2. RESEARCH METHODS
Research Methods
Approaches to inquiry
Used to describe, explore, and explain social reality
Quantitative Methods
Used to collect numerical information or information that
can be converted into numerical data
Qualitative Methods
Used to collect information that is not readily convertible
into numerical data
3. THE BASIC WHEEL OF SCIENCE
Theory
Hypothesis
Observation
Conclusion
Deduction
Induction
4. RESEARCH PROCESS: STAGE 1-ABSTRACT
THOUGHT DEVELOPMENT
Theory
Testing OR
Theory
Development
Idea
General
Question
7. THEORIES AND HYPOTHESES
Theory
Statement explaining the relationship between
phenomena of interest
Hypothesis
Testable expectation about the relationship between
phenomena of interest
8. CONCEPTS AND VARIABLES
Concepts
Imprecise mental abstractions of phenomena
Concepts are the building block of theories (Babbie
2013)
Variables
Concepts comprised of at least two measurable
categories
9. EXAMPLES OF COMMON VARIABLES IN
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Demographic Characteristics
Race/ethnicity
Gender
Socioeconomic Status
Income/Assets
Education
Other Variables
Perceived Discrimination
Social Isolation
10. RESEARCH PROCESS: STAGE 2-PLANNING
Research Method
Specify
Concepts/Variables
Operationalization
Population/Sample
11. COMMON RESEARCH TOOLS
Surveys
Face-to-Face
Mail
Telephone
Internet
Qualitative Field Research
In-Depth Interviews
Ethnography
Participant Observation
13. OPERATIONALIZATION
Operationalization
Operationalization is the process where we specify how we
will measure concepts of interest unambiguously
Example of operationalization
We will measure education with four mutually exclusive
categories
LESS THAN HIGH SCHOOL
HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATE / GED
SOME COLLEGE
COLLEGE GRADUATE OR HIGHER
14. RESEARCH PROCESS: STAGE 3-DATA
COLLECTION, ANALYSIS, AND DISSEMINATION
Data
Collection
Data
Processing
Analysis Reporting
15. GATHERING DATA
Establish Population of Interest
Primary vs. Secondary Data
Sampling technique (primary data collection)
16. POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES
Population
Entire collection of units of interest
E.g., All adults in the United States
Sample
A subset of units from our population of interest
E.g., 2,000 adults in the United States
17. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
NONRANDOM SAMPLING
Nonrandom Sampling
Can be used naively to get an easy sample
Used more appropriately in qualitative research
Provides one with good informants
More attention on detailed data than generalizable data
18. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
RANDOM SAMPLING
Random Sampling
Random means that samples are selected according to
chance, not personal judgment
Generally used in quantitative research
Intended to provide a representative sample
19. QUALITATIVE DATA PROCESSING/ ANALYSES
Transcription
Coding and Memoing
Finding Patterns in the Data
Summarizing
21. STATISTICAL ANALYSES (CONT.)
Descriptive Statistical Analyses
Analyses used to describe your sample
E.g., what is the average income in your sample of
2,000 adults in the United States?
Inferential Statistical Analyses
Analyses that uses information from the sample to make
estimates about the population of interest
E.g., based on the sample data, what is the estimated
average income of all adults in the United States?
23. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
Reliability-Degree to which an instrument or test
yields similar results on repeated trials
Reliability pertains to the consistency of results
Tells us that we are measuring something—not
necessarily what we want though
Validity-Degree to which an instrument or test
actually measures what we intend to measure
27. HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Null Hypothesis-default position; assumed to be
true until proven otherwise
Null hypothesis typically specifies that there is no
relationship between 2 or more phenomena
Alternative Hypothesis-The hypothesis for which
we are trying to find support
Hypotheses are falsifiable, but never proven
28. 3 CRITERIA FOR CAUSALITY
Correlation
2 variables must be related in some way
Time-Order
The causal mechanism must precede the effect in time
Non-Spuriousness
Relationship between 2 variables cannot be explained
by some third variable
29. RESEARCH ETHICS
Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval
Informed Consent
Debriefing after experiments
DO NO HARM TO PARTICIPANTS/SUBJECTS!