, and followed by teachers and
students of college/school/department. College culture can be concluded in “academic culture,” “administrative
culture,” “association culture” based on “functional form of culture,” or “teacher culture,” “student culture,” and
“administer culture,” according to “the subject form of culture.” Except “classification,” it can be divided into three
levels of “material,” “institution,” and “spirit”; or four levels of “material,” “institution,” “behavior,” and “spirit.”
College culture, compared to campus culture, is a subculture, but has its independence and dissimilarity. At
management aspects, college culture has directing function, cohere function, constrain function, incentive function,
coordination function, and assimilation function. At social aspects, college culture has radiation function and
image-building function. At education aspects, college culture can have an impact on students’ professional
qualities, moral character, and personality growth. Cultural construction should be conducted adhering to the
principle of “overarching and guiding,” “materialization and enrichment,” and “specificity and characteristic.”
Keywords: college culture, school culture, department culture, campus culture, university culture
Introduction
Since the 1970s, a wave of culture studies themed “organizational culture” (“corporate culture”), “campus
culture,” “university culture,” etc. come one after another in rapid succession. Along with beginning to expand
the autonomy of running universities since the mid-1980s, especially the continuous reform of “college system”
and implementation of two-level (university and college) management system since the enlarged enrollment
and amalgamation of universities in the 1990s, they stimulated people’s concern and interest on “college
culture” (referring to college culture, school culture, and department culture).
Connotation of College/School/Department Culture
According to the general understanding of “university culture,” broadly speaking, college culture is the
sum of material wealth and spiritual wealth created by the college with its own characteristic. In a narrow sense,
college culture refers to a organization’s administrative characteristics, values, interpersonal relationships,
traditions, norms, spirit and corresponding teaching, scientific research, and cultural and sports activities (Gao,
*
Acknowledgement: This research was financially supported by Humanities and Social Science Research Project of Ministry
of Education (Grant No. 15YJA880069), Research Project of China Academic Degrees & Graduate Education Society (Grant No.
2015Y11), and Independent Innovation Foundation of Shandong University (Grant No. IFW12116).
WANG Lian-sen, Ph.D., associate professor, School of Tourism, Shandong Women’s University; researcher, Institute of
Higher Education, Shandong Women’s University; researcher, Research Center for Higher Education, Shandong University.
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WHAT IS CULTURE OF COLLEGE/SCHOOL/DEPARTMENT152
2001, p. 96). College culture is university subculture, and a unique organization culture form created,
discovered, and developed from long-term teaching management practice, taking all faculties, teachers and
students of college/school/department as main roles and knowledge and profession (academy) as basis…
generally accepted, recognized, and followed by college/school/department teachers and students… it is
embodied in the teaching activities, student work and a variety of affair management, and reflected through
spiritual outlook, way of thinking and behavior patterns (Bian & Yue, 2009, p. 66). As secondary academic
institution in or directly under universities—college (school and department) was established based on one or
several disciplines/professional(s), members are “more similar by practice” and interact more, and its culture is
more “deformability.” Small and concentrate organization make the culture more “controllable.” Therefore,
college culture is easy to be “created,” “shaped,” and “felt,” and then attracts people’s attention and thinking,
especially the “insiders”—university faculty staff and students in college/school/department.
Constitution of College/School/Department Culture
Although college culture is “university subculture,” but it is almost equivalent to campus culture in rich
content and complexity (Wang & Wang, 2006, p. 39), because it is also a cultural group including professional
culture, academic culture, teacher culture, student culture as well as management culture, office culture, etc.
(Bian, 2008). If a clear classification basis is needed, college culture can be concluded in “academic culture,”
“administrative culture,” “association culture” based on “functional form of culture,” or “teacher culture,”
“student culture,” and “administer culture,” according to the subject form of culture (Li, 2012, pp. 12-13).
Except “classification,” college culture can also been leveled according to components status and relations
to display its unique “onion” structure—from outside to inside, it can be divided into three levels of “material,”
“institution,” and “spirit” (Gao, 2001, pp. 97-98), or four levels of “material,” “institution,” “behavior,” and
“spirit” (Chen, Bi, & Wang, 2010, p. 121). Regardless of classification method, “spirit is always the core of
college culture” (Gao, 2001, p. 98), because spirit culture .... “embodies the value pursuit and rational cognition
of the college overall development” (Chen & Li, 2010, p. 111), “dominates the formation of college tradition
and trend of college development, and directly determines the college management mode, behavioral pattern,
interpersonal relationships, behavior criterion, and style and feature” (Zhao, Wang, & Zhang, 2011, p. 106).
Nature of College/School/Department Culture
College culture, compared to campus culture, is a subculture, but has its independence and dissimilarity.
Independence comes from college’s relative independence from university currently; dissimilarity comes from
college’s academic features, rather than simple and homogeneous chunk (Wang & Wang, 2006, p. 39). As “a
distinctive culture based on specific discipline or profession reflected in the college” (Wang & Wang, 2006, p.
39), college culture has the features of “discipline, localization, openness, permeability” (Wang & Wang, 2006,
p. 39), as well as “dependence and penetrability,” “diversity and systematization,” “academic and morality
education,” etc. (Bian & Yue, 2009, pp. 67-68).
As a “distinctive culture,” also known as “individual culture” (Li, 2012, pp. 14-16), college culture not
only has pros and cons—good college culture has six obvious signs: clear college sprit, shared values, good
work and study environment, management institutions being recognized and abided by the crowd of college,
harmonious interpersonal relationship, and all staff and students full of vitality and enthusiasm (Chen, Bi, &
Wang, 2010, p. 121), but also “has superficial and profound culture, superficial culture has no big culture

WHAT IS CULTURE OF COLLEGE/SCHOOL/DEPARTMENT 153
strength like a flash of light, while profound culture is like wine cellars for years, sweet and long aftertaste”
(Tang, 2013, p. 163).
The Relationship Between College Culture and Campus Culture, University Culture
Compared with college culture, campus culture is more comprehensive which is created from integration
and blending of different cultural characteristics of disciplines, professionals, colleges/schools/departments,
units, more representing a general culture in the university, therefore, they are in a relationship as the universal
to the particular (Cai, 2006). Furthermore, “campus culture is the foundation and background of college
culture” (Wang & Wang, 2006, p. 40); “college culture is a microcosm and specific mapping of campus
culture” (Cai, 2006), which “integrated in campus culture” (Bian, 2008, pp. 17-18), “and an integral part of
university campus culture” (Chen, Bi, & Wang, 2010, p. 121), but “has a certain independence to displays its
specific characteristics on the basis of inheriting and absorbing up campus culture” (Cai, 2006). This close
relationship led to a “mutually beneficial” effect—campus culture can maintain the stability of college culture,
and college culture can increase the diversity of campus culture (Chen, Bi, & Wang, 2010, p. 121), which
“constitutes a unique campus culture ecosphere... universal and individual college culture makes the whole
campus culture more full, rich and vibrant” (Ma, 2013, p. 86).
Based on the above analysis, it is not difficult to understand that on the one hand, university culture, at
macro level, guide the development direction of college culture, on the other hand, various college culture,
based on disciplines diversity, influence, and contribute to university culture (Chen & Li, 2010, p. 111). It
should be emphasized that college culture is an integral and important part of university culture, is a major
force in forming a university culture style, college cultural construction influences the process, direction,
vitality, and effectiveness of university culture (Ouyang, 2014, p. 246), “doing well in college cultural
construction is to promote, expand and substantiate university culture” (Zhao, Wang, & Zhang, 2011, p. 105).
In short, the university cultural construction is a systematic project, secondary college and university is in
a relationship as the part to the whole, secondary platform to first platform, if there is no interaction and
cooperation between the two platforms, university cultural construction will be fragmented (Fei, 2013, p. 140).
Function of College/School/Department Culture
Management Aspects
Directing function. College culture, as an organization culture, can direct the value and behavior of whole
organization and each member to meet the need of organization development (Gao, 2001, p. 96).
Cohere function. Good college culture can promote the formation of common ideals and beliefs,
psychological characteristics, ethical standards and values among teachers and students, and stimulate college
members’ identity and pride to college goals and standards, and thus, increase cohesion and consolidate internal
power (Zhu, 2012, p. 48).
Constrain function. As organizational culture, college culture has a binding and regulatory effect on the
ideas, psychology and behavior of each member. This is a kind of soft constraint, which means group
psychological pressure and self-control caused by organization cultural atmosphere that makes individual
behavior conformity (Gao, 2001, p. 96).
Incentive function. In addition to constrain, college culture can from the core idea of respect for human,
make the faculty to feel enthusiastic and energetic from the heart through inner guidance, and consciously work

for the organization (Gao, 2001, p. 96). Of course, the incentive is directional, which can be positive or
negative, thus, college culture can be classified into positive incentive culture, insufficient incentive culture,
and negative incentive culture (Yang & Guo, 2013, pp. 64-65).
Coordination function. College culture can automatically adjust the organization members’ attitude
and actions through harmonious atmosphere, and gradually becomes the main culture of the organization
through psychological identity to the cultural atmosphere, turning the common goal into members’ conscious
actions, achieving the unity of personal goals with organizational goals at a higher level, so that the group can
have the greatest synergy. Meanwhile, it can continuously permeate and internalize personal values through
common values, enabling the organization to automatically generate a set of self-regulation mechanisms, and
manipulate the management behavior and practice activities of the organization by “invisible hand” (Li, Shen,
& Ren, 2013, p. 59).
Assimilation function. Along with coordination function, college culture also influences any member
of the organization by organization values, behavior style, moral criterion, and other ideology systems, to
make them assimilate to the organization culture in the above aspects. Assimilation function creates
harmonious interpersonal relationship, and eliminates alienations naturally at the same time (Zhu & Wang,
2004, p. 24).
Social Aspects
Radiation function. College culture, as organizational culture, will not only play a role within the
organization once it grows mature, but also have an impact on the community through various channels (Gao,
2001, p. 96), “compared with other cultures, its educational and radiation is more stronger” (Zhang & Chen,
2008, p. 230).
Image-building function. Excellent college culture displays its successful management style, unique
college-running characteristics and noble spirit to the public, so as to create a good overall image, establish
credibility, and expand its influence (Mao, 2007, p. 38), even “college is also likely to be extended to a brand of
the whole university through the brand effect created by its organizational culture” (Li, Shen, Chen, & Ren,
2013, p. 59).
Education Aspects
College culture can have an impact on students’ professional qualities, moral character, and personality
growth (Li, 2012, pp. 22-24). Its spirit, beliefs, habits, and morality permeates among teachers and students as
culture atmosphere, which has a strong appeal and driving force to cultivate the students’ sentiments, enlighten
their mind, and promote their overall development (Zhao, 2010, p. 81). It “is not aimless culture, but permeates
a clear educational purpose... leads the students to training targets by the great surrounding force... college
culture profoundly affect each student’s developing directions, especially their choices of values, moral and
lifestyle with subtle force, like constant dropping wears the stone” (Zhang & Chen, 2008, p. 230).
Construction of College/School/Department Culture
Construction Content
Material environment culture is the foundation of college cultural construction, institution culture is the
guiding principle of college cultural construction, and spirit culture is the core of the college cultural
construction. During material environment cultural construction, teachers and students should be encouraged to

WHAT IS CULTURE OF COLLEGE/SCHOOL/DEPARTMENT 155
work together to create special environmental culture. In the institution cultural construction, various
management institutions and responsibility institutions should be improved. In spirit cultural construction,
attentions should be paid on the refinement of college spirit, and construction of academic culture (Shi, 2012, p.
107). The construction of college/school/department culture should put its emphasis on the teaching style, study
style, and the college spirit (Zhao, 2008, p. 22); it should fully condensate college/school/department spirit
culture, vigorously promote college/school/department academic culture, and actively foster
college/school/department education culture (Li, 2014, p. 25).
Construction Principle
College/school/department cultural construction should be conducted adhering to the principle of
“overarching and guiding,” “materialization and enrichment,” “specificity and characteristic,” “relying on the
appropriate platform and window,” and “centering around college-running orientation, philosophy, ideas, and
goals of college reform and development” (Dong, 2007, pp. 70-71).
Construction Approaches
College cultural construction needs proceed step by step with designed plan, according to its internal rules:
analyzing internal and external cultural environment → designing new cultural framework → constructing
surface culture → penetrating and nurturing deep culture conceptions (Gao, 2001, pp. 98-99). From the
perspective of the overall university, university-college secondary campus culture management linkage
mechanism should be built, leading secondary colleges strengthen links with university and other secondary
colleges in the cultural construction, strengthening the guidance and supervision of secondary college
cultural construction, and establishing a perfect assessment, appraisal and incentive mechanism (Zhang, 2010, p.
184).
Conclusion
As a university subculture, college culture is a unique organization culture form created, discovered, and
developed from long-term teaching management practice, generally accepted, recognized, and followed by
teachers and students of the college/school/department. College culture can be classified into several kinds
based on different aspects. College culture has its independence and dissimilarity in the whole university
culture system, and plays many important functions. At management aspects, it has directing, cohere, constrain,
incentive, coordination, and assimilation function. At social aspects, radiation and image-building function. At
education aspects, it can have an impact on students’ professional qualities, moral character, and personality
growth. To construct college culture effctively, the principle of “overarching and guiding” and “materialization
and enrichment” should been adhered to.
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doi: 10.17265/2161-6248/2016.03.003

Special Eduction Overview in Burundi
Victor Barantota
Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
Education for disabled people (called special education) is a responsibility for both parents and public authorities.
Each country establishes its own structures/institutions according to its cultural and educational values in order to
help both handicapped and normal persons. The aim of this paper is to make an exploration of the special education
situation in Burundi. The determination of different services offered to disabled people, the extent to which
handicapped people are served and current laws on special education are aimed. In this research, content analysis
and semi-structured interview were used. The content analysis allowed a review of existing literature on
handicapped persons’ law and for the semi-structured interview, an interview form was prepared and used to collect
informations from administrators of centers for handicapped people. The results showed that Burundi has no special
education legislation, no legal classification principle, and no statistics of handicapped persons. Other results are
that special education in Burundi is offered in centers of phyisically, mentally, visually, and hearing impaired
persons, which are theoretically under the solidarity ministry. Services that are provided are mainly physical
rehabilitation, professional training, literacy, and general education.
Keywords: Burundi, special education, disabled people, centers for disabled people, services
Introduction
In a given country or a society, children education is both a parents and public authorities responsibility.
When a child is born, parents want the child to grow and become useful to self, his family and the society. That
growth is sustained by parents and public authorities. Parents teach the child from the early age first notions of
behaviors and attitudes (motor skills acquisitions, language and speech acquisition, cleanliness, social
adaptation, etc.). According to the educational and social existing policy, public authorities ought to assist
parents in the children education by providing services that parents are not able to have by their own.
When it is the case of disabled children, their education is very special. Most of the time, it requires much
more services and means that parents cannot have and that are different to those provided by public authorities
for normal children (school infrastructures, programs, schools materials, etc.). Because of this situation, public
authorities have established institutions and structures that aim disabilities prevention and adequate services
provision to disabled people in order to heal or mitigate disability effects and allow a better social life comparable
to the non disabled people. In this order, each country or society establishes its own structures and or institutions
according to its cultural and educational values in order to help both handicapped and normal persons.
What Is Special Education?
In general, special education, also called special teaching, is a training or an education provided to learners
Victor Barantota, Ph.D., student, Special Education Department, Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara University.
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SPECIAL EDUCTION OVERVIEW IN BURUNDI

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with special needs and their families. It contributes, in collaboration with those who take part in educative and
social action, to the education of children and teenagers or to the support of adults with psychical, physical
disabilities, or behavioural disorders or with integration difficulties.
This education is characterized by adaptation of programs, teaching methods, school materials, physical
environment (buildings, school equipments, etc.) to each learner’s handicap situation, that is to say, to each
learner’s needs and differences. This supposes established programs depending on disability type and learning
methods on measure, adapted equipments and materials, adapted programs, and other elements that allow
learners to reach a high degree of self-sufficiency. That kind of needs is concerning persons with learning
problems, communication troubles, emotional and behavioural problems, development troubles, and sensorial
disabilities. Students with that kind of needs have possibilities to be given additional services, such as a
different teaching-learning approach, use of technologies, adapted learning zones, or different resources.
According to Figen Eres (2010), special education covers children between the ages of 0-18 who show
some differences from other children because of their physical, mental, psychological, emotional, or social
characteristics and cannot, therefore, benefit from the regular education services.
In addition to this general review, special education departments and institutions of some countries can
adopt a special definition in accordance to their situation. For example, in Turkey, according to the Special
Education Services Directive of the National Ministry of Education (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığının Özel Eğitim
Hizmetleri Yönetmeliği), special education is expressed as a teaching conducted in order to meet education and
social needs of individuals in need of special education based specially on trained staff, improved training
(education) programs and methodologies and individual competencies of individuals in need of special
education with environments appropriate to development characteristics (National Ministry of Education (Milli
Eğitim Bakanlığı), 2006).
Aim of the Research
The aim of this research is to make an exploration of the special education situation in Burundi. The
determination of different services offered to the disabled people (children and adults) according to type of
disability, the extent to which handicapped people are served and the current laws on special education are
aimed. The research analyses the dispositions and structures set up by the Burundi towards people living with
disabilities. This will provide special education sector stakeholders the current situation in Burundi as
compared to other countries and any gaps for future improvements.
In this research, the following question was answered: What is the current situation of special education in
Burundi. The answer to this question is derived from answers to the following sub-questions.
1. What are the legal dispositions for people with disabilities?
2. What is the situation of the special education staff?
3. What are the services that are offered to handicapped people?
4. What are the numbers of people with disabilities in Burundi?
Method
In this research, an exploration of current laws in Burundi was made in order to identify laws and articles
applicable to special education domain in Burundi. This content analysis (Bordeleau, 1988) was associated to a
semi-structured interview with authorities of centers which serve handicapped people. In order to conduct that


159
interview, prepared interview form was used. Before using the form, it was verified if it was a good instrument
to collect all essential informations to understand services offered to people with disabilities and the conditions
in which they are offered. So, the form has been analyzed by two specialists who work with centers of disabled
people and organizations of defense and promotion of handicapped people’s rights in Burundi. The two
specialists analyzed separately the form and after their suggestions, the final version of the form was adopted.
The form has 15 questions which seek various informations, like the type of disabilities that are served, the age
and other requirements for admission in the center, the role of the government and the collaboration with
disabled children’s parents.
Data Collection
In order to collect datas, the researcher went to each center for disabled people. Before this visit,
information on their number and location was obtained from the general directorate of human rights and
general directorate of higher school. The researcher visited each center/school and met with the administrator.
Meetings for interview took place in their offices and were conducted as following: After a bref introduction of
the researcher and the explanation of the research purpose, the administrator was given a copy of the interview
form to allow him to follow while the researcher was asking questions. The answers were written in the
reserved space on the interview form. At the end of the interview, the administrator was invited to add any
other necessary information which was not mentioned.
Results
In this chapiter, results of the research are presented. Special education legislation in Burundi is presented
first, and then follow disability classification, prevalence, frequency, services offered to handicapped people,
staff training, access to available services and collaboration. The content analysis allowed a review on special
education legislation, disability classification, prevalence, and frequency. The semi-structured interview
revealed the special education supervisor ministry, disabled people education organization, the staff training,
access to available services and collaboration.
Special Education Legislation
During the exploration of current laws in Burundi, it was noted that the special education legislation is
almost inexistent in Burundi. Burundi has neither legislation nor policy (or programs) specific to persons with
disabilities.
In Burundi, some current laws have few items that are relevant to special education. Those articles are
found in laws of the Education Ministry and the Ministry of National Solidarity. From the Ministry of National
Solidarity, it can be mentioned that the recent ratification by the Burundi government on March 26, 2014 of the
United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities of December 13, 2006. However, there is
not yet any law which shows in details how this convention is being implemented in Burundian context.
The current constitution of Burundi (adopted in 2005) does not explicitly refer to education of children and
adults with disabilities. Only the Article 22 states that no one can be discriminated because of his origin, race or
his physical, or mental disability. This is simply the repetition of the non-discrimination principle of the United
Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (in its 3rd Article).
From the ministry in charge of education, two decrees are important: the decree No. 1/25 of July 23, 1989
on education reorganization and the decree No. 1/19 of September 10, 2013 on organization of basic and


160
secondary education. From the 1st decree, the 12th Article states that special education of persons with
disabilities must be proposed by the ministry in charge of social action. According to this article, the Ministry
of Education is not responsible of education of Burundian with special needs. By this, special education is not
an education but a kind of assistance, because it is under social action ministry which is not involved in
education programs.
From the decree No.1/19 of September 10, 2013, three articles are important in special education
domain. The 3rd Article on J Paragraph gives the definition of individuals with special needs and mentions
deficiency types. According to this article, persons with special needs are persons who are facing important
obstacles in their learning (e.g., language disorders, attention disorders, etc.) or who have motor or sensory
limitations. Four types of deficiency, physical, intellectual disabilities, hearing loss, and visual impairments are
mentioned.
The 4th Article enunciates a general and universal principle access for all to instruction. It states as
following, “Every citizen has equal right to instruction, to education and culture.” This is simply a repeat of the
22nd Article of the constitution, which conforms to the 3rd Article of the United Nation (UN) Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
The 15th Article gives goals of education organized for individuals with special needs. It says, “The
teaching to persons with special needs has the goals of offering an education adapted to their needs and
possibilities in order to prepare them to a decent socio-professional future.”
It is necessary to mention that this law gives details on preschool education, basic education, and trade
teaching and literacy organization and goals, but says nothing about individuals with special needs education. It
is just a repetition of the 12th Article of the 1989’s decree. It is said that the organization of the education of
individuals with special needs is governed by a decree, but in this law, it is a total confusion which is
established: While the decree of 1989 gives to the social action ministry the prerogatives of issuing a such
decree, the 2013’s decree does not specify if it is the same social action ministry or the ministry in charge of
education or any other ministry which is responsible for issuing the so expected decree. Therefore, people
would not know which ministry to speek to when calling for the dicree enacting.
According to the 15th Article of the 2013 law, it is clear that special education is not governed by any
law but basically depends on the volunteers’ good will. Following the formulation of a national action plan
2000 to 2009 period, a commission in charge of special education was appointed via a ministerial ordinance No.
640/01 of August 7,2000, however, Burundi is yet to have special education structure in the Education
Ministry.
Even if there is no specific law, Burundi has subscribed to two important continental scope charters: the
African Charter on Human Rights and Peoples and the African Charter on Rights and Welfare of the Child.
According to the African Charter on Human Rights and Peoples, “Every person has right to education”
(Art. 17) and the 4th paragraph of the 18th article recognize “the right to specific protection measures in
relation to physical and moral needs” to older and handicapped persons (Organization of African Unity (OUA),
1981). The African Charter on Rights and Welfare of the Child ensures the education right to child with
disability. According to its 13th Article 2nd Paragraph, countries which have subscribed to the charter must
ensure that the handicapped child “has effective access to training, to professional life preparation, to
recreational activities in order to ensure an individual full integration and blooming” (OUA, 1990).


161
Classification
The review of available literature showed that Burundi has no legal classification principle of the
handicapped persons.
In Burundi, an attempt to classify handicapped persons was done by the General Census of Population and
Habitat of 2008 whose report was published in 2011. In this report, a classification in eight types called “major
handicaps” is done. Unfortunately, the meaning of “major handicaps” expression is not given and it is not easy
to understand it, because it is not used in documents and scientific classification works. Those eight disability
types enumerated by the census are blind, deaf, dumb, deaf-mute, infirmity of lower limb, infirmity of upper
limb, mental deficiency, and other disability.
Two things can be said on this Burundian classification attempt. Firstly, it is a classification by type of
disability. Secondary, the classification subdivides one disability type, physical disability, in two groups
(infirmity of lower limb and infirmity of upper limb). This distinction/separation is not objective unless it is
because of the reason of forecast services to be offered.
Another thing about this classification is that other disabilities whose names are not mentioned are
combined in the group called “other disability.” What we can say on this “other disability” type is that it is
difficult to understand it. Is it another “major disability” group? or Are in this group other disability groups
which can be called “minor”? Anyway, this classification shows that there are other forms of disabilities which
have not been identified by the census.
This kind of classification (major disability) is also used in another attempt to counting disabled people in
Burundi which has been conducted in two provinces on seventeen that are found in Burundi (International
Handicap, 2011). In this attempt, the physical disability group which was divided in two groups by the general
census was unique, the blind, deaf, dumb, and deaf-mute groups are combined in one group called “sensory
deficiencies” and another group called “multiple disabilities” appears while “other disability” group is not used.
The author did not unfortunately give his understanding of the different used disability types.
Prevalence and Frequency
For a given country, the frequency of individuals with disabilities is to be understood as the total number
of disabled persons and the number of disabled persons for each type of disability in a given time (one year for
example). More concretely, how many physically handicapped, mentally handicapped, blind, deaf, etc. people
does a country have at a given time (Sucuoğlu, 2009)? In addition to these gobal numbers, the prevalence can
also be defined as the fraction of the total population of a country or the distribution of the different disability
types of the disabled people to total population in a country. It is called prevalence rate.
In this case, how many people have disability in Burundi? How many are they for each type of disability?
Answering to this kind of questions is not easy in Burundi context, because available litterature revealed that
neither the number of disabled people by each disability nor the total number of disabled people in the whole
country for all disabilities is known. Burundi does not have disabled people statistics and reliable researches
have not yet been done in order to determine the handicapped people’s prevalence, and it is the same for the
frequency, which is to be understood as the number of new cases that are identified in a given time (one year
for example) (Sucuoğlu, 2009). Like the prevalence, statistics of this disabled people characteristics (the
frequency) which is very important in special education, is also not known. Therefore, in Burundi, the number
of disabled people and their frequency are not known.


162
Relaying on World Bank (WB) and World Health Organization’s (WHO) estimations which states that
almost 15% of the world population are disabled (WB & WHO, 2012), it can be conclude that about 1,200,000
of Burundians are with disability. Unfortunately, this numbers cannot inform about the number of disabled
children or adults and the number of disabled people for each kind of disability. Likewise, reliable researches
must be done to confirm or refute the WB and WHO forecasts, because some countries have lower while others
higher rates. In case of Burundi, the available numbers of disabled people are found in the general census of the
population and habitat report. According to this census, 4.5% of Burundians, that is about 362,000 persons, live
with major disability. Among this disabled people number, 18.3% are blind, 8.6% are deaf, 5% are dumb, 2%
are deaf-dumb, 23% are physically disabled (14.5% are lower-limb handicapped and 8.6% are upper-limb
handicapped), 9.2% are mentally deficient, and 33.8% have other disabilities.
As it can be seen, the numbers of this report are very lower than the 15% of WB and WHO. This reveals a
problem of truthfulness of the census report, because generally countries that have reliable statistics on disabled
people show numbers that are slightly lower or higher than the WB and WHO numbers (Çelik & Ertay, 2007).
There is no reason why it can be different for Burundi. This inaccuracy of Burundian numbers has been caused
by the fact that the census has been conducted on very small group of disabilities and by that means a big part
of disabled people has not been documented. This can be explained by the fact that the General Census of the
Population and the Habitat is not a scientific work done by specialists of special education domain. These
numbers have been obtained through statements given by persons who do not have required skills in disability
identification. Indeed, it was the head of the family or the main family member (in the most cases, the father or
the mother) who declared to the census agent that one or more members of his family had a major disability.
The census agent was not able to verify those statements.
As it already mentioned, the semi-structured interview revealed the special education supervisor ministry,
disabled people education organization, the staff training, access to available services and collaboration.
Supervisor Ministry
In order to know the special education supervisor ministry, the following question was asked to the
administrators: “What is the supervisor ministry of your center? Do you report to that ministry? Is your center
private or public?”
Centers administrators’ answers to these three questions showed that persons with special needs, both
children and adults benefit from education in public or private centers which are theoretically under the
responsibility of the national solidarity ministry. By this, it can be said that special education in Burundi is
under responsabilities of the solidarity ministry. Only disabled children whose disability cannot prevent them to
follow the general education can be registered in public primary schools. They are those who have a mild
physical disability that is those who can write, easily move around, walk long distances which are generally
done by Burundian school children, and can adapt to physical structure of buildings (physical environment in
classrooms, corridors, plays grounds, latrines, etc.) which are designated to non-disabled children, because no
adaptation is made to facilitate disabled children access to those infrastructures. They are also the children
whose intellectual and mental capabilities allow them to succeed classroom evaluations organized by teachers.
In this context, mild mental disabled children, who need more supervision and assistance in order to stay in the
general education system, are left out of the general education because of many class repetitions and must be
exiled in informal professional education in centers. The private centers for disabled people are independent.


163
Except a simple collaboration with the solidarity ministry, they work in total independence and they report not
to the solidarity ministry but to their founders who are churches or non-governmental organizations (NGO).
During this research, it was also found that there was a general school from Education Ministry which
organized training for visually and hearing impaired children.
Disabled People Centers and Provided Services
At this level, the goal was to determine centers specialized for disabled people, services that are offered,
and access conditions to services. Results showed that there are 14 centers for disabled people in Burundi.
Centers are divided in centers for physically disabled (it is the main groups with six centers), centers for blinds,
for deafs and deaf-dumbs, and for mental retarded people. The oldest center was founded in 1965. There is also
a secondary school which trains hearing and visually impaired children.
Centers for Physically Disabled People
There are six centers for physically disabled people in Burundi. The results of the interview with administrators
of these centers revealed the following informations. One center is public and five others are private. The
private centers have been founded and are managed by churches or charity organizations. The main goal of these
centers is the socio-professional integration. For this reason, they assist people learn skills like sewing, welding,
woodwork, weaving, etc. during two year period. For learners whithout a primary school certificate, a three years
period of literacy and general training is offered before the professional training. At the end of the professional
training, disabled people are assisted with start up equipment (a material kit, most of the time) in order to set up
a small project which allows to earn some money and by this increase their life standard (socio-professional
integration). In addition to this first mission, some centers offer physiotherapy services and physical rehabilitation
in order to alleviate the disability effect. They offer rehabilitative cares (orthopaedics and physiotherapy) which
allow disabled people to acquire more autonomy and access to more wellbeing in their daily life. Other centers
associate physical rehabilitation (physiotherapy and/or orthopaedic equipment provision) with basic education.
Here, the goal is to allow disabled children to follow basic education, and at the same time, benefit from
physiotherapy services in order to improve their physical conditions. In order to facilitate education access,
children with moving difficulties or living far from the centers reside at centers residences.
Centers for physically disabled people serve people from various age according to services needed. Those
in need of physiotherapy and orthopaedic services are served from their early age, children who enter primary
school are admitted when they are six or seven years old (admission age to general primary school) and those
who benefit from socio-professional training are admitted when they are 13 or 14 years old, that is at age of
primary school end.
Centers for Mental and Multiple Disabled People
There are only two centers which serve mentally, psycho motor, and emotionally disabled people in
Burundi. The results of the interview with administrators of these centers revealed the following informations.
The two centers have been founded and are managed by the catholic church. Those centers serve people who
are mentally deficient (children with mental retardation, autism, trizomy 21, and epilepsy) or with motor
impairments (cerebral palsy like tetraplegics, hemiplegics, diplegia, microcephalic, and macrocephalic). People
served are 0-25 years old and centers have goals like:
1. Autonomy and basic socialisation goals: Hygiene and cleanliness, meals, dressing and undressing,
movements, and the rhythm of the day;


164
2. Communication goals: Learning how to greet, express needs, listen to others and verbalize emotions;
3. Psychomotor stimulation;
4. Family and socio-economic life integration, because those children are mostly marginalized.
Centers are both residential and non residential (boarding and non-boarding). Children who attend
education while living far from the centers are allowed to reside in the centers residences. Children who benefit
from rehabilitation are brought by their parents and retourned to their homes after treatment. The center at the
capital organizes a free transport service for children in the morning and afternoon. Three types of activities are
offered in the centers:
1. Rehabilitation (physiotherapy services): Children are treated by a specialist (physiotherapist) in order to
allow them recover and exercise their motor skills. In addition to that child treatment, the specialist trains the
parent (who brought the child) in elementary but useful gestures, so that once out of the center he can help the
child in exercising learned movements.
2. Education: Taking into account the child’s potential and psychomotor behaviour, the centers organize a
special schooling. The programs contents are elementary general skills (math, reading, writing, and life skills).
3. Professional training: It is a gradual preparation to socio-professional community and family integration
of mentally and motor disabled young adults. In this kind of training, youngs are trained on small business
(chicken farming, agriculture, soap handcrafting, etc.) in order to allow them integration into the community by
exercising an income-generating activity.
A School for Children With Emotional Disorders (Autism and Trizomy 21)
The following informations were collected during the interview with the (de) head of the school. Created
in 2014, this private center receives children with autism or trizomy 21 from two years of age and planns to
offer services up to 18 years of age. The center is non residential and services are delivered five days a week
(Monday to Friday) and 12 hours a day. Children are brought by their parents and picked later in the evening.
This daily transport issue associated with the fact that the school is not free constitute a limitation (a barrier)
which is the reason of few registrations. The goal of the center is the personality and autonomy development
through educational plays, language and writing learning through pictures, shapes, colours, body hygiene
learning, interaction, and fear overcome learning, etc.. Another goal is to bring assistance to parents of children
with emotional disorders in order to alleviate the burden by teaching them how to deal with their children’s
non-adapted and non-appropriate behaviors and reactions.
Schools for Deafs and Deafs-Dumbs
There are three centers of hearing deficient people, also called schools for deafs and deaf-dumbs. The
results of the interview with administrators of these schools revealed the following informations. One of the
three centers serves children who are at the same time deaf and blind. Created after 1980 by religious
organizations, they offer disabled children and adults three different services: the appropriate communication
language (the sign language), primary education, and professional training. The first service offered is the sign
language learning which allows communication, given that deaf people cannot use speech. This program takes
two years. It is offered to children preparing for primary school and adults under 22 years of age. The second
service type is primary education and is offered to school aged children (from four years old). After one to three
years pre-primary period during which children are initiated to sign language, they follow the Burundian
general primary school program. This program delivered throughout sign language takes six years (the same for

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