Key events in the history of the relationship between First Nations, Inuit and Métis and Canada

KEY EVENTS
in the history of the relationship
between first nations, inuit and métis
and canada as identified by witnesses
#APPA

#APPA
The events in the following document are
colour-coded to represent three different eras
in the history of the relationship:
Co-operation between Indigenous
Peoples and the Crown;
The Crown’s domination, control and
attempted assimilation of Indigenous Peoples;
Indigenous Peoples assert
their sovereignty
Throughout the history of Canada, different terms were used to refer to the
government. As such, this timeline uses several terms including Crown,
Dominion Government, federal government and Canada to reflect these
historical changes. References to the Crown throughout this document before
Confederation mean the British Crown, and after Confederation mean Canada
unless otherwise noted.

#APPA#APPA
Indigenous Peoples lived
and flourished on their
ancestral territories in what
is now known as Canada.
Distinct legal, social, political
and cultural systems evolved
over centuries. In some First
Nations communities, women
played prominent roles as
leaders in the governance
of their communities. Many
of these systems continue
to flourish in Indigenous
communities today.
From time
immemorial Freda Diesing,
Eagle with Salmon (1979)
This image tells a Haida story
about how salmon were brought
to the rivers on the West Coast
by the Raven.
Ellen Gabriel, Talking to an Elder (2002)
This artwork highlights the importance
of the oral tradition for the transmission
of knowledge, values and community
history…[and] the wisdom and moral
authority of Elders.
Helen Kalvak,
Prince of the Sun (1966)
In this work, Helen Kalvak
represents the relationship
between the sun and the birds.
Image source: © Crown Collection, Official Residences Branch, National Capital Commission / Collection de la Couronne, Branche des résidences officielles, Commission de la capitale nationale.

#APPA#APPA
Pope Alexander VI issued the first of four papal
bulls that laid the foundation for European views
of their own superiority like the Doctrine of
Discovery, used to justify the colonization and
assimilation of Indigenous Peoples.
1493

Inuit acted as guides, navigators and interpreters
in early encounters with Europeans in the Arctic,
including Martin Frobisher and Samuel Hearne.
1500smid
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The British Crown signed Peace and Friendship
treaties with the Mi’kmaq, Maliseet and
Passamaquoddy in Eastern Canada.
The treaties were signed to end hostilities
and encourage co-operation.
1725-1779
#APPA

The Crown issued a royal proclamation that
recognized the sovereignty of First Nations and
their rights to land and their way of life — but it also
said that First Nations could only give up land to the
Crown.
1763
#APPA

#APPA
1764The Crown and First Nations signed the Treaty of Niagara and
agreed upon the terms of the 1763 Royal Proclamation. The First
Nations endorsed the vision of the relationship embodied in the
Two Row Wampum, describing the relationship as government
to government based on mutual respect, support and partnership.
Nativemedia,
Two-Row Wampum Treaty.
Indigenous youth Jacquelyn Cardinal described the Two-Row Wampum belt to the Committee as:
“one of the oldest agreements made between Indigenous and non-Indigenous nations, and this was
represented by two rows of purple beads signalling the courses of two vessels, Indigenous and
non-Indigenous, travelling down the river of life together, parallel but never touching, in mutual respect
and sovereignty.” (APPA, Evidence, 7 June 2017 (Jacquelyn Cardinal)).

#APPA
A treaty ended hostilities between Métis groups and
settlers in the Red River Valley, where the Hudson’s
Bay Company was attempting to establish a colony.
1815

#APPA
To obtain land for new settlers, the Crown forced
the Mi’kmaq and Maliseet off their territories
and onto reserves.
1840s-1850s

#APPA
The Gradual Civilization Act was passed by the
Province of Canada (formerly Upper and Lower
Canada) with the premise that, by removing
all legal distinctions between First Nation and
non-First Nation people through the process
of enfranchisement, First Nations would be
assimilated into Canadian society.
1857

Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act,
1867 gave responsibility over “Indians
and lands reserved for the Indians” to
the federal government.
The Gradual Enfranchisement Act was
passed to speed up the assimilation
of First Nations. The act restricted
who was an “Indian” in the eyes of
the Crown; a First Nation woman,
for instance, could lose her “status”
if she married a non-First Nation man.
The act also undermined First Nations’
governance systems.
1867
1869
#APPA

Louis Riel created the Provisional
Government of the Assiniboia in 1869
as the Métis began to organize to
defend their territory. The provisional
government reached an agreement with
the Dominion of Canada on rights for
their citizens and established Manitoba.
The ensuing Manitoba Act (1870)
contained elements of this agreement.
It brought Manitoba into Confederation
and set aside 1.4 million acres of land
for the Métis.
1869-1870
Jane Ash Poitras, Riel – Riel – Riel (2002)
Louis Riel is depicted in this work along with
members of his provisional government.
#APPA

1876
#APPA
In an attempt to assimilate First Nations, the Dominion of
Canada enacted the Indian Act, which, at various points, banned
cultural ceremonies and suppressed First Nations cultures,
values, ways of life, governance structures and identities. As
noted in the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada’s
final report, the Act was “regularly amended to further strengthen
the government’s ability to control Indian people.” Discriminatory
registration provisions in the Act caused some First Nations
women to lose their Indian status and prevented them from
living in their communities. It also undermined the role of women
as leaders in many First Nations governance structures.

#APPA
Commissions in British Columbia created reserves,
leading to the removal of First Nations from their
traditional territories.
1876-78and1912-16

The residential schools era began.
The schools were often funded by
the federal government and operated
by Christian churches. Indigenous
children were forcibly removed from
their families to attend the schools;
in some cases, they were subject to
harsh punishment for speaking their
language or expressing their culture.
Some students also experienced
emotional, physical and sexual abuse.
1800s 1990slate late
#APPA
Alanis Obomsawin,
Indian Residential School 1934 –
A prison or a school? (2004)
This artwork depicts the experiences
of residential schools.
-
Image source: © Library and Archives Canada, MIKAN no. 2851191

The Crown and First Nations signed
11 numbered treaties, though the
parties had different understandings
of what each had promised.
The Crown sought to extinguish
Aboriginal title to the land while
First Nations saw the treaties as
nation-to-nation agreements between
themselves and the Queen in which
they agreed to share land
and resources.
#APPA
1871-1921
Imagesource:©LibraryandArchivesCanada,MIKANno.2851191.
This image depicts a treaty medal presented to First
Nations upon the signing of Treaty 11 in 1921.

#APPA
The disappearance of the bison, a primary food
source for First Nations and Métis, led to famine
and starvation across the Plains.
1880s
#APPA

#APPA
The Crown used food as a weapon
to force First Nations in Western
Canada onto reserves. So-called
Indian Agents managed rations on
reserves, at times withholding food
as punishment or distributing rotten
food. The Dominion Government’s
policies contributed to poor health,
social and economic conditions on
Prairie reserves.
1880s
#APPA
Carl Beam, Parts (1995)
This artwork depicts Chief Crowfoot from the
Blackfoot Confederacy in Alberta, using the color red
to symbolize his bravery. Chief Crowfoot is depicted
above the image of a crow whose legs disappear
under the colour white, a premonitory sign of the
disillusionment he felt in his last years over the
increasing mistreatment of his people.

The Indian Act was amended to ban the potlatch and
the Sun Dance, forcing First Nations communities to
practice their cultures in secret.
1884
#APPA

#APPA
Led by Louis Riel and Gabriel
Dumont, Métis and First Nations
engaged in armed conflict with
Canada beginning at Duck Lake,
Sask. and ending with the Battle
of Batoche in May 1885. Mr. Riel
was later found guilty of treason
and executed, along with eight
others. Other leaders, including
First Nations Chiefs, were
imprisoned — some without trial.
1885
#APPA
Jane Ash Poitras, Dumont – 1885 – Batoche (2005)
This artwork depicts Gabriel Dumont
with his Métis wife, Madeleine Wilkie; in the centre,
we see him in old age, looking back on the events
of 1885, affirming his admiration for Riel and his
courage in defending the Métis cause.

The federal government allocated individual
lots of land known as scrip to the Métis. Faced with
high land tax rates that they could not afford, many
Métis lost their land and left Manitoba. Without
a land base, Métis settled on road allowances —
Crown land adjacent to roads, which was the
only land not claimed by settlers.
#APPA
1885-1923

Federal laws and regulations such as the
Migratory Bird Act and the Northwest Game
Act placed seasonal limits on game such as
caribou, restricting the activities of Inuit and
First Nations hunters and their ability to feed
and clothe themselves.
1800s 1917late
-
#APPA

#APPA
Indian Act amendments required that every
First Nations child between seven and 15
years old attend “day, industrial, or boarding
school.” Referring to the amendments, Deputy
Superintendent General of Indian Affairs Duncan
Campbell Scott said “our object is to continue until
there is not a single Indian in Canada that has not
been absorbed into the body politic, and there is no
Indian question.”
1920
#APPA

#APPA
The Government of Canada began to forcibly
relocate some Inuit communities to inhospitable
locations in the Arctic.
1920

#APPA
The Allied Tribes of British Columbia travelled
to Ottawa to ask for treaties to address concerns
over First Nations land title in British Columbia,
without success.
1924
#APPA

#APPA
Legislation amending the Indian Act to include
Inuit was passed and repealed a few years later.
Under the repealed legislation, Inuit were deemed
Canadian citizens, in contrast to First Nations who
were considered wards of the state.
1924
#APPA

#APPA
The Indian Act prohibited First Nations from
using band funds for claims against the federal
government, which prevented them from
obtaining legal assistance to bring issues
before the courts.
1927 1951-

#APPA
The Natural Resource Transfer Agreements
transferred Crown lands and resources to
Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Provincial
governments were involved in dispossessing
First Nations of their lands.
1930

#APPA
In Alberta, 12 Métis
settlements were created
in the northern and central
parts of the province.
Today only eight Métis
settlements remain.
1930s
#APPA
As part of its study on the new relationship between
Canada and Indigenous Peoples, the Standing
Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples visited
the Buffalo Lake Métis Settlement in Alberta to hear
about their vision for the future.

In Re Eskimo the Supreme Court of
Canada ruled that Inuit were “another
kind of Indian” under the Constitution
Act, 1867 and were therefore under
federal jurisdiction.
Disregarding Inuit cultural naming
systems, the Crown started the
e-number system for Inuit, issuing
discs stamped with identifying
numbers that were required for
identification by federal, provincial
and territorial governments
between 1945 and 1970.
1939
#APPA

#APPA
As Arctic fox pelt prices dropped in the late
1940s, Inuit communities, such as Padlei in
the southern Kivalliq region of what is now Nunavut,
experienced famine. International press coverage
together with American military criticism
compelled the Crown to act.
1949-50and1957-58

#APPA
Inuit people were permitted to vote in federal elections.
First Nations individuals who had Indian status were
able to vote without losing their status in 1960.
Laws never prohibited Métis people from voting.
1950

#APPA
The pass system made treaty Indians virtual
prisoners on their reserves.
1880s -1950s

The Crown forcibly relocated
several Inuit communities,
including those in present day
Nunatsiavut (in Labrador), Nunavik
(in northern Quebec) and Nunavut.
These relocations displaced Inuit
from their traditional territories,
moving them to places
where food sources, weather
patterns, seas and landscapes
were drastically different.
1950s
#APPA
Imagesource:©LibraryandArchivesCanada,MIKANno.3526963.
In the 1950s, Inuit were forcibly relocated
from Inukjuak, Quebec and Pond Inlet, Nunavut to
the High Arctic communities of Grise Fiord and
Resolute Bay in Nunavut. This image shows
the community of Resolute Bay in 1956.

Inuit living in settlements had no means of
securing their dogs or purchasing chains.
New rules introduced by the Government of
the Northwest Territories authorized the Royal
Canadian Mounted Police to shoot stray dogs —
something not explained to Inuit. This led to many
dogs being “slaughtered” by RCMP officers.
1950s and1960s
#APPA

The Department of Indian and
Northern Affairs released a policy
paper called Culture Change: Fast or
Slow that advocated for Inuit to be
brought “kicking and screaming into
modern Canadian culture as fast
as we possibly can.”
To increase its control, the Crown
encouraged Inuit to move into
settlements, which resulted in
cultural conflict and confusion.
1958
1965
#APPA

#APPA
A White Paper proposed to assimilate First Nations
and end the federal government’s “special
relationship” with Aboriginal Peoples.
First Nations strongly rejected this proposal.
1969
#APPA

#APPA
In response to the White Paper, the Indian Chiefs
of Alberta prepared the Red Paper, highlighting
the distinct cultures of First Nations and their
desire to contribute to Canadian society while
“exercising political and economic power at
the community level.”
1970
#APPA

In what is now known as the Sixties Scoop,
First Nations, Inuit and Métis children were
removed by child welfare agencies and placed in
non-Indigenous homes across Canada, the United
States and in other countries. Today, large numbers
of First Nations children continue to be involved
in the child welfare system. This, combined
with the legacy of intergenerational trauma, is a
factor contributing to the over-representation of
Indigenous Peoples in the criminal justice system.
1960s- 1980s
#APPA
mid

Indigenous Peoples began to form national
organizations and continued to fight for their
rights. This led to changes to federal policies,
programs and legislation.
1960s-1980s
#APPA

In Calder, the Supreme Court of
Canada recognized Aboriginal title,
leading the federal government to
develop the comprehensive land
claim and specific claim processes to
address Indigenous Peoples’ claims.
Jeannette Corbiere Lavell and Yvonne
Bédard challenged the Indian Act
registration provisions that caused them
to lose their status as a result of marrying
non-Indigenous men. In 1974, in Attorney
General of Canada v. Lavell, the Supreme
Court of Canada upheld the registration
provisions of the Indian Act.
1973
1974
#APPA

#APPA
The James Bay Cree and Inuit living in Quebec entered
into the first modern treaty in Canada, the James Bay and
Northern Quebec Agreement. Other modern treaties soon
followed, including the Inuvialuit Final Agreement in 1984,
the Gwich’in Final Agreement in1992 and the Nunavut Land
Claims Agreement in 1993. The first urban modern treaty
in British Columbia was the Tsawwassen First Nation Final
Agreement in 2009.
1975

#APPA
Sandra Lovelace challenged parts of the Indian Act that caused
her to lose her status and ability to live in her community.
In 1981, the United Nations Human Rights Committee found
that these provisions violated the Optional Protocol to the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
1981

The advocacy and activism of Indigenous groups led to the
inclusion of section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982, which
recognizes the “existing Aboriginal and treaty rights of the
[A]boriginal peoples of Canada.” Section 35 (2) says that
“Aboriginal peoples of Canada” includes “Indian, Inuit and
Métis peoples of Canada.” Indigenous Peoples have had to
rely on the courts to prove the existence
of these rights.
1982
#APPA

#APPA
Bill C-31 amended the Indian Act’s registration provisions in an
attempt to address gender discrimination. However, inequities
persisted leading to additional court challenges and more
amendments to the Indian Act, such as Bill C-3 in 2010 and
Bill S-3 in 2017.
1985

#APPA
The Mohawks of Kanesatake
defended their lands following
the Quebec town of Oka’s plans
to develop a golf course on
Mohawk burial grounds, leading
to a violent confrontation and
a standoff. Commonly known
as the ‘Oka Crisis,’ the events
involved the Mohawks, the
Government of Quebec, the
Quebec provincial police
and the Canadian army.
1990
The Canadian Press, Images Archives.
Image of Canadian soldier Patrick Cloutier
and First Nation community member
Brad Larocque during the “Oka Crisis”.

#APPA
The federal government established a policy
recognizing the inherent right of self-government
as an existing Aboriginal right under section 35
of the Constitution Act, 1982.
1995
#APPA

#APPA
The Royal Commission on Aboriginal
Peoples released its final report, including
440 recommendations, calling for significant
changes to the relationship between
Indigenous and non-Indigenous Peoples,
and governments in Canada.
1996

#APPA
An Agreement With Respect to Mi’kmaq Education
in Nova Scotia was signed by First Nations, Canada
and Nova Scotia, which led to the Mi’kmaq Nation’s
creation of a First Nations-controlled education
system for Mi’kmaq students.
1997

Beginning in the 1997-1998 fiscal year, funding
increases for First Nations programs and services
were capped at 2%. Unlike services funded by
provinces and territories, these increases did not
take into account population growth or inflation.
This has led to major gaps between First Nations
and non-First Nations peoples in such areas as
housing, infrastructure and education.
1997-1998
#APPA

#APPA
In R. v. Gladue, the Supreme Court of Canada
recognized the historical factors that contribute to the
over-incarceration of Indigenous Peoples, including
systemic discrimination, racial or cultural prejudices,
and economic and social disadvantage.
1999
Nunavut was created.

#APPA
2004
In Haida Nation v. British Columbia (Minister of
Forests), the Supreme Court of Canada held that the
Crown has a duty to consult and, where appropriate,
to accommodate Indigenous interests if the Crown
is considering an action that might affect proven or
asserted Aboriginal or treaty rights.

#APPA
2006
The Indian Residential School Settlement Agreement —
the largest class action settlement in Canadian history
— was approved.

#APPA
The United Nations Declaration
on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples is adopted by the
United Nations General
Assembly. Canada was one
of four countries to vote against
the declaration.
2007
#APPA
Published by the United Nations
07-58681—March 2008—4,000
United Nations
Declaration
on the rights
of inDigenous
PeoPles
United Nations
Declaration
on the rights
of inDigenous
PeoPles
United Nations
United Nations

#APPA
2008
#APPA
The Government of Canada
apologized to former
residential school students
and acknowledged that
the policy of assimilation
“caused great harm.”
Christi Belcourt (Métis, b. 1966)
© House of Commons Collection, Ottawa
This stained-glass window in Centre
Block was designed by Métis artist
Christi Belcourt and commemorates
the legacy of former Indian Residential
School students and their families,
and the apology by the prime minister
in 2008.

#APPA
The Truth and Reconciliation
Commission of Canada
(TRC) released its final report,
including 94 calls to action.
Former Commissioner of
the TRC, Dr. Marie Wilson,
stated that it was “the largest
substantive consultation of
Indigenous People on any
subject in the history of our
country, Canada’s 130-year
history of forced residential
schooling for Indigenous
children.”
2015
#APPA
The three Commissioners
of the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission of Canada.
The Canadian Press,
Images Archives.
Image of the Truth and
Reconciliation Commission
of Canada’s event in Winnipeg
on 16 June 2010.
The Canadian Press,
Images Archives.
The witness blanket is an art
installation including hundreds
of items reclaimed from
residential schools, churches
and other places.
The Canadian Press,
Images Archives.

#APPA
2015
The Government of Canada announced the launch
of a National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered
Indigenous Women and Girls.

#APPA
The Minister of Indigenous and Northern Affairs
announced that Canada is now a full supporter of
the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous Peoples without qualification.
In Daniels v. Canada, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled
that non-status Indians and Métis are “Indians” under section
91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867, therefore falling under
federal jurisdiction.
2016
#APPA

#APPA
The Government of Canada announced it will settle
a class action lawsuit brought by three Indigenous
groups in Newfoundland and Labrador over
residential schools and abuse.
#APPA
2017

#APPA
TODAYThe history of the relationship has left behind a complex legacy that continues to
impact many Indigenous communities. Trauma is passed from one generation
to the next.
The history has contributed to disparities in areas such as health, and the
overrepresentation of Indigenous Peoples in the criminal justice and child welfare
systems.
The history has also contributed to the growing number of Indigenous People living in
urban centres (over 50% in the 2016 Census). Indigenous Peoples have been forced
or chose to move to urban centres for a variety of reasons including to escape difficult
conditions in their communities, access services and pursue educational and training
opportunities.
Today, Indigenous communities are working in their own ways to regain self-
determination over their communities and control of their lands and resources.

#APPA
FURTHER READING
University of Manitoba, National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation, Truth and
Reconciliation Commission Reports.
United Nations, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, March
2008.
Library and Archives Canada, Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples,
1996.
National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls.
Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, Inuit History and Heritage, 2016.
Olive Patricia Dickason with William Newbigging, A Concise History of Canada’s First
Nations, second edition (Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press, 2010).

Key events in the history of the relationship between First Nations, Inuit and Métis and Canada

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