NANTOTECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE AND FOOD TECHNOLOGY

18NTO408T – INDUSTRIAL NANOTECHNOLGY
UNIT IV – NANTOTECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE AND
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
4. Introduction
Agriculture is the largest interface between humans and the environment, and is a major
cause of climate change and ecosystem degradation. In particular, fertilizer use leads to
fundamental changes in the pools Fertilizer utilization to supplement soil nutrients, to promote
plant growth and to increase crop productivity and food quality is prevalent in modern
agriculture. As a result, crop production and global food security are highly dependent on
fertilizers input to agricultural lands.
4.1 Nano technology in agriculture
Silver Nanoparticles
Nanosilver is used in agriculture to a wide extent because of its specific properties. A
number of studies are conducted on the reaction of plants after their contact with nanosilver
obtained by chemical reduction. Nanomolecular silver solution reduced the incidence of root
diseases. These examples demonstrate that the use of a colloidal nanosilver solution may
considerably improve the growth and health of various plants.
Photocatalysis
One of the processes using nanoparticles is photocatalysis. It is a combination of two
words ‘photo’ means ‘light’ and ‘catalysis’ means ‘reaction caused by a catalyst’. So, it involves
the reaction of catalyst (nanoparticles) with chemical compounds in the presence of light. The
mechanism of this reaction is that when nanoparticles of specific compounds are subjected to UV
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light, the electrons in the outermost shell (valence electrons) are excited resulting in the
formation of electron hole pairs, i.e. negative electrons and positive holes.
These are excellent oxidizing agents and include metal oxides like TiO2, ZnO, SnO2, etc.,
as well as sulfides like ZnS. Due to their large surface-to-volume ratio; these have very efficient
rates of degradation and disinfection. As the size of particles decrease, surface atoms are
increased, which results in tremendous increase in chemical reactivity and other physico-
chemical properties related to some specific conditions such as photocatalysis,
photoluminescence, etc. So this process can be used for the decomposition of many toxic
compounds such as pesticides, which take a long time to degrade under normal conditions, e.g.
pathogens, etc.
Bioremediation of resistant pesticides
Nanoparticles can be used for the bioremediation of resistant or slowly degradable
compounds like pesticides. These harmful compounds tend to join the positive holes, are
degraded and converted into non-toxic compounds. Otherwise these harmful compounds enter
the food chain and result in serious problems for the body. So nanoparticles can be used for
environmental safety.
Disinfectants
The electron hole pair, especially the negative electrons resulting from the excitation of
nanoparticles, can also be used as a disinfectant of bacteria, as when bacteria make contact with
nanoparticles, the excited electrons are injected into their bodies, which results in the bacterial
removal from the object concerned, as in fruit packaging and food engineering.
Wastewater treatment
In modern environmental science, the removal of wastewater is an emerging issue due to
its effects on living organisms. Many strategies have been applied for wastewater treatment, and
of course the role of nanotechnology is also there. Photocatalysis can be used for purification,
decontamination and deodorization of air. It has been found that semiconductor sensitized
photosynthetic and photocatalytic processes can be used for the removal of organics, destruction

of cancer cells, bacteria and viruses. Application of photocatalytic degradation has gained
popularity in the area of wastewater treatment.
Clay nanotubes
Clay nanotubes (Halloysite) have been developed as carriers of pesticides for low cost,
extended release and better contact with plants, and they will reduce the amount of pesticides by
70–80%, hence reducing the cost of pesticide and also the impact on water streams.
Smart dust
We can use the ‘smart dust’ technology for monitoring various parameters like
temperature, humidity, and perhaps insect and disease infestation to create distributed
intelligence in vineyards and orchards.
4.2 Precision farming, smart delivery system
Nanosensors
The developed biosensor system is an ideal tool for online monitoring of
organophosphate pesticides and nerve agents. Bio analytical Nanosensors are utilized to detect
and quantify minute amounts of contaminants like viruses bacteria, toxins bio-hazardous
substances etc. in agriculture and food systems. Most analysis of these toxins is still conducted
using conventional methods; however, biosensor methods are currently being developed as
screening tools for use in field analysis.
Wireless Nanosensors
Crop growth and field conditions like moisture level, soil fertility, temperature, crop
nutrient status, insects, plant diseases, weeds, etc. can be monitored through advancement in
nanotechnology. This real-time monitoring is done by employing networks of wireless
Nanosensors across cultivated fields, providing essential data for agronomic intelligence
processes like optimal time of planting and harvesting the crops. It is also helpful for monitoring
the time and level of water, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and other treatments. These
processes are needed to be administered given specific plant physiology, pathology and
environmental conditions and ultimately reduce the resource inputs and maximize yield.

Scientists and engineers are working from dawn to dusk in developing the strategies
which can increase the water use efficiency in agricultural productions, e.g. drip irrigation. This
has moved precision agriculture to a much higher level of control in water usage, ultimately
towards the conservation of water. More precise water delivery systems are likely to be
developed in the near future. These factors critical for their development include water storage,
in situ water holding capacity, water distribution near roots, water absorption efficiency of
plants, encapsulated water released on demand, and interaction with field intelligence through
distributed nano-sensor systems.
Electronic nose (E-nose)
It is a device based on the operation of the human nose and is used to identify different
types of odors; it uses a pattern of response across an array of gas sensors. It can identify the
odorant, estimate the concentration of the odorant and find characteristic properties of the odor in
the same way as might be perceived by the human nose. It mainly consists of gas sensors which
are composed of nanoparticles e.g. ZnO nanowires. Their resistance changes with the passage of
a certain gas and generates a change in electrical signal that forms the fingerprint pattern for gas
detection. This pattern is used to determine the type, quality and quantity of the odor being
detected. There is also an improved surface area which helps in better absorption of the gas.
Nanobarcode technology
In our daily life, identification tags have been applied in wholesale agriculture and
livestock products. Due to their small size, nanoparticles have been applied in many fields
ranging from advanced biotechnology to agricultural encoding. Nanobarcodes (>1 million) have
been applied in multiplexed bioassays and general encoding because of their possibility of
formation of a large number of combinations that make them attractive for this purpose. The UV
lamp and optical microscope are used for the identification of micrometer-sized glass barcodes
which are formed by doping with rare earth containing a specific type of pattern of different
fluorescent materials. The particles to be utilized in nanobarcodes should be easily encodeable,
machine-readable, durable, sub-micron sized taggant particles. For the manufacture of these
nanobarcode particles, the process is semi-automated and highly scalable, involving the

electroplating of inert metals (gold, silver, etc.) into templates defining particle diameter, and
then the resulting striped nanorods from the templates are released.
Carbon Nanotubes
Vertically-aligned multi-walled carbon Nanotubes (VACNTs) are arousing interest from
researchers in biomedical area due to their exceptional combination of mechanical properties,
chemical properties, and biocompatibility. Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) and functionalized
fullerenes Bucky balls with bio-recognition properties provide tools at a scale, which offers a
tremendous opportunity to study biochemical processes and to manipulate living cells at the
single molecule level. Studies of this type can provide disease-gene-damage prone information
for exploring DNA- safe therapeutics.
Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) have become attractive electronic materials to date and their
applications in future electric circuits and bio-sensing chips. CNT as vehicle to deliver desired
molecules into the seeds during germination that can protect them from the diseases. Since it is
growth promoting, it will not have any toxic or inhibiting or adverse effect on the plant.
Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles can serve as ‘magic bullets’, containing herbicides, chemicals, or genes,
which target particular plant parts to release their content. Mesoporous silica Nanoparticles
(MSNs) have attracted the attention of several scientists over the last decade due to their
potential applications. Among the main features of mesoporous materials is the high surface
area, pore volume and the highly ordered pore network which is very homogeneous in size.
Mesoporous silica Nanoparticles (MSNs) have been extensive investigated as a drug
delivery system. It is well know that MSNs possess excellent properties such high specific area,
high pore volume, tunable pore structures and physicochemical stability. In the beginning MSNs
were used for controlled delivery of various hydrophilic or hydrophobic active agents. Later
advances in the MSNs surface properties such as surface functionalization and PEGylation
rendered them as a promising drug delivery.
Mesoporous silica Nanoparticles (MSN) helps in delivering DNA and chemicals into
isolated plant cells. MSNs are chemically coated and serve as containers for the genes delivered
into the plants. The coating triggers the plant to take the particles through the cell walls. It was

found that MPS/DNA complexes showed enhanced transfection efficiency through receptor-
mediated endocytosis via mannose receptors. These results indicate that MPS can be employed
in the future as a potential gene carrier to antigen presenting cells.
Nanoparticles mediated nonviral gene delivery
Liposome gene transfer: The liposome-based gene transfer strategy is one of the most
studied nonviral gene delivery strategies. A liposomal delivery system requires a complete
understanding of the physicochemical characteristics of the drug–liposome system. Many
bacteria can control plant diseases by altering molecular processes leading to the production of
pathogenicity and/or virulence factors by the pathogen. Liposomes may offer several advantages
as vectors for gene delivery into plant cells. Enhanced delivery of encapsulated DNA by
membrane fusion, protection of nucleic acids from nuclease activity, targeting to specific cells,
delivery into a variety of cell types besides protoplasts by entry through plasmodesmata. In
Liposome based gene therapy there is no toxicity potential in humans and plants.
4.3 Insecticides using nanotechnology
Outburst of world population in the past decade has forced for higher agriculture
productivity to satisfy the needs of billions of people especially in developing countries.
Widespread existence of nutrient deficiency in soils causes both great economic losses for
farmers and significant decreases in nutritional quality and overall quantity of grain for human
beings and livestock. Application of fertilizers can enhance the crop productivity. However, the
available nutrients present in the bulk chemical forms are not fully accessible to plants. In
addition, the utilization of most of the macronutrient is very low due to their inversion to
insoluble form in soil. Crop plants typically use less than half of the chemical fertilizers applied.
The remaining minerals may leach down and become fixed in soil or contribute to air pollution.
So the use of large-scale application of chemical fertilizers to increase the crop productivity is
not a suitable option for long run as these are double-edged swords, which on one end increase
the crop production but on the other end disturb the soil mineral balance and decrease soil
fertility. Excess use of chemical fertilizers causes an irreparable damage to the soil structure,
mineral cycles, soil microbial flora, plants, and even more on the food chains across ecosystems
leading to heritable mutations in future generations of consumers.

Considering the above mentioned points, there is an urgent need to develop smart
materials that can systematically release chemicals to specific targeted sites in plants which
could be beneficial in controlling nutrition deficiency in agriculture. “Smart delivery system”
means combination of specifically targeted, highly controlled, remotely regulated, and
multifunctional characteristic to avoid biological barriers for successful targeting. Advancement
in technology has improved way s for large-scale production of nanoparticles of physiologically
important metals, which are now used as “smart delivery systems” in order to improve fertilizer
formulation by minimizing nutrient loss and increased uptake in plant cell. These “nano-
fertilizers” have high surface area, sorption capacity, and controlled-release kinetics to targeted
sites attributing them as smart delivery system. However, being an infant technology, the ethical
and safety issues surrounding the use of nanoparticles in plant productivity are limitless and must
be carefully evaluated before adapting the use of the so called nano fertilizer.
Conventional Fertilizers versus Nano-fertilizers
Conventional Fertilizers are generally applied on the crops by either spraying or
broadcasting. However, one of the major factors that decide the mode of application is the final
concentration of the fertilizers reaching to the plant. In practical scenario, very less concentration
(much below to minimum desired concentration) reaches to the targeted site due to leaching of
chemicals, drift, runoff, evaporation, hydrolysis by soil moisture, and photolytic and microbial
degradation. It has been estimated that around 40–70% of nitrogen, 80–90% of phosphorus, and
50–90% of potassium content of applied fertilizers are lost in the environment and could not
reach the plant which causes sustainable and economic losses. These problems have initiated
repeated use of fertilizer and pesticide which adversely affects the inherent nutrient balance of
the soil.
According to an estimate by International Fertilizer Industry Association, world fertilizer
consumption sharply rebounded in 2009–2010 and 2010–2011 with growth rates of 5–6 % in
both campaigns. World demand is projected to reach 192.8 Mt by 2016–2017. But the large-
scale use of chemicals as fertilizers and pesticides has resulted in environmental pollution
affecting normal flora and fauna. The excess use of fertilizers and pesticide increases pathogen
and pest resistance, reduces soil micro flora, diminishes nitrogen fixation, contributes to
bioaccumulation of pesticides, and destroys habitat for birds. Hence, it is very important to

optimize the use of chemical fertilization to fulfill the crop nutrient requirements and to
minimize the risk of environmental pollution. Accordingly, it can be favorable that other
methodsof fertilization be also tested and used to provide necessary nutrients for plant growth
and yield production, while keeping the soil structure in good shape and the environment clean.
Nanotechnology has provided the feasibility of exploring nanoscale or nanostructured
materials as fertilizer carrier or controlled-release vectors for building of the so-called smart
fertilizers as new facilities to enhance the nutrient use efficiency and reduce the cost of
environmental pollution. A nano-fertilizer refers to a product in nanometer regime that delivers
nutrients to crops. For example, encapsulation inside nanomaterials coated with a thin protective
polymer film or in the form of particles or emulsions of nanoscale dimensions. Surface coatings
of nanomaterials on fertilizer particles hold the material more strongly due to higher surface
tension than the conventional surfaces and thus help in controlled release. Delivery of
agrochemical substance such as fertilizer supplying micronutrients to the plants is an important
aspect of application of nanotechnology in agriculture. As mentioned in Table1. Nano-fertilizers
show controlled release of agrochemicals, site targeted delivery, reduction in toxicity, and
enhanced nutrient utilization of delivered fertilizers. These attributes of nanoparticles are due to
their high surface area to volume ratio, high solubility, and specific targeting due to small size,
high mobility, and low toxicity.
Table 1. Comparison of nanotechnology-based formulations and conventional fertilizers
applications
S. Properties Nano-fertilizers-enabled Conventional technology
no. Technologies
1. Solubility and Nano-sized formulation of mineral Less bioavailability to plants
dispersion of micronutrients may improve due to large particle size and
mineral solubility and dispersion of insoluble less solubility
micronutrients nutrients in soil, reduce soil
absorption and fixation, and increase
the bioavailability

2. Nutrient uptake Nanostructured formulation might Bulk composite is not available
efficiency increase fertilizer efficiency and for roots and decrease
uptake ratio of the efficiency
soil nutrients in crop production
and save fertilizer resource
3. Controlled release Both release rate and release pattern Excess release of fertilizers
Modes of nutrients for water soluble may produce toxicity and
fertilizers might be precisely destroy ecological balance of
controlled through encapsulation in soil
envelope forms of semi permeable
membranes
coated by resin-polymer, waxes,
and sulphur
4. Effective duration Nanostructured formulation can Used by the plants at the time
of nutrient extend effective duration of of delivery, the rest is
release nutrient supply of fertilizers into converted into insoluble salts in
soil the soil
5. Loss rate of fertilizer Nanostructured formulation can High loss rate by leaching, rain
nutrients reduce loss rate of fertilizer off, and drift
nutrients into soil by leaching
and/or leaking
4.4 Potential of Nanofertilizer
Nano-fertilizers and Plant Growth
Although most of the recent studies have emphasized the adverse effects of nanoparticles
on plants, a few studies have suggested that nano particles delivered at safe dose may help in
promoting plant growth and overall yield. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) have been
reported to have the ability to increase the seed germination and growth of tomato and to
enhance the growth into baccocells reported the enhancement of seed germination and plant
growth using MWCNTs in mustard plant. On the basis of germination index and relative root
elongation, they showed that oxidized MWCNTs were more effective at lower concentration

than thenon-oxidized MWCNTs. Nanosilver is better than silver nitrate in improving the seed
yield and preventing leaf abscissioninborage plant. The planthormone, ethylene plays a keyrolein
leaf abscission, and silver ions have been shown to inhibit ethylene by replacing copper ions
from the receptors. Employing the foliar spray method, both nanosilver and silver nitrate were
sprayed on different sets of plants, and it was observed that nanosilver was effective at a lower
concentration than silvernitrate. Effect of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles on emergence of
seed lingand various plant growth parameters of many economically important plant species
were studied.TiO2 nanoparticles leads to an increased seed germination and seedling vigor in
Brassicanapus.
The effect of different metal nanoparticles such as silicon(Si), palladium(Pd), gold(Au), and
copper(Cu) on lettuce seed germination. They conferred that nano particles showed positive
influence at different concentration range such as Pd and Au at lower concentration, Si and Cu at
higher concentration, and Au and Cu in combined mixture. Likewise, in a field study, an
increased seed germination rate in G. max as compared to control when treated with
nanocrystalline powder of iron, cobalt, and copper at an extra low concentration. In addition, a
marked increase was observed in the chlorophyll index, number of nodules, and crop yield. The
foliar spray of gold on Brassicajuncea plant in field experiments showed positive effect as it
resulted in increased plant height, stem diameter, number of branches, number of pods, and seed
yield. Interestingly, gold nanoparticles also improved the redox status of treated plants.
Uptake, Translocation, and Fate of Nano-fertilizers in Plants
The uptake and fate of nano-fertilizers in plant is a growing field of research interest. The
uptake, translocation, and accumulation of nanoparticles depend on the plantspecies, age, growth
environment, and the physic chemical property, functionalization, stability, and the mode of
delivery of nanoparticles. A schematic representation of the uptake, translocation, and
biotransformation pathway of various nanoparticles along with possible modes of cellular uptake
in plant system (Fig. 1& 2).

Fig.1Uptake, translocation, and biotransformation pathway of various nanoparticles in a plant
system:(a)plantshowingtheselectiveuptakeandtranslocationofnanoparticles;(b)transverse
crosssectionoftherootabsorptionzoneshowingthedifferentialnanoparticleinteractionon exposure.
Fig. 2 Probable modes of cellular uptake of the nanoparticles in a plant cell.

The entry of nanoparticles through the cell wall depends on the pore diameter of the cell wall (5–
20 nm). Hence, nanoparticles or nanoparticle aggregates with diameter less than the pore size of
plant cell wall could easily enter through the cell wall and reach up to the plasma membrane.
Functionalized nanoparticles facilitate the enlargement of pore size or induction of new cell wall
pore to enhance the uptake of nanoparticles. Several reports have discussed the uptake of
nanoparticles into plant cell via binding to carrier proteins through aquaporin, ion channels, or
endocytosis. Further, nanoparticles can also be transported into the plant by forming complexes
with membrane transporters or root exudates.
Ethical and Safety Issues in Using Nano-fertilizers
Nanoparticles which constitute a part of ultrafine particulate matter can enter in the
human/animal system through oral, respiratory, or in tradermal routes. Currently, there is a
common assumption that the small size of nanoparticles allows them to easily enter tissues, cells,
and organelles and interact with functional biomolecular structures (i.e., DNA, ribosomes) since
the actual physical size of an engineered nanostructure is similar to many biological molecules
(e.g., antibodies, proteins) and structures (e.g., viruses). Acorollary is that the entry of the
nanoparticles into vital biological systems could cause damage, which could subsequently cause
harm to human health.
4.5 Nanotechnology in the Food Industry
Nanotechnology is having an impact on several aspects of the food industry, from how
food is grown to how it is packaged. Companies are developing nanomaterials that will make a
difference not only in the taste of food, but also in food safety, and the health benefits food
delivers.

4.6 Food Processing& Packaging
Food Processing
Food processing can be defined as a practice of preserving food with the help of methods
and techniques in order to transform food to a consumable state. These techniques are designed
as such that the flavor and quality of the food are kept intact but they are also protected from
infestation of microorganisms that leads to food spoilage. Irradiation, ohmic heating, and high
hydrostatic pressure are few of the conventional methods of food processing. Food processing
methods that involve the nanomaterials include incorporation of nutraceuticals, gelation and
viscosifying agents, nutrient delivery, mineral and vitamin fortification, and nanoencapsulation
of flavours. In Figure 3, diagrammatic examples of several nanomaterials used in food
processing are summarized. Processing of food is mainly carried out in order to keep the food
intact and also to increase its shelf life. Processed foods help the producer to transfer it over very
large distances without running the risk of the food being spoiled. Yearly availability of different
kinds of food, especially the seasonal ones such as peas or corns, is also one of the perks of
processed food. Fresh foods are not the only target of food processing industry. Producing
healthier food is also part of the concern and therefore these days processed food contains
micronutrients which is a huge benefit for the consumers. The involvement of different
nanomaterials and their techniques that find their use in the food processing industry is
summarized in Table 2.

Figure 3: Different types of nanomaterials used in food management. (a) Liposomes (100–400 nm) are small
spherical artificial vesicles typically made with lipid bilayers. (b) Nanoparticles (20–200 nm) are typically made
with biodegradable polymers for sustained drug or antioxidants release. (c) Nanocapsules (10–1000 nm) can
encapsulate relatively large amounts of drugs and nucleic acids such as DNA, microRNA, siRNA, and shRNA. (d)
Micelles (10–100 nm) are self-assembled amphiphilic particles that can encapsulate both lipophilic or lipophobic
drugs stabilized by surfactants. (e)Dendrimers (3–20 nm) aremono-disperse macromolecules that can be used to
encapsulate or covalently conjugate drugs, targeting moieties and imaging agents. (f) Nanoconjugates are polymers
to which drug molecules are covalently conjugated.

Table 2: List of selected nanotechniques used by different food industries for food
processing
Nanotechniques Exampleswithits Used in Advantages
compositions
Nanocapsules Enhanced stability, protection
against oxidation, and
retention of volatile
ingredients
Taste making and moisture
triggered controlled release
pH triggered controlled
release
Enhanced bioavailability and
efficacy Entrapment of the
odour and unwanted
components in the food
Delivery of enzymes,
Nanoliposomes additives, vitamins, and so
(zein fibres loaded with forth in the food Delivery of
gallic pesticides, fertilizers, and
acid) vaccines to the plants
Nanoencapsulation
Delivery of vitamin and
minerals in the food
Colloidosomes Increasing the nutrient content
of the food
Food
Nanocochleates (soy processing Help in improving the quality
based of the processed food
phospholipids)
Delivery system for
Archaeosomes antioxidants
(archaebacterial
membrane lipids)

Used for the
nanoencapsulation of fortified
Daily Boost vitamin or bioactive
components beverage
Used for the production of
Beta-carotenal, apocarotenal,
or paprika nanoemulsions
Colour emulsion
Used for the
nanoencapsulation of the
nanoclusters that help enhance
Nanoceuticals Slim the flavour of the shake
Shake Chocolate & without having to add sugar to
Nanotea the drink
Nanoemulsions Produce food products for
In the form of proteins salad dressing,
(egg, flavoured oils, sweeteners,
milk, and vegetable personalized
protein) & beverages, and other
carbohydrates (starch, processed foods
pectin,
alginate, carrageenan, Help in improving the texture
xanthan, and uniformity of the ice
Nanoemulsions and guar gum) creams
Used as weighting agent
Brominated vegetable
oil, ester Food Used to reduce creaming and
gum, dammar gum and processing sedimentation
sucrose-acetate Help in the dispersion and
isobutyrate availability of the nutrients in
the food
Nanoencapsulation
Nanoencapsulation is carried out with the help of nano capsules. They provide several
benefits such as ease of handling, enhanced stability, protection against oxidation, retention of
volatile ingredients, taste making, moisture triggered controlled release, pH triggered controlled

release, consecutive delivery of multiple active ingredients, change in flavour character, long
lasting organoleptic perception, and enhanced bioavailability and efficacy. They can be defined
as nano vesicular systems that exhibit a typical core-shell structure in which the drug is confined
to a reservoir or within a cavity surrounded by a polymer membrane or coating. The cavity can
contain the active substance in liquid or solid form or as a molecular dispersion. Nano capsules
are involved in the delivery of the desired component and entrapment of the odour and unwanted
components in the food and thereby resulting in the preservation of the food. In the biological
system, nano capsules carry the food supplements via the gastrointestinal tract and this leads to
increased bioavailability of the substance.
There are six basic ways of preparation of nanocapsules, namely, nanoprecipitation,
emulsion-diffusion, double emulsification, emulsion-coacervation, polymer coating, and
layerbylayer. The basic difference between a conventional emulsion and nanoemulsion is that a
nanoemulsion does not change the appearance of the food item when added to it. These
nanocapsules find their use in the delivery of pesticides, fertilizers and vaccines to the plants.
They are also used to deliver lipophilic health supplements such as vitamin and minerals in the
food, fatty acids, and growth hormones, increasing the nutrient content of the food. The basic
benefit of encapsulation is to protect the hidden component so as to deliver it precisely at the
target even in unfavourable conditions. Liposome is an example of a nanobased carrier used for
nanoencapsulation. Nanoliposomes help in controlled and specific delivery of the several
components within the system. They are known to deliver nutraceuticals, nutrients, enzymes,
vitamins, antimicrobials, and additives. Zein fibres loaded with gallic acid using electrospinning
are a new method of encapsulation technique where research is being carried out. Zein fibre
protects the lipids from getting degraded within the system before it reaches the target delivery.
This new, effective method can actually be utilized thoroughly by the food packaging industry.
Lipid based encapsulation systems are much more efficient in comparison to other encapsulation
systems because of the better solubility and specificity of the components encapsulated within it.
This system helps the component not to interact with food material to a great extent and in this
way the original characteristic of the food is kept intact and the component to be delivered within
the biological system is also unaltered. Similarly, colloidosomes are hollow shell-like structures
that are very minute in size almost less than aquarter of a human cell and they appear as
capsules. Several components are believed to be placed inside the shell and it can prove to be a

good carrier of food supplements and drugs within the biological system. Likewise,
nanocochleates help in improving the quality of the processed food. They are nanocoils that wrap
around the micronutrients and result into stabilizing it. It is composed of soy based phospholipids
which can be either phosphatidyl serine, phosphatidic acid, dioleoylphosphatidyl serine,
phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidyl glycerol, phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl ethanolamine,
diphosphatidyl glycerol, dioleoylphosphatidic acid, distearoylphosphatidylserine,
dimyristoylphosphatidyl serine, and dipalmitoylphosphatidyl glycerol.
Starch-like nano particles help in preservation of lipid bodies and are also efficiently
delivered at target site within the biological system according to several reports. Archaeosomes
are also an example of nanoencapsulated delivery system for antioxidants. They are prepared
from archaeobacterial membrane lipids. These lipids are known to be thermostable and resistant
to stress. Milk can be protected from degradation by nanoencapsulating - tocopherol in fat
droplets. Few of the food products that have been commercialized that have found their use as
materials for nanoencapsulation such as canola active oil, by a company called Shemen, in Haifa,
Israel, which is used for the nanoencapsulation of fortified phytosterols. The rest of the food
products are manufactured in USA and their respective companies and product names are
Fortified Fruit Juice, by a company called High Vive, which is used for the nanoencapsulation of
fortified vitamin, lycopene, theanine, and sun active iron; Daily Boost by a company called
Jamba Juice Hawaii, which is used for the nanoencapsulation of fortified vitamin or bioactive
components beverage; Color Emulsion by, a company called Wild Flavors, which is used for the
production of Beta-carotenal, a pocarotenal, or paprika nanoemulsions; Nanoceuticals Slim
Shake Chocolate, manufactured by RBC Life Sciences Inc. is used for the nanoencapsulation of
the nano clusters that help enhance the flavour of the shake without having to add sugar to the
drink; and Nanotea which is another nanoencapsulated product manufactured by a company
called Qinhuangdao Taiji Ring Nano-Products Co. Ltd. from China.
Nanoemulsions
Nanoemulsions are used to produce food products for salad dressing, flavoured oils,
sweeteners, personalized beverages, and other processed foods. They help in releasing different
flavours with the help of several stimulations in the form of heat, pH, ultrasonic waves, and so
forth. They retain the flavours efficiently and prevent them from oxidation and enzymatic

reactions. Nanoemulsions are created mainly by two approaches; high energy approach involves
the steps of high pressure homogenisation, ultrasound method, high-speed liquid coaxial jets and
high speed devices method. Similarly, low energy approach involves membrane emulsification,
spontaneous emulsification, solvent displacement, emulsion inversion point, and phase inversion
point. The nanoemulsions are created by dispersing liquid phase in continuous aqueous phase.
The components that are used for the creation of nanoemulsionis lipophilic where the lipophilic
component is mixed thoroughly with the oil phase. The placement of the lipophilic component
within the nanoemulsion depends on several factors such as molecular and physicochemical
properties. The physicochemical property includes hydrophobicity, surface activity, oil-water
partition coefficient, solubility, and melting point. Several lipophilic components are
encapsulated with the help of nanoemulsion formation, for example, -carotene, citral, capsaicin,
flaxseed oil, tributyrin, coenzymeQ and several oil soluble vitamins. They are highly stable to
gravitational separation and droplet aggregation and nanoemulsion is also thermally stable in
comparison to the conventional emulsions. Nanoemulsions are preferred these days rather than
the conventional emulsions because the smaller the droplet is, larger the surface area is and the
more readily they will be digested by the digestive enzymes and ultimately be absorbed easily.
Smaller emulsions are helpful in penetrating the mucous layer present in the small intestine.
With the advantage of being smaller, the emulsions are transported across the epithelial layer and
therefore help in better adsorption of the components that forms the emulsions. The solubility of
the lipophilic components alsoincreases when they are smaller in size. Nanoemulsions in the
form of proteins (e.g., egg, milk, and vegetable protein) or carbohydrates (e.g., starch, pectin,
alginate, carrageenan, xanthan, and guar gum) help in improving the texture and lead to
uniformity of the ice cream. Brominated vegetable oil, ester gum, dammar gum and sucrose-
acetate isobutyrate are used as weighting agent. Weighting agents are used to reduce creaming
and sedimentation. They are also known to help in the dispersion and availability of the nutrients
in the food. Biomolecules like milk proteins and micelles and carbohydrates such as dextrin can
actually prove to be potential carrier of nutrients with the help of encapsulation. Hydrolyzed milk
proteins such as -lactalbumin have evolved to be a potential carrier of drugs, nutrients, and
supplements. Casein micelles and carbohydrates such as dextrin also act as carriers. Casein
micelles best serve the purpose of delivering the hydrophobic nutraceuticals. Nanoemulsions are
known to have antimicrobial activity and they are more effective on Gram-positive organisms

than on Gram negative-organisms. Due to this reason the nanoemulsions are used for
decontaminating food packaging articles. Microbial growth is avoided with the help of
nanoemulsions developed from nonionic surfactants, soybean oil, and tributyl phosphate. Self-
assembled nanoemulsions are responsible for keeping the flavour of the functional compounds
from the degrading actions of enzymes, temperature, oxidation processes, and change in pH and
hydrolysis processes. The functional compounds that are generally encapsulated by the self-
assembled nanoemulsions are lutein, -carotene, lycopene, vitamins A, D, E3, and Q10, and
isoflavones. Nanoemulsions basically rose to fame as a delivery system of phytochemicals.
Mainly two of the phytochemicals, namely, carotenoids and polyphenols, are responsible for
lowering blood pressure, reducing cancer causing factors, regulate digestive tract system,
strengthen immune system, regulate blood sugar level and cholesterol, and also act as
antioxidants. However the only problem the manufacturers faced was the lack of proper
bioavailability of these phytochemicals. Nanoemulsions made this impossible feat feasible by
increasing the bioavailability of the phytochemicals by devising efficient delivery systems. The
smaller is the size of lipids, the higher is the bioavailability of the phytochemicals.
Nanoemulsions triumph over the conventional emulsions due their reduced size. Reduced size
provides larger surface area which results into increasing the rate of adsorption. This is the basic
principle in making the nanoemulsions efficient.
Food Packaging and Food Preservation
Food packaging methods are used to make sure that the quality of the food is kept intact
however; they are packaged in a way so that it is safe for consumption. Packaging mainly aims at
providing physical protection in order to prevent the food from external Shocks and vibration,
microbial infestation, and temperature in providing barrier protection by scavenging oxygen and
other spoilage causing gases. The packaging materials are preferably made of biodegradable
materials in order to reduce environmental pollution. This idea has been turned into reality due to
the introduction of nanotechnology in food packaging industry. High barrier plastics, introducing
antimicrobials, and detection measures for contaminants are few of the methods that require
being paid attention to while food is being packaged. A summary of the different type of
nanotechniques used for the preservation and packaging of food is given in Table 3. Whereas
treating and handling of food in order to slow down the spoilage, resulting in the prevention of

loss of food quality, edibility, or nutritive value by the microorganisms, are termed as food
preservation. Drying, canning, and freezing are few of the conventional methods that have found
their use as food preservation techniques. Food is managed in several different steps which
involve processing, packaging and preservation means at the same time. Each of these steps is
assisted by nanotechnology with the help of several nanomaterials. A flowchart in Figure 4
represents the idea.
Figure 4: A summarized version of different steps of food management and the contribution of
nanotechnology to each of the steps is given

Table 3: List of selected nanotechniques used by different food industries for food packaging and
preservation.
Nanotechniques Examples with Used in Advantages
composition
Nanosensor Metal based Food Detection of any sort of change in the colour of
nanosensors packaging the food
(Palladium,
platinum, and gold) Detection of any gases being produced due to
spoilage
Detection of any change in light, heat, humidity,
gas, and chemicals into electrical signals
Detection of toxins such as aflatoxin B1 in
milk
Nanosensor Single walled Food Monitoring the condition of the soil required for
carbon Nano tubes packaging the growth of the crop.
and
DNA Detection of the presence of pesticides on the
surface of fruits and vegetables.
Carbon black and Food Detection carcinogens present in the food
polyaniline packaging materials
Detection of food-borne pathogens
Detection of the microorganisms that
usually infest the food
Nanosensor Array biosensors, Food Changes colour on coming in contact
electronic noses, packaging with any sign of spoilage in the food
nano-test strips, material
and
nanocantilevers
Nanosensor Nano-smart dust Food Detection of any sort of environmental
packaging pollution
Nanosensor Nanobarcodes Food Detection of the quality of the
packaging agricultural produce

Nanosensor Nanobiosensors Food Detection of the viruses and the bacteria
packaging
Nanosensor Biomimetic Food Determination of the presence of mycotoxins
sensors (protein & packaging and several other toxic compounds
biomimetic Act as pseudo cell surfaces which help in the
membranes) and detection and removal of the pathogens
smart
biosensors
Nanosensor Surface Plasmon- Food Detection of pathogenic organisms
coupled emission packaging
biosensors (with
Au)
Nanosensor Cerium oxide Food Detection of several toxins such as
immunosensors packaging ochratoxin A
and
chitosan based
nanocomposites
Nanosensor Carbon nanotubes Food Detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin B
and silicon packaging and cholera toxin
nanowire
transistors
Nanosensor iSTrip of time- Food Detection of the spoilage of food based on the
temperature packaging history of temperature
indicator/integrator
Nanosensor Abuse indicators Food Determination of the desired temperature
packaging has been achieved or not
Nanosensor Partial temperature Food Integration of time-temperature history
history indicator packaging when the temperature exceeds a certain
pre-determined value
Nanosensor Full-temperature Food Registers a continuous change in temperature
history indicator packaging with respect to time
Detection of the change in temperature of
frozen foods
Nanosensor Reflective Food Detection of E. coli contamination in
interferometry packaging packaged foods

Nanocomposites Nanoclay (polymer Food Used to create gas barriers which
& nanoparticles) packaging minimize the leakage of carbon dioxide from the
bottles of carbonated beverages
Nanocomposites Aegis Food Act as oxygen scavengers, retaining the carbon
packaging dioxide in the carbonated drinks
Nanocomposites Durethan Food Provides stiffness to the paperboard
(polyamide) packaging containers for fruit juices
Nanocomposites Imperm (nylon) Food Meant to scavenge oxygen
packaging
Nanocomposites Nanocor Food Used in the manufacturing of plastic beer bottles
packaging in order to prevent the escape of carbon dioxide
from the beverage
Nanocomposites Nanoencapsulation Food Used to coat meats, cheese, fruits, vegetables,
(nanolaminates) packaging and baked goods
Nanocomposites Zinc oxide and Food Act as an antimicrobial agent
pediocin& silver packaging
coated Degrade the lipopolysaccharide
nanocomposites
Cause irreversible damage to the bacterial
DNA
Nanocomposites PEG coated with Food Control pests at stores that infest the packaged
garlic oil packaging food materials
Nanocomposites
Nanocomposites Bionanocomposites Food Proven to be efficient as layering
(cellulose & starch) packaging materials for the packaging applications
Nanocomposites Enzyme Food Provides a larger surface area and faster
immobilization packaging transfer rates
Nanocomposites Top Screen DS13 Food Help in ripening of vegetables and fruits
& Guard IN Fresh packaging by scavenging ethylene gas

Nanocomposites NanoCeram PAC Food Helps in rapid absorption of unpleasant
packaging components which may cause foul odour
and create repulsive taste
Nanoparticles Silicon dioxide Food Reducing the leakage of moisture
packaging Anticaking and drying agent
&
preservati Absorbs the water molecules in food, showing
on hygroscopic application
Acts as a food colourant
Nanoparticles Titanium dioxide Food Photocatalytic disinfecting agent
packaging Used as food whitener for food products such as
& milk, cheese, and other dairy
preservati Products
on
Nanoparticles Zinc oxide Food Reduce the flow of oxygen inside the packaging
packaging containers
&
preservati
on
Nanoparticles Silver Food Act as antibacterial agent and protect the food
nanoparticles packaging from microbial infestation
&
preservati Extend the shelf life of the fruits and vegetables
on by absorbing and
decomposing ethylene
Nanoparticles Inorganic Food Used in cooking oil for deep-frying food
nanoceramic packaging
&
preservati
on
Nanoparticles Polymeric Food Known to be efficient delivery systems and are
nanoparticles packaging bactericidal
&
preservati
on

4.7 Food Safety and Biosecurity
Nanosensors
Nanosensors help in detecting any sort of change in the colour of the food and it also
helps in the detection of any gases being produced due to spoilage. The sensors are usually
sensitive towards gases such as hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide
and ammonia. They are a device comprising an electronic data processing part and sensing part
that is able to detect any change in light, heat, humidity, gas, and chemicals into electrical
signals. The high sensitivity and selectivity of the Nanosensors make them more efficient than
the conventional sensors. These gas sensors are made up of metals such as Palladium, platinum,
and gold. Gold based nanoparticles are also used at times to detect toxins such as aflatoxin B1 in
milk. At times they are even made up of single walled carbon nano tubes and DNA, which
increases the sensitivity of the sensors. In agriculture, nano sensors help in monitoring the
condition of the soil required for the growth of the crop. They also help in detecting the presence
of pesticides on the surface of fruits and vegetables. Not only pesticides, but there are also nano
sensors that have been developed to detect carcinogens too in food materials. Gas sensors are
also made up of conducting polymers. These electroactive conjugated polymer based sensors
have conducting particles implanted within an insulating polymer matrix.
Nanosensors can also be installed at the packaging plant itself where they can detect the
microorganisms that usually infest the food. In this way the packaged food product does not need
to be sent to the lab for sampling. These sensors alert the consumers regarding the quality of the
food product with the help of colour changes. The commonly used sensors that are used in the
food packaging industries are time-temperature integrator and gas detector. Several different
types of nano sensors are used for example, array biosensors, nanoparticle in solution,
nanoparticle based sensors, electronic noses, nano-test strips, nano cantilevers.
4.8 Contaminant Detection and smart packaging
Electronic noses are a type of sensor that uses several chemical sensors which is attached
to a data processing system. Since the sensor behaves like a human nose, the sensor is known as
electronic nose. Along with the electronic nose, there are reports of electronic tongue sensors that
work on a similar principle as that of an electronic nose. It changes colour on coming in contact
with any sign of spoilage in the food material thus declaring that the food is not fit for

consumption. For the electrochemical determination of the adulterants in food and beverages
such as food dyes, for example, sunset yellow and tartrazine, carbon ceramic electrode is
customized with multiwalled carbon nano tubes ionic nano composites. Biosensors are also an
emerging technology which is being applied successfully. Along with the nano-gas sensors,
nano-smart dust can be used to detect any sort of environmental pollution. These sensors are
composed of tiny wireless sensors and transponders.
Biomimetic sensors and smart biosensors have also been reported and they are efficient
in determining the presence of mycotoxins and several other toxic compounds. The biomimetic
sensors are developed using protein and biomimetic membranes. The sensors act as pseudo cell
surfaces which help in detecting and removal of the pathogens. Surface Plasmon-coupled
emission biosensors modified with gold nanoparticles help in the detection of pathogenic
organisms. Nanocomposites of SnO2, microrods of titaniumdioxide, and SnOnanobelts are used
for the detection of volatile organic compounds such as ethylene, carbon monoxide, acetone and
ethanol. Nanocomposites of SnO2 detect the presence of oxygen in packaged foods. It has to be
photosensitized by UV-B radiation unlike the titanium dioxide particles which require UV-A
radiation.
Commercial availability of such TTI (time-temperature integrator) in the form of iSTrip,
made by the company Timestrip, with the help of colour change, detects the change in
temperature of frozen foods. They are made up of gold nanoparticles which change colour to red
when there is a sudden rise in freezing temperature while preserving frozen foods. Sensors
known as reflective interferometry have been developed to detect E. coli contamination
inpackaged foods. The protein of E. coli is placed on the silicon chip which binds to the similar
protein in the presence of contamination. It works on the principle of scattering of light by the
mitochondria. This scattered light is detected by analysing digital images.
Nanocomposites
Nanocomposites are usually made up of polymers in combination with nanoparticles and
they help to enhance the property of the polymer by combining with it. Nanocomposites
basically provide a highly versatile chemical functionality and therefore they are used for the
development of high barrier properties. They help in keeping the food products fresh, devoid of
any microbial infestation for a sustainable amount of time. They usually act as gas barriers in
order to minimize the leakage of carbon dioxide from the bottles of carbonated beverages. In this

way, it increases the shelf life of the product. Instead of making expensive cans and heavy glass
bottles, manufacturing industries can use the nanocomposites to layer their bottles in order to
prevent the leakage. Nanoclay is the example of a nanocomposite which is used to create these
gas barriers and it is an example of a polymer in combination with nanoparticles. Nanoclays are
naturally occurring aluminium silicates, generally referred to as phyllosilicates, and are
inexpensive, stable, and ecofriendly in nature. Phyllosilicates are found as montmorillonite,
kaolinite, hectorite, and saponite based on their compositions. Nanoclay reinforcements
categorize nano clay nanocomposites into two broad categories, namely, intercalated
nanocomposites and exfoliated nanocomposites. Intercalated nanocomposites are ordered
multilayer polymeric structure with alternating polymeric layers that are formed due to the
penetration of polymer chains into the interlayer region of the clay. The exfoliated
nanocomposites are clay layers, randomly dispersed in the polymermatrix, and are formed due to
extensive polymer penetration. Cellulose nano reinforcements result into inexpensive, light
weight nanocomposite. These cellulose reinforcements are grown in plants in the form of
microfibrils that are stabilized by hydrogen bonds. Such reinforcements make the
nanocomposites much flexible and provide low permeability of the polymer matrix. Single
walled nanotubes along with silicon dioxide nanoparticles copolymerized and gives rise to
excellent gas barriers. The commercial names of few of the nanoclays available in the market are
Aegis, Imperm, and Durethan. These nanoclays based polymers that are available in the market
count above the rest due to their biodegradable nature, low density, transparency, good flow, and
better surface properties. Aegis acts as oxygen scavengers and thereby improves the barrier
property of the clay retaining the carbon dioxide in the carbonated drinks. Durethan is made up
of polyamide and it provides stiffness to the paperboard containers for fruit juices. Imperm
which is another example of commercialized nanoclay based polymer is made up of nylon and
nanoclay and is meant to scavenge oxygen. Nanocor, an example of gas barrier which is also a
nanoclay based polymer, is used in the manufacturing of plastic beer bottles in order to prevent
the escape of carbon dioxide from the beverage. Nanocoatings for example, nanolaminates, are
another example of nanoencapsulation.
These nanolaminates are used to coat meats, cheese, fruits, vegetables, and baked goods.
Polymers that are reinforced with metals act as antimicrobials in the form of nanozinc oxide and

nanomagnesium oxide. Zinc oxide and pediocin incorporated nanoparticles in the nanocomposite
films also have antimicrobial activity.
Silver coated nanocomposites also act as an antimicrobial agent. Silver attaches to the
cell surface and degrades the lipopolysaccharide and hence results into increased permeability,
causing irreversible damage to the bacterial DNA. In order to control pests at stores that infest
the packaged food materials, PEG coated with garlic oil nanocomposites prove to be very
effective. Bionanocomposites, which are usually made up of starch and cellulose derivatives,
poly lactic acid, polycaprolactone, polyhydroxybutyrate, and polybutylene succinate, have
proven to be efficient as layering materials for the packaging applications. Another
nanocomposite based commercialized product is known as Guard IN Fresh which helps in
ripening of vegetables and fruits by scavenging ethylene gas. Nanocomposites are widely used in
the field of food packaging as they are known to be ecofriendly ad biodegradable. Top Screen
DS13 is one such example of a nanocomposite which is easily recyclable. Unlike the wax-based
coating, Top Screen DS13 flaunts the idea of being water based and hence easily degraded.
Another such eco friendly nanocomposite based coating material is known as NanoCeramPAC
and it helps in rapid absorption of unpleasant components which may cause foul odour and
create repulsive taste. Immobilization of enzymes and their use in the packaging of food is not a
very widely travelled path; however, it is catching pace in the ever-evolving food industry. The
method is not very popular as enzymes are sensitive to quite a number of degrading factors.
Enzymes can get degraded at high temperatures or at unfavourable pH or even in the presence of
proteases. Lactase or cholesterol reductase in packaging materials helps the consumers who are
deficient in these enzymes in their system. Enzyme immobilization triumphs over the
conventional systems of coatings used in packaging materials as they provide a larger surface
area and faster transfer rates. It is considered as the most effective type of nanocomposite, used
in the food packaging industry. The enzymes are incorporated into the nanoclays and used for
packaging of food.
Nanoparticles
At nanoscale, nanoparticles serve several purposes in the processing of food. They help
in improving the food’s flow property, colour, and stability. The effectiveness of the
nanoparticles in the food depends on its bioavailability in a system. Previously, nanoparticles

were used as delivery systems for drugs and now they find their use in food industry in a similar
fashion. In the form of plastic films, nanoparticles, such as silicate nanoparticles, zinc oxide and
titanium oxide, are used to reduce the flow of oxygen inside the packaging containers. They also
help in reducing the leakage of moisture, keeping the food fresh for a longer time. There are
nanoparticles that aid in selective binding and hence lead to the removal of the pathogens or
chemicals from food. Silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide are the two most commonly used
nanoparticles in food packaging. Silicon dioxide finds its use as an anticaking and a drying
agent. It helps in absorbing the water molecules in food, thus displaying hygroscopic application.
Titanium dioxide is another nanoparticle which acts as a food colourant. It is known as a
photocatalytic disinfecting agent. Titanium dioxide is used as food whitener for food products
such as milk, cheese, and other dairy products. It finds its use as a barrier in food packaging for
UV protection. Silver nanoparticles act as antibacterials and hence protect the food from
microbial infestation.
Nanosized silver particles provide larger surface area and can be easily dispersed in food
and are readily ionized and chemically active, acting as a potent antibacterial agent. Silver
nanoparticles prove to be effective as antimicrobials as they have a broader spectrum of activity
unlike other conventional metallic nanoparticles that act as antimicrobials. Silver has been
known to be quite stable since it is an element and it has been reported that it does not pose any
major threat to the biological system if incorporated within limits as assigned by the FDA (Food
and Drug Association) standards. Silver nanoparticles are more effective as bactericide towards
Gram negative organism than Gram-positive organism as it is easier for the particles to penetrate
through the thinner cell wall of the Gram-negative organism. Silver nanoparticles are also known
to extend the shelf life of the fruits and vegetables by absorbing and decomposing ethylene.
Other than the silver, zinc and titanium nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes are also used for
packaging of food. However, the toxicity levels are considerably high in case of carbon
nanotubes and hence the use is limited. Polymeric nanoparticles are made using polymers and
surfactants, alginic acid, polylacticcoglycolic acid, and chitosan and are known to be efficient
delivery systems. The development of biopolymeric nanoparticles that proved to be bactericidal.
Titanium dioxide is another nanoparticle that has been reported to have antimicrobial activity
however; the usage is limited as it is photocatalyzed. It is only active in the presence of
ultraviolet light. It is an active bactericide against several pathogens only under UV illumination.

It leads to the peroxidation of phospholipids present in the cell membrane of the bacterial cell
wall. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles photosensitize the reduction of methylene blue on
irradiation from UV light. Upon irradiation, the particles bleach and, only in the presence of
oxygen, it changes its colour to blue. Several other reported nanoparticles that have antimicrobial
activity are magnesium oxide, copper and copper oxide, zinc oxide, cadmium, selenium,
telluride, chitosan, and single walled carbon nano tubes. Chitosans are responsible for binding to
the negatively charged cell wall as it is positively charged. This leads to increased permeability
and disruption of cell wall. Inorganic nanoceramic is used in cooking oil for deep-frying food.
The nanoparticles in the oil keep the food crispier and increase the shelf life of the food.

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