6. Phase 0 – Slow channels I Ca L
Phase 4 diastolic depolarisations – funny (Na)
& T Ca
Phase 0 – fast channels Nav 1.5 (SCN5A)
Phase 1 – Ito
Phase 2 - L type Ca
Phase 3 – K channel (LQTS 1 & 2)
7. • Nernst equation
EMF (electromotive force ) in (millivolts)
= ±61 log inside/outside
• K = +61 log 140/4 = - 61 x 1.54 = - 94
• Na = +61 log 10/142 = - 61 x – 1.15 = + 70
• Ca = + 129
17. Para systole
secondary pacemaker in the heart, which works in parallel with the SA node.
Parasystolic pacemakers are protected from depolarization by the SA node by
some kind of entrance block.
37. Triadin Knockout Syndrome
• Cardiac triadin is responsible for stabilization of the T
tubule junctional sarcoplasmic reticulum (jSR)
association by linking calsequestrin 2 (Casq2), ryanodine
receptor 2 (RyR2), and junctophilin-2 (JPH2)
proteins together in proximity to the L-type calcium
channel (LTCC), thus facilitating a proper negative
feedback loop for Ca2+ handling.
• Ablation of cardiac triadin results in cardiac dyad structural
remodeling and Ca2+ overload as a result of slower Ca2+-
dependent inactivation of the LTCC. Slower LTCC
inactivation could lengthen the cardiac action potential and
manifest as QT prolongation on the ECG
38. Andersen-Tawil Syndrome (KCNJ2)
• periodic paralysis,
• dysmorphic features (low set ears)
• ventricular arrhythmias
• ECG
– pronounced QTU prolongation,
prominent U waves
– ventricular ectopy, including polymorphic ventricular
tachycardia (VT),
– bigeminy, and bidirectional VT
39. Timothy Syndrome(CACNA1C-
encoded LTCC)
• fetal bradycardia
• extreme prolongation of the QT interval
(QTc >500 msec)
• macroscopic T wave alternans
• 2 : 1 AV block at birth.
48. ATRIAL FLUTTER
• macroreentrant atrial rhythm
• circulate in a counterclockwise direction
around the tricuspid annulus in the frontal
plane (counterclockwise flutter)
•
49. o Rate 250 to 350 beats/min
o Regular, sawtooth flutter waves
o Continual electrical activity (lack of an isoelectric interval between
flutter waves), often best visualized in leads II, III, aVF, or V1
o flutter waves for the most common form, counterclockwise typical
atrial flutter, are inverted (negative) in these leads
o ratio of flutter waves to conducted ventricular complexes is most often
an even number (e.g., 2 : 1, 4 :1)
50. • Rhythm control
– Cardioversion - synchronous direct current (DC) -
approximately 50 J
– Inj Ibutilide 1 mg iv over 10 min
• Rate control
• CCBs
– Inj Verapamil 2.5 mg slow i.v
– Inj Diltiazem (0.25 mg/kg) 15 mg slow i.v
• Betablockers (Esmolol)
• Digoxin
• Amiodarone
51. Focal atrial tachycardia
• atrial rates of 150 to 200 beats/min
• P wave contour different from that of the
sinus P wave
• CCBs/betablockers
52.
53. Multifocal atrial tachycardia(Chaotic Atrial Tachycardia)
• atrial rates between 100 and 130 beats/min
• marked variation in P wave morphology
• at least three P wave contours are noted
• COPD & CHF
• CCBs
54.
55. AVNRT
• 150 to 250 beats/min
• P wave occurs just before or just after the end of the QRS complex
• causes a subtle alteration that results in a pseudo-S or pseudo-r′
61. Reentry Over a Concealed
(Retrograde-Only) Accessory Pathway
• Resting ECG: manifestations of WPW
syndrome are absent, and the accessory
pathway is “concealed.”
• Tachycardia ECG: QRS complex is normal,
retrograde P wave occurs after completion of
QRS complex, in the ST segment, or early in
the T wave
• Left ventricle & left atrium
62. Preexcitation Syndrome
1) PR interval less than 120 milliseconds during
sinus rhythm
2) QRS complex duration exceeding 120
milliseconds with a slurred, slowly rising onset
of the QRS in some leads (delta wave)
and usually a normal terminal QRS portion
3) Secondary ST-T wave changes that are generally
directed in an opposite direction to the major
delta and QRS vectors.
63.
64. • The major difference between the two is the
capacity for anterograde conduction
over the accessory pathway during atrial
flutter or AF
72. SHORT RP, LONG PR
INTERVAL
LONG RP, SHORT PR
INTERVAL
AV nodal reentry Atrial tachycardia
AV reentry Sinus node reentry
Atypical AV nodal reentry
AVRT with a slowly
conducting accessory
pathway (e.g., PJRT)
74. • paroxysmal AF - AF that terminates spontaneously within 7
days
– vagotonic AF – evening during relaxation or sleep
– Adrenergic AF – strenous exertion
• persistent AF - AF present continuously for more than 7
days
• longstanding persistent -AF that persists for longer than 1
year is termed
• Permanent - longstanding AF refractory to cardioversion is
termed
• Lone atrial fibrillation - AF that occurs in patients younger
than 60 years who do not have hypertension or any
evidence of structural heart disease
75.
76. • Sites of origin
• Pulmonary veins – paroxysmal AF
82. • Acitrom /Warfarin 2 or 3 mg OD at 6.00 pm
monitor INR alternate day, increase dose by 1
mg till INR 2 to 3
83. Novel Oral Anticoagulants(NOACs)
T Dabigatran 150 mg BD – Idarucizumab 5 gm i.v bolus
T Rivaroxaban 20 mg OD
T Apixaban 5 mg BD Andexanet Alfa
T Endoxaban 60 mg OD
Ciraparantag – for all the above 4
Prothrombin Concentrates
Less Intracranial bleed than warfarin
High GI bleed compared with warfarin
Withold 1 to 2 days before surgery
84. Excision or Closure of the Left Atrial
Appendage
• 90% of left atrial thrombi form in the left atrial
appendage (LAA)
87. Rate control
• Target Ventricular Rate – 60 to 80 /mt
• BetaBlockers – Inj Metoprolol (BETALOC) 5 mg
in 10 ml NS I.V over 2 min repeat doses every
5 to 10 min till 3 doses to bring Heart Rate to
less than 100 to 120/mt
• CCBs – Inj Ditiazem 15 mg slow I.V over 2 min
repeat 10 mg slow i.v every 5 to 10 min till 3
doses
89. ACUTE RHYTHM CONTROL – if AF less than 48 hours
if > 48 hours – 3 weeks of Anticoagulation before rhytm control
Anticoagulation continued for next 4 weeks after rhythm control
PHARMACOLOGICAL
• Inj Ibutilide 1 mg I.V over 10
min
• Inj Amiodarone (cordarone)
150 mg I.V over 10 min fb
900 mg in 50 ml NS @ 3.4
ml/hr(1 mg/min) for 6 hrs fb
1.7 ml/hr (0.5 mg/min) for
next 18 hrs
CARDIOVERSION
• 200 J synchronised shock
90. Pharmacological rhytm control
• Lone AF & no Structural heart disease – IC –
Flecainide, Propafenone, Sotalol, Dronedarone
• Structural heart disease or CHF - Amiodarone
91. Catheter Ablation of Atrial Fibrillation
• Radiofrequency Catheter Ablation
• Cryoballoon Ablation
– almost all ablation strategies include electrical
isolation of the PVs
• Ablation of the Atrioventricular Node
– complete AV nodal block and substitutes a regular,
paced rhythm for an irregular and rapid native rhythm