B.tech civil 5th semester

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY GS-119

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Chapter No 01
An Introduction to Geology
An Introduction to Geology introduces you to physical geology, the study of Earth's minerals,
rocks, soils, and the processes that operate on them through time.
No other science deals more practically with the world on which we live, telling us where to dig
a well; when to add lime to soil; how gold, oil, and other valuable minerals are formed and
where to find them; what kinds of structures are safest in an earthquake zone; and why some
active volcanoes are deadlier than others—far deadlier. Geology also unlocks the history that
lies hidden in the land all around us—in a piece of marble, a hillside, a handful of sand, the rock
layers of a road cut, or the jagged peaks of a mountain range. And for anyone who feels
hesitant about the inherent complexity of sciences such as biology and physics, geology is
surprisingly intuitive, accessible, and concrete. At the same time, it has the excitement of a
never-ending detective story, replete with clues to the complex past of our planet. OR
Geology is the term derived from the Greek word GEO: Earth and LOGOS: Science. Study of
Geology means studies related to the origin, formation and denudation of the earth. Geology
deals with the studies related to various surface and sub-surface physical features like
Mountains, Plateaus, Plains, Valleys, Basins, Caves and all Coastal, Marine and submarine
forms. Engineering geology is the application of geological data, techniques and principles to
the study of rock and soil surfacing materials, and ground water. This is essential for the proper
location, planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering structures.
Physical Geology: It deals with the origin, development and ultimate fate of various surfacial
features of earth. The role played by internal (Volcanism and Earthquakes) and external (Wind,
Water, Ice) agents on the physical features on the earth makes major domain of this branch.
Geomorphology: This branch confines itself to the studies of features of the surface of the
earth, primarily of the land surface. Detailed investigations regarding development and
disposition of mountains, plains, plateaus, valleys and basins and various other landforms
associated with them.
Mineralogy: This branch deals with the study of formation, occurrence, aggregation, properties
and uses of various families of minerals.
Petrology: Minerals occurring in natural aggregated form are called rocks. These rocks forms
the building blocks that makes up the crust of the earth. Formation of various types of rocks,
their mode of occurrence, composition, textures and structures, geological and geographical
distribution on the earth are all studied under the title petrology.
Economic Geology: Deals with the study of minerals and rocks and other such material (Coal
and Petroleum) occurring in the crust that can be exploited as a ORE.
Historical Geology: It is also called as STRATIGRAPHY and deals with the past history of the
earth. From the study of its rock stratified and unstratified rocks are treated as the pages of the
earth history. Each having the information about the time during which it was formed and also
the imprints (fossils left on its formation) when these rocks are properly interpreted can reveal

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vital information about the climate, biological activities and the environmental conditions of
the past; all these lies in the historical geology.
IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS
IMPORTANCE: Engineering Geology is a branch of Geology that comes to use in Engineering activity.
For example, in designing/ planning in cities, building high rises, constructing bridges, and preparing for
complex buildings or apartments, people call an Engineering Geologist. Rocks are the most common
material which is used in the construction of foundation. The local geology of an area is important when
planning a major construction .The full knowledge of geology increase the strength, stability, and
durability of civil engineering projects.
The role of geology in civil engineering may be briefly outlined as follows:
1. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction materials, their structure and
properties.
2. The knowledge of Erosion, Transportation and Deposition (ETD) by surface water helps in
soil conservation, river control, coastal and harbour works.
3. The knowledge about the nature of the rocks is very necessary in tunneling, constructing
roads and in determining the stability of cuts and slopes. Thus, geology helps in civil
engineering.
4. The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly related with geology of
the area where they are to be built.
5. The knowledge of ground water is necessary in connection with excavation works, water
supply, irrigation and many other purposes.
6. Geological maps and sections help considerably in planning many engineering projects.
7. If the geological features like faults, joints, beds, folds, solution channels are found, they
have
to be suitably treated. Hence, the stability of the structure is greatly increased.
8. Pre-geological survey of the area concerned reduces the cost of engineering work.
GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS: The scope of geology can be studied is best
studied with reference to major activities of the profession of a civil engineer which are :-
A) Construction, B)Water resource development, C) Town Planning.
A) Construction:-Civil construction falls in the category of civil engineering which is all about
designing, constructing and maintaining the physical and naturally built environment. Civil
construction is the art of building bridges, dams, roads, airports, canals, and buildings.
Following work comes under construction
a) Planning. b) Designing. c)Execution
Planning :-Planning, scheduling is an important part of the construction management. Planning and
scheduling of construction activities helps engineers to complete the project in time and within the
budget.
Study of photograpic maps :-
i)Topographic maps :-A topographic map is a type of map that shows heights that you can
measure. A traditional topographic map will have all the same elements as a non-topographical
map, such as scale, legend, and north arrow.

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ii)Hydrological map:- Maps depicting the distribution of water on the earth’s surface,
characterizing the regime of bodies of water, and making it possible to evaluate the water
resources of individual land areas. Hydrologic maps include maps of river networks and their
density and lake content, runoff maps, and maps of sources that feed bodies of water, glacier
regime, water turbidity in rivers, and the mineralization and chemical composition of natural
waters.
iii) Geological Map :- It provides information like types information like types of rocks available
, structure found in rock, extent of weathering ,the rock has undergone through permeability
,porocity.Bedding planes and structural features such as faults, folds, foliations, and lineations
are shown with strike and dip or trend and plunge symbols which give these features' three-
dimensional orientations.
b) Designing: Matter of designing an engineering project, the role of geological information is
very important.
 Existence of hard bed rocks & their depth from & inclination with the surface.  Mechanical
properties along & across of site,  Compressive strength,  Shear strength,  Porosity &
permeability,  Modulus of elasticity,  On earth surface plane of weakness,  Zone of weak
material,  Ground water table,  Seismic zone (earthquake zone).
c) Site Execution: At every project site, Bond sets up a site management and supervision team
that prepares the project site covering all aspects of coordination, administration, planning, etc.
to ensure smooth functioning of work on site. Few of the functions of the site execution team is
to establish project site guide, progress monitoring, quality assurance, ensuring safety at site,
supervision of civil and construction work, receiving & storage of equipment, supervision of
erection and installation, finalization of the project and implementation of site environment
compliance requirements.
B) Water Resources Development: The first step in planning the construction of a reservoir
with the help of a dam is for the decision makers to be sure of the needs and purposes for
which the reservoir is going to be built together with the known constraints (including
financial), desired benefits. There may be social constraints, for examples people’s activism may
not allow a reservoir to be built up to the desired level or even the submergence of good
agricultural level may be a constraint. Some times, the construction of a dam may be done that
is labour intensive and using local materials, which helps the community for whom the dam is
being built. This sort of work is quite common in the minor irrigation departments of various
steps, especially in the drought prone areas.
C) Town Planning: Urban planning is a technical and political process concerned with the
development and use of land, planning permission, protection and use of the environment,
public welfare, and the design of the urban environment, including air, water, and the
infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, such as transportation, communications, and
distribution networks.[1] Urban planning is also referred to as urban and regional planning,
regional planning, town planning, city planning, rural planning or some combination in various

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areas worldwide. It takes many forms and it can share perspectives and practices with urban
design. OR
Geology is the study of earth, the materials of which it is made, the structure of those materials
and the effects of the natural forces acting upon them and is important to civil engineering
because all work performed by civil engineers involves earth and its features. Fundamental
understanding of geology is so important that it is a requirement in university-level civil
engineering programs. For a civil engineering project to be successful, the engineers must
understand the land upon which the project rests. Geologists study the land to determine
whether it is stable enough to support the proposed project. They also study water patterns to
determine if a particular site is prone to flooding. Some civil engineers use geologists to
examine rocks for important metals, oil, natural gas and ground water.
SEDIMENTARY, IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS: These types of rocks are formed by the solidification of molten magma in
the interior of the earth. When a rock is formed by cooling and solidification of magma, below
the surface of earth, it is called plutonic igneous rocks. Due to relatively slow rate of
solidification, plutonic igneous rocks have coarse grained structure.
If a rock is formed from the solidification of lava on the surface of earth, the rate of cooling is
faster and rapid solidification takes place. This type of rock is known as volcanic igneous rocks.
Volcanic igneous rocks have fine grained structure.
Examples of igneous rocks are granite, dolerite, basalt, rhyolite etc.
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: These types of rocks are formed due to weathering and
decomposition of earth crust or from any rock type.
When a rock on earth crust is weathered or decomposed and transported and redeposited, and
subsequently consolidated and cemented partly or fully, then the new product is known as
sedimentary rocks. Weathering agents act on the surface of a pre-existing rock which may be
igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic. These weathered products later become constituents of
the new sedimentary rocks. The weathering agents involved are rain, frost, wind, temperature,
river, sea etc. From an engineering point of view, the most important sedimentary rocks are
sandstone, shale and limestone.
3. METAMORPHIC ROCK: Due to high pressure, high temperature as well as high shearing
stresses on existing igneous or sedimentary rock masses, under the earth crust, re-
crystallization of rocks takes place and resulting mass is known as metamorphic rocks.
The principle agents of high temperature and pressure involved in the re-crystallization can be
the following  Earth movement and pressure,  Liquid and gas, chiefly water,  Heat.
Due to the effects of the above agents, new minerals are formed. Such as,  Limestone is
transformed to marble,  Sandstone is transformed to quartzite,  Shale is transformed to slate.
OR
Igneous rocks are those that have formed by the cooling and crystallisation of magma, either at
the Earth's surface or within the crust. Igneous Rock, rock formed when molten or partially

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molten material, called magma, cools and solidifies. The inner layers of the earth are at a very
high temperature causing the masses of silicates to melt. Ex: Granite, Basalt and Dolerite etc.
Sedimentary rocks are those that have formed when eroded particles of other rocks have been
deposited (on the ocean floor, stream/lake beds, etc) and compacted, or by the precipitation of
minerals / mineraloids from water. Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the
deposition and subsequent cementation of that material at the Earth's surface and within
bodies of water. Example–Gravel, Sand Stone, Limestone, gypsum and lignite etc.
Metamorphic rocks are those that have formed when existing rocks have undergone pressure
and / or temperature changes so that their original mineralogy has been changed.
Metamorphic Rock is a type of rock formed when rocky material experiences intense heat and
pressure in the crust of the earth. This change from one mineral assemblage to another is called
metamorphism. Example–Quartzite, schist, slate, marble etc.

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Chapter No 02
Volcanic Activity
Volcanic activity ranges from emission of gases, non-explosive lava emissions to extremely
violent explosive bursts that may last many hours. The types of eruptions determine the
relative volumes and types of volcaniclastic material and lava flows, consequently the shapes
and sizes of volcanoes.
A volcanic event occurs when there is a sudden or continuing release of energy caused by near-
surface or surface magma movement. The energy can be in the form of earthquakes, gas-
emission at the surface, release of heat (geothermal activity), explosive release of gases
(including steam with the interaction of magma and surface of ground water), and the non-
explosive extrusion or intrusion of magma. An event could be non-destructive without release
of solids or magmatic liquid, or if there is anything to destroy, could be destructive with
voluminous lava flows or explosive activity. Destruction usually refers to the works of mankind
(buildings, roads, agricultural land, etc.).
A volcanic event can include
(1) an eruptive pulse (essentially an explosion with an eruption plume, but also non-explosive
surges of lava. A pulse may last a few seconds to minutes,
(2) an eruptive phase that may last a few hours to days and consist of numerous eruptive pulses
that may alternate between explosions and lava surges, and
(3) a single eruption or eruptive episode, composed of several phases, that may last a few days,
months or years (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984). Paricutin, Mexico was in eruption for nine years.
Stromboli, Italy has been in eruption for over 2000 years.
Types of Eruptions
Hawaiian Eruption: In a Hawaiian eruption, fluid basaltic lava is thrown into the air in jets from
a vent or line of vents (a fissure) at the summit or on the flank of a volcano. The jets can last for
hours or even days, a phenomenon known as fire fountaining. The spatter created by bits of hot
lava falling out of the fountain can melt together and form lava flows, or build hills called
spatter cones. Lava flows may also come from vents at the same time as fountaining occurs, or
during periods where fountaining has paused. Because these flows are very fluid, they can
travel miles from their source before they cool and harden.
Strombolian Eruption: Strombolian eruptions are distinct bursts of fluid lava (usually basalt or
basaltic andesite) from the mouth of a magma-filled summit conduit. The explosions usually
occur every few minutes at regular or irregular intervals. The explosions of lava, which can
reach heights of hundreds of meters, are caused by the bursting of large bubbles of gas, which
travel upward in the magma-filled conduit until they reach the open air.
Vulcanian Eruption; A Vulcanian eruption is a short, violent, relatively small explosion of
viscous magma (usually andesite, dacite, or rhyolite). This type of eruption results from the
fragmentation and explosion of a plug of lava in a volcanic conduit, or from the rupture of a
lava dome (viscous lava that piles up over a vent). Vulcanian eruptions create powerful
explosions in which material can travel faster than 350 meters per second (800 mph) and rise

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several kilometers into the air. They produce tephra, ash clouds, and pyroclastic density
currents (clouds of hot ash, gas and rock that flow almost like fluids).
Plinian Eruption: The largest and most violent of all the types of volcanic eruptions are Plinian
eruptions. They are caused by the fragmentation of gassy magma, and are usually associated
with very viscous magmas (dacite and rhyolite). They release enormous amounts of energy and
create eruption columns of gas and ash that can rise up to 50 km (35 miles) high at speeds of
hundreds of meters per second. Ash from an eruption column can drift or be blown hundreds
or thousands of miles away from the volcano. The eruption columns are usually shaped like a
mushroom (similar to a nuclear explosion) or an Italian pine tree; Pliny the Younger, a Roman
historian, made the comparison while viewing the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius, and
Plinian eruptions are named for him.
Lava Domes: Lava domes form when very viscous, rubbly lava (usually andesite, dacite or
rhyolite) is squeezed out of a vent without exploding. The lava piles up into a dome, which may
grow by inflating from the inside or by squeezing out lobes of lava (something like toothpaste
coming out of a tube). These lava lobes can be short and blobby, long and thin, or even form
spikes that rise tens of meters into the air before they fall over. Lava domes may be rounded,
pancake-shaped, or irregular piles of rock, depending on the type of lava they form from.
Surtseyan Eruption: Surtseyan eruptions are a kind of hydromagmatic eruption, where magma
or lava interacts explosively with water. In most cases, Surtseyan eruptions occur when an
undersea volcano has finally grown large enough to break the water's surface; because water
expands when it turns to steam, water that comes into contact with hot lava explodes and
creates plumes of ash, steam and scoria. Lavas created by a Surtseyan eruption tend to be
basalt, since most oceanic volcanoes are basaltic.
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
The earth is composed of three internal, concentric layers of increasing densities. These layers
are the crust, mantle and core. They are made up of different layers of rocks, with their
densities increasing towards centre of the Earth. That is, densities of rocks that make up the
earth increase as you move from the surface towards the interior.
The Crust (Lithosphere): This is the outermost part of the earth. It consists of silica and
aluminium (sial). It forms the upper layer of the continent and is mostly composed of granite
rocks. The layer below SIAL is called SIMA. This layer is made of silica and manganese. It is a
layer of basaltic rocks which are denser and underlies the continental block to form the ocean
floor.

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The Mantle (Mesosphere): This is the layer below the crust. It is composed of iron and
manganese. It lies between the crust and the core. The layer which separates crust and mantle
is called Mohorovic discontinuity. The mantle is made up of very dense and hot igneous rocks,
found in semi liquid states. It extends downwards 2900 km and the temperature ranges
between 5000°C and 7000°C. The density of the mantle is 3 – 3.3 g/cm3. It is divided into two
parts namely, the upper and lower mantle. The upper mantle is rigid and combines with the
crust to form a layer called lithosphere. Below the upper mantle there is a layer called
asthenosphere.
The Core (Barysphere): This is the innermost layer of the earth. It is composed of nickel and
iron. Its diameter is approximately 2500 – 2700 km and its temperature is around 5500°C. The
average density of the barysphere is about 5.2 g/cm3. Most geographers believe that the core
is divided into solid and liquid core. The total mass of the earth is about 5.976 x 1021 tones.
The core is made of two layers: the outer core, which borders the mantle, and the inner core.
The boundary separating these regions is called the Bullen discontinuity.
Outer Core: The outer core, about 2,200 kilometers (1,367 miles) thick, is mostly composed of
liquid iron and nickel. The NiFe alloy of the outer core is very hot, between 4,500° and 5,500°
Celsius (8,132° and 9,932° Fahrenheit).
The liquid metal of the outer core has very low viscosity, meaning it is easily deformed and
malleable. It is the site of violent convection. The churning metal of the outer core creates and
sustains Earth’s magnetic field.
The hottest part of the core is actually the Bullen discontinuity, where temperatures reach
6,000° Celsius (10,800° Fahrenheit)—as hot as the surface of the sun.
Inner Core : The inner core is a hot, dense ball of (mostly) iron. It has a radius of about 1,220
kilometers (758 miles). Temperature in the inner core is about 5,200° Celsius (9,392°
Fahrenheit). The pressure is nearly 3.6 million atmosphere (atm).
The temperature of the inner core is far above the melting point of iron. However, unlike the
outer core, the inner core is not liquid or even molten. The inner core’s intense pressure—the
entire rest of the planet and its atmosphere—prevents the iron from melting. The pressure and
density are simply too great for the iron atoms to move into a liquid state. Because of this
unusual set of circumstances, some geophysicists prefer to interpret the inner core not as a
solid, but as plasma behaving as a solid.

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The liquid outer core separates the inner core from the rest of the Earth, and as a result, the
inner core rotates a little differently than the rest of the planet. It rotates eastward, like the
surface, but it’s a little faster, making an extra rotation about every 1,000 years.
ENGINEERING & PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STONES
The following are the engineering and physical properties of the stones that should be looked
into before selecting them for engineering works:
1. STRUCTURE: The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured
stones should be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard
and difficult to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.
2. TEXTURE: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they
are used for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.
3. DENSITY: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Hence stones with
specific gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.
4. APPEARANCE: A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are compact.
Marble and granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face
works in buildings.
5. STRENGTH; Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as
building block. Indian standard code recommends, a minimum crushing strength of 3.5
N/mm2 for any building block. Table given below shows the crushing strength of various stones.
Due to non-uniformity of the material, usually a factor of safety of 10 is used to find the
permissible stress in a stone. Hence even laterite can be used safely for a single storey building,
because in such structures expected load can hardly give a stress of 0.15 N/mm2. However in
stone masonry buildings care should be taken to check the stresses when the beams
(Concentrated Loads) are placed on laterite wall.
Crushing strength of common building stones
Name of Stone Crushing Strength in N/mm2
Trap 300 to 350
Basalt 153 to 189

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Granite 104 to 140
Slate 70 to 210
Marble 72
Sand stone 65
Lime stone 55
Laterite 1.8 to 3.2
6. HARDNESS: It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and
pavement. Coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting test on standard specimen in
Dory’s testing machine. For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For
building works stones with coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used.
7. PERCENTAGE WEAR: It is measured by attrition test. It is an important property to be
considered in selecting aggregate for road works and railway ballast. A good stone should not
show wear of more than 2%.
8. POROSITY AND ABSORPTION: All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of
water with stone causes disintegration. Absorption test is specified as percentage of water
absorbed by the stone when it is immersed under water for 24 hours. For a good stone it
should be as small as possible and in no case more than 5.
9. WEATHERING: Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones with
good weather resistance should be used for face works.
10. TOUGHNESS: The resistance to impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact test.
Stones with toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works. Toughness index 13 to
19 is considered as medium tough and stones with toughness index less than 13 are poor
stones.
11. RESISTANCE TO FIRE: Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in
strength, are good in resisting fire.
12. EASE IN DRESSING: Cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent.
Dressing is easy in stones with lesser strength. Hence an engineer should look into sufficient
strength rather than high strength while selecting stones for building works.
13. SEASONING: The stones obtained from quarry contain moisture in the pores. The strength
of the stone improves if this moisture is removed before using the stone. The process of
removing moisture from pores is called seasoning. The best way of seasoning is to allow it to
the action of nature for 6 to 12 months. This is very much required in the case of laterite
stones.

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Chapter No 03
Identification of Common Rock-Forming Minerals
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance, representable by a chemical formula, that is
usually solid and inorganic, and has a crystal structure. Rock are different than minerals since
rock doesn’t have a specific chemical composition and can be aggregate of both minerals or
non-minerals. However, many of the rocks are primarily made up of minerals after the
decomposition and consolidation along with other organic or inorganic substances. Some of the
common rock forming minerals along with their physical and chemical properties are discussed
below:
1. Quartz: It is pure or nearly pure silica and is hard and glassy mineral.
 It is transparent to translucent in nature and its colour varies from white and grey to smokey.
 It does not have a cleavage and thus does not break into regular flat faces.
 Hardness = 7, Specific gravity = 2.66
2. Feldspar: Feldspar is silicates of alumina, with alkaline substances like potassium, sodium and
calcium.  Its appearance is not so glassy as that of Quartz and is dull to opaque with a
porcelain-like appearance.  A stone readily meets the decay if it contains large proportions of
feldspar mixed with other minerals.  Hardness = 6, Specific gravity = 2.5 to 2.7
3. Mica: Mica contains silicates of aluminium with potassium.  It is soft and readily affected by
atmosphere and chemicals.  It has perfect cleavage, causing it to easily break into thin sheets.
 Hardness = 2.5 and Specific gravity = 3.
4. Hornblende: Complex silicate with hardness = 5.5 and specific gravity = 3.2.
 Dark coloured mineral found in many types of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
5. Calcite: Leading constituent of limestone and marble.
 Hardness = 3 and specific gravity = 2.7.
6. Dolomite: It is Magnesium carbonate with chemical composition as CaMg(CO3)2.
 Metamorphic rocks like dolomitic marble and few sedimentary rocks have dolomite as the
major constituent.  It has three directions of perfect cleavage.  Moh’s hardness is 3.5 to 4,
specific gravity is 2.8 to 2.9.
Six Common Rock-Forming Minerals
The six minerals amphibole, feldspar, mica, olivine, pyroxene, and quartz are the most common
rock-forming minerals and are used as important tools in classifying rocks, particularly igneous
rocks.
Except for quartz, all the minerals listed are actually mineral groups. However, instead of trying
to separate all the minerals which make up a group, which is often not possible in the field, they
are dealt with here as a single mineral with common characteristics.
Quartz and feldspar are light-coloured minerals; mica, pyroxene, amphibole and olivine are
dark-coloured. The colour of a rock will be determined by the proportions of light and dark-
coloured minerals present.
If most of the grains are quartz and feldspar then the overall appearance of the rock will be

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light, while the opposite will be true if the minerals are mainly mica, pyroxene, amphibole or
olivine. The colour of a rock with between 25 and 50% dark minerals is intermediate.
Common Rock-forming Minerals
Quartz
 Quartz (Figure 2), which is usually called silica, is one of the most common minerals in
the Earth's crust.
 Quartz is made up of silicon dioxide (SiO2)
 Quartz crystals are usually hexagonal and prismatic in shape.
 Pure quartz is colourless, although the presence of impurities may give a range of
colours, such as violet, pink and orange.
 Quartz is the raw material for making glass.
Plagioclase Feldspar
 Plagioclase feldspar (Figure 2) is sodium- or calcium-rich feldspar. The chemical composition
ranges from sodium aluminium silicate, NaAlSi3O8 to calcium aluminium silicate, CaAl2Si2O8.
 Plagioclase feldspar crystals usually occur as stubby prisms.
 Plagioclase feldspar is generally white to grey and has vitreous lustre.
 Plagioclase feldspar is an important industrial mineral used in ceramics.

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Alkali Feldspar
 Alkali feldspar (Figure 3) is another member of the family of feldspar minerals.
 Alkali feldspar (Potassium aluminium silicate (K, Na)AlSi3O8) are rich in alkali metal ions.
 Alkali feldspar crystals usually occur as stubby prisms.
 Alkali feldspar is commonly pink to white.
 Alkali feldspar is used as raw material to make porcelain.
Micas
 Micas are a family of silicate minerals.
 Micas are made up of varying amounts of potassium, magnesium, iron, as well as aluminium,
silicon and water.
 Micas form flat, book-like crystals that split into individual sheets, separating into smooth
flakes along the cleavage planes.
 They are common minerals in intrusive igneous rocks, and can also be found in sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks.

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 Biotite (Figure 4) is dark, black or brown mica; muscovite (Figure 5) is light-coloured or clear
mica.
Amphiboles
 Amphiboles are a family of silicate minerals.
 Amphibole minerals generally contain iron, magnesium, calcium and aluminium as well as
silicon, oxygen, and water.
 Amphiboles form prismatic or needle-like crystals.
 Amphibole is a component of many igneous and metamorphic rocks.
 Hornblende (Figure 6) is a common member of the amphibole group of rock-forming
minerals.
Pyroxene

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 Pyroxenes (Figure 7) are a family of silicate minerals.
 Pyroxene minerals generally contain magnesium, iron, calcium and aluminium as well as
silicon and oxygen.
 Pyroxenes form short or columnar prismatic crystals.
 Pyroxene is a component in many igneous and metamorphic rocks.
 Pyroxene crystals are commonly faceted as gemstones. For instance, precious jade (jadeite) is
a pyroxene.
Olivine
 Olivine (Figure 7) is a silicate mineral.
 Olivine ((Mg,Fe)2SiO4) contains iron and magnesium.
 Olivine is a green, glassy mineral.
 Olivine is common in mafic and ultramafic rocks.
 Clear and transparent olivine crystals are commonly faceted as gemstones.
Calcite

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 Calcite (Figure 9) is a carbonate mineral.
 Calcite is made up of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
 Calcite is generally white to clear, and is easily scratched with knife.
 Calcite is a common sedimentary mineral that is the major component of calcareous
sedimentary rocks such as limestone. Metamorphism of limestone produces marble.

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Chapter No 04
Classification of Rocks and Minerals
Classification of Minerals: Mineral classification can be an organizational nightmare. With over
3,000 different types of minerals a system is needed to make sense of them all. Mineralogists
group minerals into families based on their chemical composition. There are different grouping
systems in use but the Dana system is the most commonly used. This system was devised by
Professor James Dana of Yale University way back in 1848. The Dana system divides minerals
into eight basic classes. The classes are: native elements, silicates, oxides, sulfides, sulfates,
halides, carbonates, phosphates, and mineraloids. The chart below has pictures and
descriptions of each class with a link to more examples and details.
It is hard to believe that all of the minerals on earth fit into one of these 8 classes but it is true.
Mineral Classification: It is based on the chemical composition of minerals.
More exactly, the minerals with same or similar anions are grouped together.
More exactly, the minerals with same or similar anions are grouped together.
Silicate Minerals: Silicates is by far the largest group of minerals on the Earth - it includes more
than 500 minerals. These are silicon oxygen minerals, which include quartz (the most common
mineral on the Earth), feldspars (plagioclase, K-feldspar), serpentine, mica and clay minerals,
amphiboles, pyroxenes, tourmaline, epidote, garnet, olivine, zircon, aluminium silicates and
others.
Borate Minerals: Borates is a smaller group within mineral classification system which amongst
others contains borax (sodium borate) and colemanite (calcium borate).
Phosphate Minerals: Phosphates are minerals that have PO4 as aniones. They tend to be
colourful minerals. The group includes apatite, monazite, arsenite, xenotime, turquoise,
vanadite and others.
Sulfate Minerals: Sulfates are the minerals that have SO4 as anion. They include gypsum,
anhydrite, barite, langbeinite, kieserite, svanbergite and others.
Carbonate Minerals: Carbonates have CO3 as anion. They are easy to identify because they
react to hydrochloric acid. The most common carbonate is calcite, but others include
magnesite, siderite, rhodocrosite, dolomite, ankerite, aragonite, whiterite, strontianite, azurite
and malachite to name a few.
Halide Minerals: Halides are a relatively small group of minerals, which have one of the
halogens (column VIIA in the periodic table: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine) as
anions. The group includes halite (rock salt), fluorite, sylvite, atacamite, cryolite, calomel,
chlorargyrite and others.
Oxide Minerals: Oxides are minerals that have oxygen (O) as anion. They include magnetite,
hematite, spinel, chromite, chrysoberyl, cuprite, corundum, ilmenite, rutile, uranitite and
others.
Hydroxides: Hydroxides have OH as anions. They make a relatively small group, which includes
three groups of minerals: limonites (goethite, lepidocrocite), bauxites (gibbsite, diaspore) and
WAD (manganese oxide and some hydroxide minerals of not-so-certain identity).

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Sulfides: Even though oxides also contain some ore minerals, sulfides is the group dominated
by them. Sulfides have S as anion, and the group includes sphalerite, galena, pyrite,
chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, cinnabar, marcasite, molybdenite, bornite, chalcosite,
covellite and others.
Native Elements: And finally, the native elements, which are of course ore (sulfides and other
ore minerals are mined because they contain some of the native elements). Native elements
include gold, silver, copper, nickel, zinc, lead, sulfur, diamond, mercury, iron,
platinum, arsenic, bismuth, antimony and others.
Classification of Rocks
ROCKS: Rock is Aggregate of one or more minerals.  In common, Rock is anything which is
hard and resistant.  But in Geological language, rock‟s meaning is extended to include all the
natural substances made of minerals either they are Hard like Granite or soft like sand or clay.
Rock and Stone: Anything which is hard and resistant may be named as Stone but Rock may
be Hard or soft. Rocks can be classified in following ways-
1. Geological classification, 2. Physical classification, 3. Chemical classification.
1. Geological classification: As per geological classification rock types are-
1a. Igneous rocks: When hot magma from the earth’s lithosphere is cooled and solidified then
Igneous rock is formed. Example–Granite, Basalt and Dolerite etc.
1b. Sedimentary rocks: This type of rocks are formed when organic matter, sediments or
chemical precipitates are somehow compacted together and solidified.
Example–Gravel, Sand Stone, Limestone, gypsum and lignite etc.
1c. Metamorphic rocks: when Igneous and Sedimentary rocks are changed in character due to
pressure and temperature then metamorphic rocks formed. These rocks are found deep within
earth. Example–Quartzite, schist, slate, marble etc.
2. Physical classification: This type of classification is based on general structure of rocks.
According to this classification the rocks are classified into three types–
2a. Stratified rocks: These rocks possess planes of stratification or cleavage and can be easily
split up along the planes. This type of rocks show a layered structure in their natural
environment. Example-Gravel, Sand Stone, Limestone, Gypsum etc.
2b. Unstratified rocks: The structure of this type of rocks may be crystalline or granular. This
type of rocks don’t show any sign of strata.
Example-granite and marble.
2c. Foliated Rocks: Foliated rock is a metamorphic rock that has layers. In other word, when a
metamorphic rock’s texture is somehow arranged in planes that is called foliated rocks.
Example-metamorphic rocks.
3. Chemical classification: This class of rocks are also three types-
3a. Siliceous rocks: Silica predominates in this rocks. These kind of rocks are hard and durable.
Example-Granite, quartzite etc.
3b. Argillaceous rocks: Clay predominates in this rock. Example-Slates, Laterites etc.

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3c. calcareous rocks: In this type of rocks, calcium carbonate predominates. Durability of this
type of rocks depends upon the constituents present in surrounding atmosphere.
Example-Lime stone, Marble etc.
Identification of grains (coarse, medium and fine) of sedimentary rocks.
A sedimentary rock can be identified by visible sedimentary layers. But not all sedimentary
rocks do have sedimentary layers. They do, however, have a special look - fine-grained ones
have a very homogenous structure, others contain larger pebbles or fossils. They are not
foliated. Sedimentary rocks can be quite weak, you can try its hardness by hitting it with a
hammer.
Once you know what type of rock it is, establish whether it is coarse, medium or fine grained. A
rock is coarse-grained if you can see its grains with your bare eyes. With medium-grained rocks,
you need a hand lens to see the grains separately. And with a fine-grained rock you need a
microscope.
GRAIN SIZE: Sometimes classifications of rocks are done on the basis of their grain size. in such
cases origin or type of rock is not so important. Based on grain size, the rock material is
classified in 3 groups, as given below.
COARSE GRAINED: When size of particles or grains are larger than 2 mm
MEDIUM GRAINED: When size of particle or grain lies between 2 mm to 0.1 mm
FINE GRAINED: When particles are less than 0.1 mm in size and individual grains are invisible to
the naked eye.
For Sedimentary Rocks
 coarse-grained - grain diameter >2mm
 medium-grained - grain diameter = 0.06 - 2mm
 fine-grained - grain diameter = 0.002 - 0.06mm
 very fine-grained - grain diameter <0.002mm
Coarsest
Grained
Medium Grained Finest Grained
Rock Fragments Conglomerate Breccia Greywacke
Quartz Sandstone Mudstone Siltstone, Shale
Carbonates Limestone Travertine Chalk, Marl
Other Minerals Ironstone,
Dolomite
Rock salt, Rock Gypsum Flint, Chert, Coal,
Clay, Amber
Sedimentary Rock Identification Chart
TEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMPOSITION ROCK NAME
Clastic >2 mm rounded quartz, feldspar and
rock fragments
Conglomerate
>2 mm angular quartz, feldspar and
rock fragments
Breccia
1/16 - 2 mm quartz, feldspar Sandstone
>1/16 mm feldspar, quartz Arkose

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<1/16 mm quartz, clay minerals Siltstone
(Mudstone, Shale)
<1/256 mm quartz, clay minerals Claystone
Chemical silica (quartz) Chert
dolomite Dolostone
calcite Limestone
halite Rock Salt
gypsum Rock Gypsum
Biologic silica (quartz) Chert
loosely compacted organic
material and plant fragments
Peat
densely compacted organic
material and plant fragments
Bituminous Coal
calcite Limestone
calcite, micro-skeletal
fragments
Chalk
calcite, almost entirely shell
and skeletal fragments
Coquina
calcite with some shell and
skeletal fragments
Fossiliferous
Limestone
dolomite with some shell and
skeletal fragments
Fossiliferous
Dolostone
Chapter No 5
Hardness classification (very soft, soft etc) with respect to simple field tests and
uniaxial compression strength.
Class Hardness Field Test Approximate Range
of
Uniaxial
Compression
Strength (kg/cm2)
I Extremely
hard
Many blows with geologic hammer required
to break
intact specimen
> 2000
II Very hard Hand held specimen breaks with hammer
end of pick
under more than one blow
2000 1000
III Hard Cannot be scraped or peeled with knife,
hand held
specimen can be broken with single
moderate blow
with pick
1000 – 500

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IV Soft Can just be scraped or peeled with knife.
Indentations
1 mm to 3 mm show in specimen with
moderate blow
with pick.
500 – 250
V Very soft Material crumbles under moderate blow
with sharp end
of pick and can be peeled with a knife, but is
too hard
to hand-trim for triaxial test specimen.
250 - 10
Rock Type Very Fine
Grained
Fine
Grained
Medium
Grained
Coarse
Grained
Very Coarse
Grained
Clastic
Sedimentary
.06 - .125 mm .125 - .25
mm
.25 - .5
mm
.5 1 mm 1 2 mm
Metamorphic < .25 mm .25 1 mm 1 2 mm
> 2 mm
Igneous
< 1 mm
1 5 mm 5 20 mm
> 20 mm

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Chapter No 06
Identification of rocks by mega-scopic studies
To compare and contrast the three types of rocks – igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary.
• To know examples of each type of rock such as limestone, granite and slate.
• To be able to identify rocks by observing their physical appearance.

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Sedimentary, igneous
or metamorphic
How they were formed Appearance

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(e.g. sandstone,
limestone, chalk)
Small pieces of
sediment were stuck
together by salt and
pressure from rocks above.
Usually soft, can
contain fossils, easily
eroded
(e.g. basalt, granite) Liquid rock (magma or
lava) cooled down and
turned back into a
solid
Contain crystals, very
hard, never contain
fossils
(e.g. marble, slate) Other rocks were
acted on by heat and
pressure over a long
time
Sometimes have tiny
crystals, no fossils,
always hard and
sometimes arranged
in layers

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Chapter No 07
Introduction to structural Geology and plate tectonics
Structural Geology and Tectonics are two branches of geology that are closely related, and that
deal with the reconstruction of the different kinds of movements that have occurred over time
in the Earth's lithosphere.
Both words reflect a similar meaning:  the word Structure comes from the Latin struere, to
build,  the word Tectonics from the Greek tektos, builder.
Both terms are hence related to the motions and processes involved in the build-up and
deformation of Earth's crust.
These could simply consist in the movement of a rock body from one location to another,
without any change in shape or size; but they could also be different kinds of deformation that
break or bend a rock, causing a permanent,non-reversible change.
By knowing under what conditions these motions occur and how these deformations are
originated, we can get information that is very useful in the reconstruction of the history of
Earth's crust. Think in terms of big scale (plate motion), medium-size scale (the building of a
mountain), and small scale (a local deformation, caused for instance by a small earthquake).
Structural Geology: - Structural Geology can be defined as the branch of geology concerned
with the shapes, arrangement and interrelationships of bed rock units and the forces that cause
them. In the study of structural Geology, the following are the major concerned:
1. The force acting on the rock
2. The response of the rock
3. The geometrical features of the rock.
Due to a force acting on a rock it may undergo deformation.
The major terms considered under deformation are:-
Stress: This is a force acting on a body, or rock unit that tends to change the size or shape of
that body, or rock unit. Force per unit area within a body. Stress brings about permanent
deformation if the strength of the body is exceeded.
Strain: Change in size (volume) or shape of a body (or rock unit) in response to stress. Strain is
the result of the application of the stress. The stress that causes the deformation of a rock is
not present any more but the strain is; and so we can work backwards to determine the stress.
The strain tells you the kind of force that acted on bedrock.
Ductile deformation: A rock that behaves in a ductile or plastic manner will bend while under
stress and does not return to its original shape after relaxation of the stress. Ductile behavior
results in rocks that are permanently deformed mainly by folding or bending of rock layer.
Brittle deformation: Rocks exhibiting brittle behavior will fractural/break at stresses higher
than its elastic limit. Faults and joints are examples of structures that are formed by brittle
behavior of the crust.
Plate tectonics: Plate tectonics is a relatively new theory that has revolutionized the way
geologists think about the Earth. According to the theory, the surface of the Earth is broken into
large plates. The size and position of these plates change over time. The edges of these plates,

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where they move against each other, are sites of intense geologic activity, such as earthquakes,
volcanoes, and mountain building. Plate tectonics is a combination of two earlier ideas,
continental drift and sea-floor spreading. Continental drift is the movement of continents over
the Earth's surface and in their change in position relative to each other. Sea-floor spreading is
the creation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges and movement of the crust away from
the mid-ocean ridges.
The Theory of Plate Tectonics
The term Plate Tectonics came to be used to denote the process involved in the movements
and interactions of the plates (“tectonic” is derived from Greek “tekton”, meaning a builder).
Plate Tectonic is a theory that outer shell of the Earth’s surface is divided into large, thick, rigid
plates that are slowly moving relative to each other, and changing in size. The plate tectonic
theory is a unifying theory that accounts for many seemingly unrelated geological phenomena.
Some of the disparate phenomena that plate tectonics explains are where and why we get
earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain belts, deep ocean trenches, and mid-oceanic ridges. Plate
tectonics regards the lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) as broken into plates that are in
motion. The plates, which are much like segments of the cracked shell on a boiled egg, move
relative to one another, sliding on the underlying asthensphere (lower mantle).
According to plate tectonics, divergent boundaries exist where plates are moving apart;
transform/conservative boundary occurs where two plates slide past each other, earthquakes
along the fault are a result of plate motion; and convergent boundary occurs where plates
move toward each other.

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Chapter No 08
CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
An Earthquake is a natural vibration of the ground (or the Earth’s Crust) produced by forces
called earth quake forces or seismic forces. OR An Earthquake is a trembling or shaking of the
ground caused by sudden release of energy stored in the rocks beneath Earth’s surface.
Causes of Earthquakes: Depending upon the possible cause of an earthquake, earthquakes are
generally classified into two categories i.e.
1) Tectonic earthquakes, 2) Non-Tectonic earthquakes
a) Tectonic Earthquakes: Tectonic is the force that produces movement and deformation of the
Earth’s crust. The tectonic earthquakes are caused by the slippage or movement of the rock
masses along a rupture or breaks called a fault. These are generally very severe and the area
affected is often very large. Faulting is a phenomenon which has been associated with most of
the severe earthquakes of the world. As such, it can generally be considered as the immediate
cause of many tectonic earthquakes.
b) Non-tectonic earthquakes: Non Tectonic earthquakes are earthquakes caused by a number
of easily understandable processes, such as; volcanic eruptions, superficial movements like
landslides, subsidence of the ground below the surface, etc. All such processes may introduce
vibrations into the ground.
Natural cause:
Earthquakes are the result of slow-moving processes that operate within Earth.
Earth was hot when it formed, and has been cooling ever since (near the surface, for each km
into Earth, the temperature rises by about 30deg. Celsius).
Earth's cooling causes the portions of Earth to move, and that movement is what we call an
earthquake.
Some of the human decisions that have induced earthquakes:
• Dams and reservoirs:
It's just water, but, water is heavy. Large reservoirs of water created by dams have a long
history of inducing earthquakes. The 2008 earthquake in Sichuan, China, that killed nearly
70,000 people was one of the most devastating in recent memory, and some scientists think it
was triggered by the construction of the Zipingpu Dam nearby.
• Groundwater extraction:
Taking water out of ground, which causes the water table to drop, can also destabilize an
existing fault.
• Geothermal power plants:
As the geothermal field operations have ramped up, seismic activity has increased
there.
• Fracking and injection wells:
When waste fracking fluid is injected back underground into deep wells. The fluid can
seep out and lubricate faults, causing them to slip more easily.

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• Skyscrapers:
It is about putting too much pressure on the soft sedimentary rock below. This stress is due to
all the extra steel and concrete used to make the skyscraper solid enough to withstand
earthquakes.
Effects of earthquakes: Damage to buildings and other structures depends greatly on the type
of geologic material on which a structure was built as well as the type of construction. Houses
built on solid rock normally are damaged far less than houses built upon loose sediment.
Brick and stone houses usually suffer much greater damage than wooden houses, which
are somewhat flexible.
1. Ground motion is the trembling and shaking of the land that can cause buildings to vibrate.
2. Fire is a particularly serious problem just after an earthquake because of broken gas
and water mains and fallen electrical wires.
3. Landslides can be triggered by the shaking of the ground.
4. Permanent displacement of the land surface may be the result of movement along a fault.
5. Aftershocks are small earthquakes that follow the main shock. Although aftershocks are
smaller than the main quake, they can cause considerable damage, particularly to structures
previously weakened by the powerful main shock.
6. Foreshocks are small quakes that precede a main shock and are less damaging.
The destructive effects of an earthquake can be classified into primary and secondary effects.
Primary effects:
They are the immediate damage caused by the quake, such as collapsing buildings, roads and
bridges, which may kill many people. Those lucky enough to survive can suffer badly from
shock and panic.

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Secondary effects:
They are the after-effects of the earthquake.
• Fire: earthquakes destroy gas pipes and electric cables, causing fires to spread. Broken water
mains prevent the Fires being extinguished. Fires spread very quickly in cities, especially in
poor-quality housing areas where wooden buildings are common.
• Tsunamis: an earthquake on the sea floor or close to the coast may cause huge waves.
• Landslides: earthquakes often cause landslides, especially in steep river valleys and areas of
weak rocks.
• Disease and famine: fresh water supplies are often cut off causing typhoid and cholera. Lack
of shelter and food causes much suffering.
• Soil liquefaction: when soils with a high water content are violently shaken they lose their
mechanical strength and behave like a fluid and so buildings can literally sink.

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OR
Introduction to Earthquake: An earthquake is a sudden shaking movement of the surface of
the earth. It is known as a quake, tremblor or tremor. Earthquakes can range in size from those
that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those violent enough to toss people around and
destroy whole cities. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type
and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time.
An earthquake is measured in Richter’s scale. A seismometer detects the vibrations caused by
an earthquake. It plots these vibrations on a seismograph. The strength, or magnitude, of
an earthquake, is measured using the Richter scale. Quakes measuring around 7 or 8 on the
Richter scale can be devastating.
Causes of Earthquake: Earthquakes are caused by sudden tectonic movements in the Earth’s
crust. The main cause is that when tectonic plates, one rides over the other, causing orogeny
collide (mountain building), earthquakes. The largest fault surfaces on Earth are formed due to
boundaries between moving plates. The stress increases when they stick, relative
motion between the plates. This continues until the stress rises and breaks, suddenly allowing
sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy as shock waves. Such
faults are San Andreas fault in San Francisco, Rift valley in Africa etc.
Effects of Earthquake: The effects of an earthquake are terrible and devastating. Many
building, hospitals, schools, etc are destroyed due to it. A lot of people get killed and injured.
Many people lose their money and property. It affects the mental health and emotional health
of people. The environmental effects of it are that including surface faulting, tectonic
uplift and subsidence, tsunamis, soil liquefaction, ground resonance, landslides and ground
failure, either directly linked to a quake source or provoked by the ground shaking.
Protective measures against earthquakes
Before an Earthquake: There are many things families and individuals can do to prepare for an
earthquake, including the following:
 Install latches on cupboard doors to prevent them from opening during a quake.

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 Use non-skid shelf liners for kitchen and bathroom cupboards, medicine cabinets, and closet
shelves.
 Store heavy items or glassware in lower cabinets so they do not become dangerous
projectiles.
 Update home insurance policies to adequately cover building costs, possession replacement,
and injury deductibles.
 Secure large appliances such as refrigerators, water heaters, air conditioners, and other bulky
items with straps, bolts, and other stabilizing methods.
 Be sure both old and new buildings meet earthquake construction requirements.
 Do not put heavy artwork, mirrors, or shelves over beds.
 Firmly secure bookcases, artwork, mounted televisions and other objects to withstand as
much shaking as possible.
 Take clear photos of valuables as a record for insurance purposes.
 Prepare an earthquake emergency kit with non-perishable food, bottled water, copies of
important documents (birth certificates, prescriptions, insurance papers, etc.), flashlights, first
aid materials, blankets, spare glasses, and other essential items and store it where it will be
easily accessible in case of a quake.
 Keep cell phones charged and replace emergency kit supplies as necessary to keep them
usable.
 Plan alternative commuting routes in case an earthquake damages roads.
 Set up a family meeting location in a safe area.
 Teach all family members basic first aid, how to behave during a quake, and what to do after a
quake.
During an Earthquake: Earthquakes can last just a few seconds or as long as several minutes,
and knowing how to react during the quake can help prevent injuries:
 Immediately seek a safe location such as in a doorway (if you live in an old, adobe house that
is not reinforced), beneath a table or desk, or along an interior wall away from windows or
hazardous objects.
 Cover the back of your head and your eyes to minimize injury from flying debris.
 Do not take elevators during an earthquake.
 If cooking, turn off heating elements immediately.
 If outdoors, stay in open areas away from buildings, power lines, trees, and other potential
hazards.
 If driving, stop quickly but safely and stay in the vehicle. Do not stop near power lines,
bridges, overpasses, or other potentially dangerous locations.
 Stay calm and brace yourself to keep your balance, sitting if possible.
After an Earthquake: Quick thinking after an earthquake hits can minimize immediate dangers.
Proper earthquake safety precautions after a tremor include the following:
 Be prepared for aftershocks, which may be stronger than the initial jolt.
 Tend injuries immediately and summon emergency assistance if necessary.

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 Check for structural damage, but do not enter a building that shows damage or has visible
cracks in the walls or foundation.
 Wear shoes at all times to avoid stepping on broken glass.
 Turn off gas, electricity, and water if damage is suspected or if advised to do so by authorities.
 Be cautious opening cabinets, cupboards, and closets in case items may be poised to fall.
 Keep phone lines clear for emergency use.
 Be patient: It may take hours or days to restore all services depending on the severity of the
quake.

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Chapter No 09
Sequence and principles of stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is the study of temporal relationships in sedimentary rock bodies and reflects
changes in the balance between rates at which space is produced and filled. Stratigraphy can be
considered the history of past geological events and adds the dimension of time to
sedimentology. Simply, there are 4 principles of Stratigraphy established by Nicholas Steno :
Stratigraphy: - The term stratigraphy comes from the Greek words: Strata + Graphy.
Strata mean the sets or beds of sedimentary rocks; while Graphy means the description.
Stratigraphy deals with the study of the beds of the sedimentary rocks. The study thus helps in
identifying the ages of the rocks of the various regions and areas, thereby assisting in describing
in detail their general civil engineering uses. The study of these rocks involves extraction of
fossils, i.e. the remains of plants and animals of the past geological Eras.
Superposition, which stated that the younger layer of rocks will always be deposited at the top
of an older layer.
Original Horizontality, which stated that layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally
under the action of gravity.
Lateral Continuity, which stated that layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all
directions; in other words, they are laterally continuous.
Cross Cutting, which stated that the geologic feature which cuts another is the younger of the
two features.
Sequence stratigraphy: Sequence stratigraphy is a branch of geology that attempts to subdivide
and link sedimentary deposits into unconformity bound units on a variety of scales and explain
these stratigraphic units in terms of variations in sediment supply and variations in the rate of
change in accommodation space (relative sea level, the combination of eustatic sea level and
tectonic subsidence). The essence of the method is mapping of strata based on identification of
surfaces which are assumed to represent time lines (e.g. subaerial unconformities, maximum
flooding surfaces), and therefore placing stratigraphy in chronostratigraphic framework.
Sequence stratigraphy is a useful alternative to a lithostratigraphic approach, which emphasizes
similarity of the lithology of rock units rather than time significance.
Sequence stratigraphy deals with genetically related sedimentary strata bounded by
unconformities. The "sequence" part of the name refers to cyclic sedimentary
deposits. Stratigraphy is the geologic knowledge about the processes by which sedimentary
deposits form and how those deposits change through time and space on the Earth's surface.
Earthquake zoning for Pakistan
Pakistan is located in the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone, which is roughly 200 km north of the
Himalaya Front and is defined by an exposed ophiolite chain along its southern margin. This
region has the highest rates of seismicity and largest earthquakes in the Himalaya region,
caused mainly by movement on thrust faults.

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Examples of significant earthquakes, in this densely populated region, caused by reverse slip
movement include an 8.1 magnitude earthquake in Bihar, the 1905 7.5 magnitude Kangra and
the 2005 7.6 magnitude Kashmir earthquakes.
The latter two resulted in the highest death tolls for Himalaya earthquakes seen to date,
together killing over 100,000 people and leaving millions homeless. The largest instrumentally
recorded Himalaya earthquake occurred on Aug 15, 1950, in Assam, eastern India. This 8.6
magnitude right-lateral, strike-slip, earthquake was widely felt over a broad area of central Asia,
causing extensive damage to villages in the epicentral region.
Along the western margin of the Tibetan Plateau, in the vicinity of south-eastern Afghanistan
and western Pakistan, the South Asian plate translates obliquely relative to the Eurasia plate,
resulting in a complex fold-and-thrust belt known as the Sulaiman Range. Faulting in this region
includes strike-slip, reverse-slip and oblique-slip motion and often results in shallow,
destructive earthquakes.
The May 30,1935, 7.6 magnitude Quetta earthquake, which occurred in the Sulaiman Range in
Pakistan, killed between 30,000 and 60,000 people.
Land-sliding and its causes
A landslide, also known as a landslip or Mudslide, is a form of mass wasting that includes a wide
range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep failure of slopes, and shallow debris flows.
OR A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
Landslides are a type of "mass wasting," which denotes any down-slope movement of soil and
rock under the direct influence of gravity. The term "landslide" encompasses five modes of
slope movement: falls, topples, slides, spreads, and flows. These are further subdivided by the
type of geologic material (bedrock, debris, or earth). Debris flows (commonly referred to as
mudflows or mudslides) and rock falls are examples of common landslide types.
Natural Causes of Landslides
Climate: Long-term climatic changes can significantly impact soil stability. A general reduction
in precipitation leads to lowering of water table and reduction in overall weight of soil mass,
reduced solution of materials and less powerful freeze-thaw activity. A significant upsurge in
precipitation or ground saturation would dramatically increase the level of ground water. When
sloped areas are completely saturated with water, landslides can occur. If there is absence of
mechanical root support, the soils start to run off.
Earthquakes: Seismic activities have, for a long time, contributed to landslides across the globe.
Any moment tectonic plates move, the soil covering them also moves along.
When earthquakes strike areas with steep slopes, on numerous occasion, the soil slips leading
to landslides. In addition, ashen debris flows instigated by earthquakes could also cause mass
soil movement.
Weathering: Weathering is the natural procedure of rock deterioration that leads to weak,
landslide-susceptive materials. Weathering is brought about by the chemical action of water,
air, plants and bacteria. When the rocks are weak enough, they slip away causing landslides.

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Erosion: Erosion caused by sporadic running water such as streams, rivers, wind, currents, ice
and waves wipes out latent and lateral slope support enabling landslides to occur easily.
Volcanoes: Volcanic eruptions can trigger landslides. If an eruption occurs in a wet condition,
the soil will start to move downhill instigating a landslide. Stratovolcano is a typical example of
volcano responsible for most landslides across the globe.
Forest fires: Forest fires instigate soil erosion and bring about floods, which might lead to
landslides
Gravity: Steeper slopes coupled with gravitational force can trigger a massive landslide.
Human causes of landslides
Mining: Mining activities that utilize blasting techniques contribute mightily to landslides.
Vibrations emanating from the blasts can weaken soils in other areas susceptible to landslides.
The weakening of soil means a landslide can occur anytime.
Clear cutting: Clear cutting is a technique of timber harvesting that eliminates all old trees from
the area. This technique is dangerous since it decimates the existing mechanical root structure
of the area.
Effects of Landslides
Lead to economic decline: Landslides have been verified to result in destruction of property. If
the landslide is significant, it could drain the economy of the region or country. After a
landslide, the area affected normally undergoes rehabilitation. This rehabilitation involves
massive capital outlay. For example, the 1983 landslide at Utah in the United States resulted in
rehabilitation cost of about $500 million. The annual loss as a result of landslides in U.S. stands
at an estimated $1.5 billion.
Decimation of infrastructure: The force flow of mud, debris, and rocks as a result of a landslide
can cause serious damage to property. Infrastructure such as roads, railways, leisure
destinations, buildings and communication systems can be decimated by a single landslide.
Loss of life: Communities living at the foot of hills and mountains are at a greater risk of death
by landslides. A substantial landslide carries along huge rocks, heavy debris and heavy soil with
it. This kind of landslide has the capacity to kills lots of people on impact. For instance,
Landslides in the UK that happened a few years ago caused rotation of debris that destroyed a
school and killed over 144 people including 116 school children aged between 7 and 10 years.
In a separate event, NBC News reported a death toll of 21 people in the March 22, 2014,
landslide in Oso, Washington.
Affects beauty of landscapes: The erosion left behind by landslides leaves behind rugged
landscapes that are unsightly. The pile of soil, rock and debris downhill can cover land utilized
by the community for agricultural or social purposes.
Impacts river ecosystems: The soil, debris, and rock sliding downhill can find way into rivers
and block their natural flow. Many river habitats like fish can die due to interference of natural
flow of water. Communities depending on the river water for household activities and irrigation
will suffer if flow of water is blocked.
Types of landslides

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Falls: Falls are sudden movements of loads of soil, debris, and rock that break away from slopes
and cliffs. Falls landslides occur as a result of mechanical weathering, earthquakes, and force of
gravity.
Slides: This is a kind of mass movement whereby the sliding material breakaways from
underlying stable material. The kinds of slides experienced during this type of landslide include
rotational and transitional. Rotational slides are sometimes known as slumps since they move
with rotation.
Transitional slides consist of a planer or 2 dimensional surface of rupture. They involve landslide
mass movement following a roughly planar surface with reduced rotation or backward slanting.
Slides occur when the toe of the slope is undercut. They move moderately, and the consistency
of material is maintained.
Topples: Topple landslides occur when the topple fails. Topple failure encompasses the forward
spinning and movement of huge masses of rock, debris, and earth from a slope. This type of
slope failure takes place around an axis near or at the bottom of the block of rock. A topple
landslide mostly lead to formation of a debris cone below the slope. This pile of debris is known
as a Talus cone.
Spreads: They are commonly known as lateral spreads and takes place on gentle terrains via
lateral extension followed by tensile fractures.
Flows: This type of landslide is categorized into five; earth flows, debris avalanche, debris flow,
mudflows, and creep, which include seasonal, continuous and progressive.
Flows are further subcategorized depending upon the geological material, for example, earth,
debris, and bedrock.

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Chapter No 10
HYDROGEOLOGY
Hydrogeology is a branch of geology, the study of rocks and the structures that are formed over
past periods of time. The way that sediments have been deposited to create different layers of
rock beneath the surface, or the way that rocks have been heated and folded over millions of
years to create complex structures are the subjects of geology.
Hydrogeology looks at how water interacts with geological systems. But there is more to
hydrogeology than wet rocks. Water is a vital natural resource for people all around the world -
whether it is piped to homes or drawn out of wells. Understanding where it is and how it moves
under the ground is essential in protecting this resource.
Origin of ground water: The major source of ground water is rainfall and this groundwater
which originates from precipitation is called meteoric water.
Besides this major source, two other minor sources of ground water are:-
Connate water: The sea water trapped in the pores of rocks that originated in shallow seas of
the past geological times.
Juvenile: The water which comes chiefly from volcanic emanations in the form of water vapor.
Neither of these two minor sources is significant in terms of the total volume of fresh
underground water.
Groundwater may be defined as:- Groundwater is Surface water accumulating because of
seepage (infiltrations) and returning to the surface as springs and through wells. Ground water
is the underground water that occurs in the saturated zone of variable thickness and depth
below the earth’s surface. Precisely to say, Groundwater is water beneath the surface that can
be collected with wells, tunnels or discharge galleries or that flows naturally to the earth’s
surface via seeps or springs. Groundwater is the fluid mostly encountered in engineering
construction. It is derived from many sources but mostly it comes from rainfall and
melting of snow. The passage of water through the surface of the ground is called
infiltration and it’s down ward movement to the saturated zone and depth is described
as percolation. Cracks and pores in the existing rocks and unconsolidated crystal layers,
make up a large underground reservoir, where part of precipitation is stored.
Wells & Its Types
Wells can be defined as “A hole made for collecting underground water.” Or ” A shaft sunk into
the ground to obtain water, oil or gas.”
Water well is a hole usually vertically excavated in the earth for bringing ground water
to the surface. A well is man-made hole in the ground from which water can be withdrawn.
Types of wells: The wells may be classified into two types:-
1). Open wells, 2). Tubes wells.
1. Open wells or Dug wells: Open wells are generally open masonry wells having comparatively
bigger diameters and are suitable for low discharges of order 1-5 liters per second. The
diameter of open wells generally varies from 2 to 5m in depth. The walls of an open well may
be built of precast at ring or in brick or stone masonry. The field of an open well is limited

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because such wells can be excavated only to a limited depth where the ground water storage is
also limited.
Types of open wells: Open wells may be classified into types:-
a) Shallow wells, b) Deep wells
a) Shallow wells: A shallow well is the one which rest in pervious stratum draws its supply from
the surrounding materials.
b) Deep well: A deep well is the one which rests on an impervious “Mote” layer and draws its
supply from pervious formation lying below. The “Mote” layer (layer of clay, cemented sand or
other hard materials which often found laying a few meters below the water table in the
subsoil).
2. Tube wells: Here long pipes or tubes are bored or drilled deep into the ground, intercepting
one or two water bearing stratum.
Selection of a site for a well: The factors to be carefully studied before selecting a site for
sinking a well are:- 1. Topography, 2. Climate, 3. Vegetation, 4. Geology of the area, 5. Porosity,
permeability and alteration of rocks., 6. Joints and faults in rock, 7. Folded strata., 8. Proximity
of any tank, river, spring, lake, unlined channels, reservoirs etc. 9. Existing wells in the vicinity.
Springs
A spring is a place where water flows naturally from rock on to the land surface. The
natural outflow of ground water at the earth’s surface is said to form a spring.
A pervious layer sandwiched between two impervious layers gives rise to a natural
spring. A spring indicates the out cropping of the water table. Some springs discharge
where the water table intersects the land surface, but they also occur where water flows
out from caverns or along fractures, faults, or rock contacts that come to the surface.
Springs are generally capable of supplying very small amounts of water, and therefore
mostly not regarded as source of water supplies.
Formation and types of springs
Gravity springs: When the ground-water table rises high and the water overflows through the
sides of the natural valley or a depression, the spring formed is known as a gravity spring. The
flow from such a spring is variable with the rise or fall of water table.
Surface springs: Sometimes, an impervious obstruction or stratum, supporting the
underground storage, becomes inclined, causing the water table to go up and get exposed to
the ground surface. This type of spring is known as a surface spring. The quantity of water
available from such a spring is quite uncertain.
Artesian spring: When the above storage is under pressure i.e. the water is flowing through
some confined aquifer, the spring formed is known as an artesian spring. These types of
springs are able to provide almost uniform quantity of water. Since the water oozes out
under pressure, they are able to provide higher yields, and may be thought of as the
possible sources of water supply.
Streams and ground water conditions

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Stream: A stream is a body of water with surface water flowing within the bed and banks of a
channel. The stream encompasses surface and groundwater fluxes that respond to geological,
geomorphological, hydrological and biotic controls. The dynamics of groundwater movement
have an important effect on stream flow. Groundwater that migrates into the stream channel
increases stream flow; water in a stream can also enter the unsaturated zone, reducing stream
flow.
Gaining streams. A gaining stream is one into which groundwater flows from the saturated
zone. The channels of gaining streams are usually at or below the level of the water table.
Bodies of water and marshes form when the water table intersects the land surface over a
broad, fairly flat area.
Losing streams. The channel of a losing stream lies above the water table and loses water into
the unsaturated zone through which it is flowing This water then migrates down toward the
water table. A losing stream can induce the local water table to rise. In drier climates a losing
stream may actually disappear underground as its water content becomes progressively
diminished downstream.
Groundwater condition: The groundwater conditions are of great significance in all major
engineering structures. The relative position of water table with respect to the project must be
thoroughly established and all variations in it during different periods in a year should be fully
ascertained. Whether a proposed project would be much above the local and regional water
table, or below it or would intercept it in some areas shall determine to a great extent, the
ultimate design and stability of the structure and hence its cost.
The term ground-water prospecting means searching for the ground water. It does not only
include to find out the places where ground water is available, but also to find out its
approximate quantity and quality as well. This job can be done by carrying out what is called
ground-water surveys.
Causes of glaciers and their types
Glaciers: Glaciers are large persistent body of ice that forms where the accumulation of snow
exceeds its ablation (melting and sublimation) over many years.
These are made of ice which moves on ground surface. Or The slowly moving mass of ice
formed by the accumulation of snow on mountains or near the poles.
Types: 1. Valley, 2. Piedmont, 3. Ice layers.
Valley: Those type which are found at high mountains are known as valley glaciers.
Piedmont: At the end of hills small pieces of ice combine to form Piedmont glaciers.
Piedmont glaciers occur when steep valley glaciers flow onto relatively flat plains. They spread
out into fan or bulb shapes (lobes). The Malaspina Glacier in Alaska is one of the most famous
examples of this type of glacier. It is 40 miles wide. It is the largest piedmont glacier in the
world. Its origins are in the Seward Ice Field. Once it spills over the mountains it then covers
over 5,000 square kilometres of the coastal plain.
Ice sheets: Sheets of ice cover hilly areas.OR

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Ice Sheets Glaciers: enormous continental masses of glacial ice and snow expanding over
50,000 square kilometers.
Ice Shelves Glaciers: occur when ice sheets extend over the sea, and float on the water.
In thickness they range from a few hundred meters to over 1000 meters.
Ice Caps Glaciers: miniature ice sheets, covering less than 50,000 square kilometers. They
form primarily in polar and sub-polar regions that are relatively flat and high in elevation.
Ice Streams & Outlet Glaciers: channelized glaciers that flow more rapidly than the surrounding
body of ice.
Ice fields Glaciers: similar to ice caps, except that their flow is influenced by the underlying
topography, and they are typically smaller than ice caps.
Mountain Glaciers: develop in high mountainous regions, often flowing out of ice fields that
span several peaks or even a mountain range.
Valley Glaciers: commonly originating from mountain glaciers or ice fields, these glaciers spill
down valleys, looking much like giant tongues. May be very long, often flowing down beyond
the snow line, sometimes reaching sea level.
Piedmont Glaciers: occur when steep valley glaciers spill into relatively flat plains, where they
spread out into bulb-like lobes.
Cirque Glaciers: found high on mountainsides and tend to be wide rather than long. named for
the bowl-like hollows they occupy.
Hanging Glaciers: also called ice aprons, these glaciers cling to steep mountainsides.
Tidewater Glaciers: valley glaciers that flow far enough to reach out into the sea. Responsible
for calving numerous small icebergs.
Causes of Glaciers: Glaciers form when the snow accumulating on land from one winter does
not melt before the next winter's snow arrives. This causes a layering of each year's snow on
top of all the previous years' snow. Over many years, this layering can build up to great depths
(about 2 miles deep at the South Pole). The Earth's largest ice sheets, the Greenland and
Antarctic ice sheets, are glaciers. In contrast, though, most of the Earth's glaciers are small,
some covering less than a square mile. Because of the influence of the Earth's gravity, large
glaciers flow slowly downhill, like a giant river of cold molasses. If they reach the ocean, chunks
will occasionally break off (calve) and fall into the ocean. These pieces then become 'icebergs'.
Some icebergs from the Antarctic ice cap are huge - as large as the state of Rhode Island.
The rate at which the glacier flows downhill is controlled by many things: how much snow adds
to the glacier each winter, the slope of the land, the kind of rock that the glacier flows over, etc.
It is not unusual for glaciers to "surge", with rapid movement in some years. Most of the
world's glaciers that are monitored have receded in the last century or more, presumably in
response to a slow warming of the climate system. The extent to which this warming is
anthropogenic (human-caused) versus natural is the subject of much debate. The fact that
glaciers have receded before, though, is evidenced by currently receding glaciers revealing old
tree stumps, in both Western Canada and in Europe.

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Chapter No 11
Geology in Civil Technology:
Role of geology in selection of sites for dams
Engineering Geologists play a significant role before the construction of roads, dams etc is
carried out. Their core responsibility in the value chain is Site investigation. Site investigation is
a process of site exploration consisting of boring, sampling and testing so as to obtain
geotechnical information for a safe, practical and economical geotechnical evaluation and
design. The Importance of Site Investigation cannot be overemphasized as it helps
-To study the general suitability of the site for an engineering project.
-To enable a safe, practical and economic design to be prepared.
-To determine the possible difficulties that may be encountered by a specific construction
method for any particular civil project.
-To study the suitability of construction material (soil or rock).
Without the above, the construction work may fail or become disfunctional depending on the
terrain.
Selection of Dam Site
The selection of Dam site for constructing a dam should be governed by the following factors.
 Suitable foundation must be available.
 For economy, the length of the dam should be as small as possible, and for a given
height, it should store the maximum volume of water.
 The general bed level at dam site should preferably be higher than that of the river
basin. This will reduce the height of the dam.
 A suitable site for the spillway should be available in the near vicinity.
 Materials required for the construction of dam should be easily available, either locally
or in the near vicinity.
 The value of land and property submerged by the proposed dam should be as low as
possible.
 The dam site should be easily accessible, so that it can be economically connected to
important towns and cities.
 Site for establishing labor colonies and a healthy environment should be available near
the site.
Selection of Site for a Reservoir:
Based on planning and other considerations, the guidelines for selection of site for a reservoir
are as follows:
(i) Availability of a suitable site for construction of dam.
(ii) The hills surrounding the reservoir and the bed of the reservoir should be impervious.
(iii) Availability of good storage capacity with minimum submergence of the adjacent land.
(iv) A reservoir should not be sited downstream of such tributaries which bring-in excess
sediment into the river.

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(v) Availability of deep gorge which results in larger capacity with lesser water surface area and,
therefore, lesser evaporation loss.
(vi) The cost of other associated works is less.
(vii) The site with the possibility of land slides into the reservoir must be avoided.
(viii) The site should not be, as far as possible, on valuable land being used for some other
purposes, such as agriculture, forestry, communication and habitation by people,
(ix) Sites with mineral deposits in and around the reservoir area should also be avoided.
Airport site selection
The selection of a suitable site for an airport depends upon the class of airport under
consideration. However if such factors as required for the selection of the largest facility are
considered the development of the airport by stages will be made easier and economical. The
factors listed below are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport installation: 1.
regional plan, 2. airport use, 3. proximity to other airport, 4. ground accessibility,
5. Topography, 6. Obstructions, 7. Visibility, 8. Wind, 9. noise nuisance, 10. grading , drainage
and soil characteristics, 11. future development, 12. availability of utilities from town,
13. economic consideration
Regional plan: The site selected should fit well into the regional plan there by forming it an
integral part of the national network of airport.
Airport use: the selection of site depends upon the use of an airport. Whether for civilian or for
military operations. However during the emergency civilian airports are taken over by the
defense. There fore the airport site selected should be such that it provides natural protection
to the area from air roads. This consideration is of prime importance for the airfields to be
located in combat zones. If the site provides thick bushes.
Proximity to other airport: the site should be selected at a considerable distance from the
existing airports so that the aircraft landing in one airport does not interfere with the
movement of aircraft at other airport. The required separation between the airports mainly
depends upon the volume of air traffic.
Ground accessibility: the site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to the users. The
airline passenger is more concerned with his door to door time rather than the actual time in
air travel. The time to reach the airport is therefore an important consideration especially for
short haul operations.
Topography: this includes natural features like ground contours trees streams etc. A raised
ground a hill top is usually considered to be an ideal site for an airport.
Obstructions: when aircraft is landing or taking off it loses or gains altitude very slowly as
compared to the forward speed. For this reason long clearance areas are provided on either
side of runway known as approach areas over which the aircraft can safely gain or loose
altitude.
Visibility: poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the airport. The site selected should
therefore be free from visibility reducing conditions such as fog smoke and haze. Fog generally
settles in the area where wind blows minimum in a valley.

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Wind: runway is so oriented that landing and take off is done by heading into the wind should
be collected over a minimum period of about five years.
Noise nuisance: the extent of noise nuisance depends upon the climb out path of aircraft type
of engine propulsion and the gross weight of aircraft. The problem becomes more acute with
jet engine aircrafts. Therefore the site should be so selected that the landing and take off paths
of the aircrafts pass over the land which is free from residential or industrial developments.
Grading, drainage and soil characteristics: grading and drainage play an important role in the
construction and maintenance of airport which in turn influences the site selection. The original
ground profile of a site together with any grading operations determines the shape of an
airport area and the general pattern of the drainage system. The possibility of floods at the
valley sites should be investigated. Sites with high water tables which may require costly subsoil
drainage should be avoided.
Future development: considering that the air traffic volume will continue to increase in future
more member of runways may have to be provided for an increased traffic.

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Chapter No 12
Ground Subsidence
Ground subsidence” means a process characterized by downward displacement of surface
material caused by natural phenomena such as removal of underground fluids, natural
consolidation, or dissolution of underground minerals, or by man-made phenomena such as
underground mining. Subsidence is the sinking or settling of the ground surface. It can occur by
a number of methods. Ground subsidence can result from the settlement of native low density
soils, or the caving in of natural or man-made underground voids. Subsidence may occur
gradually over many years as sags or depressions form on the ground surface. It’s more
infrequent, but subsidence can occur abruptly-virtually instantly-as dangerous ground openings
that could swallow any part of a structure that happen to lie at that location, or leave a
dangerous steep-sided hole. In Colorado, the types of subsidence of greatest concern are
settlement related to collapsing soils, sinkholes in karst areas, and the ground subsidence over
abandoned mine workings. Geological subsidence involves the settling or sinking of a body of
rock or sediment. Subsidence is a type of mass wasting, or mass movement-transport of large
volumes of earth material primarily by gravity. Subsidence may occur as the result of either
natural or human-caused events.
Mine Subsidence
Mine Subsidence" means lateral or vertical ground movement caused by a failure initiated at
the mine level, of man made underground mines, including, but not limited to coal mines, clay
mines, limestone mines, and fluorspar mines that directly damages residences or commercial
buildings. "Mine Subsidence" does not include lateral or vertical ground movement caused by
earthquake, landslide, volcanic eruption, soil conditions, soil erosion, soil freezing and thawing,
improperly compacted soil, construction defects, roots of trees and shrubs or collapse of storm
and sewer drains and rapid transit tunnels. In simpler terms, when the roof of a subsurface
mine collapses, it causes the ground above to sink or subside. Most experts agree that room
and pillar mines will eventually experience some degree of collapse, but currently there is no
way to know when or exactly where mine subsidence will occur.
7 Safety Tips to Reduce Mining Accidents
Working in mining is risky business. Earlier this year, a man was killed in an accident at a copper
mine in Australia. Another accident at a coal mine in southwest China claimed 22 lives. In fact,
China has some of the most dangerous mines in the world, and authorities have scrambled to
try to enforce safety rules. If you’re considering a career in mining, it is crucial that you take the
following safety measures to keep your time in the mines as trouble-free as possible.
1. Don't Ignore the Danger: The first step toward keeping yourself safe is to be cognizant of the
fact that working in mining is hazardous. Accept that the mining industry is inherently filled
with danger and stay alert every moment on the job. Watch out for your colleagues as well and
never let your guard down. Accidents with major impact can occur in a moment of carelessness.
2. Dangerous Tasks Require Planning and Communication: When planning tasks, don’t think
only of completing them as efficiently as possible. Allot extra time and money for safety

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requirements. Never compromise the safety of your employees when trying to meet deadlines
or to boost the quality of work. All risks should be assessed, including the possibility of
accidents. Try to eliminate risks as much as possible. Where a risk still exists, provide your team
with clear instructions and educate them on how to mitigate it. If necessary, deal with the
danger should it arise.
3. Get Professional Training: All team members should undergo regular safety training. This
should not just apply to new team members. Even long-standing employees should be made to
attend refresher courses. Safety training sessions that contain theory and practical components
can be very helpful. Workers who take on strenuous roles may be sent for health and fitness
checks to determine whether they are able to take on the physical demands of their work.
4. Always Wear Safety Equipment: There is a litany of safety equipment that mining workers
use for their protection, from helmets to safety glassesand gloves. It is essential that all workers
wear the necessary safety equipment at all times. There have been countless stories of workers
being saved by helmets, for example.
5. Supervise Your Team: All team members should follow safety instructions with no
exceptions. A supervisor must also be diligent about following up and enforcing the rules. Never
allow more people to enter a site than are allowed. Supervisors also need to know the
whereabouts of all team members throughout each shift. Likewise, all workers should be kept
informed about what their fellow team members are doing throughout the day. Never allow
any team members to breach the safety rules without a warning or, in the case of repeated
disobedience, appropriate consequences.
6. Document Your Safety Procedures: When accidents happen, all team members should know
exactly what to do. Safety procedures must be clearly defined. When documenting the safety
procedures, describe the various incidents that might occur, what needs to be done and whom
to contact. Safety procedures should be displayed prominently in locations that can be easily
accessed by team members.
7. Follow the Latest Safety Standards: Ensure all safety equipment is serviced regularly and
satisfies all the latest safety standards. Never try to save on safety equipment. If an item no
longer complies with the current safety standards, replace it, even if this means increasing
expenses or delaying a project. Never allow staff to use outdated safety equipment, even for a
short period of time. The number of safety-related incidents in the mining industry is high.
Unfortunately, some of the tragedies that have occurred could have been prevented. Don’t
repeat the mistakes that have been made by others. While the risks can never be eliminated
completely, following the above tips can help significantly.

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Chapter No 13
INTRODUCTION TO BLASTING
Blasting is the process of breaking of bulk rock masses into loose forms, using explosive
compounds. Here, the primary role is played by the explosives. The explosives are the
substances or devices used in blasting. The explosives are used to produce a volume of
rapidly expanding gas that exerts sudden pressure on its surroundings and break the mass
into pieces. There are three common types of explosives used for blasting as chemical,
mechanical, and nuclear explosives. About 100 years ago, the Chinese invented explosives. The
first chemical explosive was gunpowder. Germans manufactured gunpowder in the early 1300s.
A detonator is a device used to trigger this explosive device. Detonators can be chemically,
mechanically, or electrically initiated. Different explosives require different amounts of energy
to detonate. Detonation is a necessity for the explosive to get triggered for blasting.
Rock blasting is done to break rocks so that it may be quarried or to excavate ground
for construction purposes. It is the controlled use of explosives mostly in mining, quarrying
and civil engineering such as tunnel, dam or road construction. Blasting is one of the major
and greatest inventions in the history possibly after discovery of fire and metals which
changed the pace of civilization. Dr.Alfred Nobel famous for the Nobel trust and Nobel
prizes is known for inventing dynamite. Blasting, explosives and dynamite became
synonymous since then with dynamite being the first safest high explosives.
Impact of rock blasting is enormous and currently utilizes many different type of
explosives with different compositions and performance properties. Higher velocity
explosives are used for relatively hard rock in order to shatter and break the rock, while low
velocity explosives are used in soft rocks to generate more gas pressure and a greater heaving
effect. The most commonly used explosives in large scale blasting today are ANFO
(ammonium nitrates and fuel oil) based blends due to lower cost than dynamite. Worldwide,
huge quantity of explosives is being consumed every day for various Mining and Civil
engineering needs. This consumption is also related with the breakage mechanism of rocks
and a optimised blast design may in-turn lead to huge savings. Understanding the rock
mechanics of blasting would help in safe, efficient and economic blast design and rock
breakage.

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EXPLOSIVES
Explosives are mixture of chemical compounds which rapidly decompose, instantly releasing
large quantity of energy in the form of heated gas at a high pressure. Its basic ingredients are
oxydiser, fuel and a sensitizer. Some of the important properties of explosives are,
strength, velocity of detonation (how long it takes to chemical reaction to happen and
energy released), density, water resistance, sensitivity, fume characteristic and legal
permission.
The strength of an explosive is a measure of the work done by a certain weight or volume of
explosive. This strength can be expressed in absolute units, or as a ratio relative to a standard
explosive. Usually the bulk strength of explosives is related to the strength of ANFO
(ammonium nitrate and fuel oil) that is assigned an arbitrary bulk strength of 100. One
measure of the strength of an explosive is its velocity of detonation (VOD); the higher the
velocity the greater the shattering effect. However, explosive strength, density and degree of
confinement are also factors that should be considered in selecting an explosive for a specific
purpose.