Consumer behaviour

1. VivekJoshi
SupreetAhluwalia
SeniorLecturers
Departmentof Business
Manipal UniversityDubai Campus
Block#7 International AcademicCityDubai
UnitedArabEmirates
The crescendoof celebritiesendorsingbrandshasbeensteadilyincreasingoverthe past20 yearsor so.
Marketersovertlyacknowledge the powerof celebrityininfluencingbuyer'spurchase decision.They
have firmbelievethatlikeabilityorafavorable attitude towardsabrandiscreatedby the use of a
celebrity.The crore of rupeesspentperyearoncelebrityendorsementcontractsshow thatcelebrities
like AmitabhBachchan,SharukhkhanandSachinTendulkarplayanimportantrole forthe advertising
industry.Itisan establishedfactthatcelebrityendorsementcanbestow uniquefeaturesorspecial
attributesupona productthat itmay have lackedotherwise.
In Indiafromlate 1970's and early80's the new trendinadvertisingstarted.Brandsstartedbeing
endorsedbycelebrities.Hindi filmandTV starsas well assportspersonswere ropedintoendorse
prominentbrands.Advertisementsfeaturingstarslike Late Jalal Agha(PanParag),Tabassum(Prestige
cookers),Sunil GavaskarforDineshSuiting,Ravi Shastri andVivianRichards(Vimal),PersisKhambhata
and Kapil Dev(PalmoliveShavingcream) becamecommon.
Thoughmarketersshouldrememberthatcelebritiesare mere livingbeingslike usandif theycan
highlightthe benefitsoradvantagesof a brandtheycan also have some uncannynegative impact.
Theoryand practice suggeststhatthe use of stars and theirunleashingpowerinadvertisinggeneratea
lotof publicityandattentionfromthe publicbutthe underlinequestionsare,dothese starsreallyhelpa
brand byincreasingitssales?Onthe otherhand,can theyreallyhave anImpact on the person's
consumptionpattern,therebychanginghisbrandpreference?How anadvertisementfeaturinga
celebritycaninfluence consumersbuyingdecisionandcancreate an associationbetweenabrandand a
commonman.

2. To answerthese questions,the article will examine the relationshipbetweencelebrityendorsements
and brands,and the impactof celebrityendorsementonconsumer'sbuyingbehaviouraswell ashow
consumermakesbrandpreferences.
We will applyawide range of acceptedprinciplesof how consumersbrandattitudesandpreferences
can be influenced,howbuyer'sbehaviorcanbe influenced,how buyer'sbehaviorcanbe molded.We
will use the principlesof credibilityof source andattractiveness,the match-uphypothesis,the consumer
decision-makingmodel andthe communicationmodel tounderstandthisphenomenon.
Brand- A laymanperspective
Brand isthe proprietaryvisual,emotional,rational andcultural image thatyoucan associate witha
companyor the product. Fewexampleswillbring home the meaningi.e.Amul- utterlybutterly
delicious;Coke –thandamatlabcoca-cola;Pepsi – Yehdil mange more;Kurkure- Masti bole tokurkure
and DaewookaIndia.
These examplesconveyone message thatwhenpeople watchadvertisementaconnectisbeingcreated
and resultisthat people goforexperience of buying.Peoplefeelbyusingthe brandtheywill portray
certaintraitsor characteristicsthatotherwise theydonothave.Thisgeneratesacertainlevelof
emotional affiliationandasense of fulfillment.Itisthisemotional relationshipwithbrandsthatmake
themso powerful.
Advertisementsenforceswhatexactlythe brandstandsforandwhat to expectbyitsconsumptionand
above all whatfactors,featuresandattributesmakesitbetterfromcompetition.Advertisementsalong
withothermarketingeffortsgenerate expectationsandfeelingsinacustomerandforce themto think
whentheysee orhear the brand name.ThisThinkingprocessandemotionalbondinggetsmore mature
and relevantwhenacelebrityendorsesthe brand.The subjective intangible feelingsof acustomer
become objectiveandtangible inthe formof celebrityandthe level of expectationswill rise. The
customerwill startto perceive himself inthe reference frame of the celebrityafterthe brandor the
advertisedproducthasbeenpurchasedorconsumedbyhim.
Celebrity
Celebritiesare people whoenjoypublicrecognitionandmostlytheyare the expertsof theirrespective
fieldshavingwiderinfluence inpubliclifeandsocietal domain.Attributeslike attractiveness,
extraordinarylifestyle orspecial skills,largerthanlife imageanddemigodstatuscanbe associatedwith
them.

3. It issafe to deduce thatwithina correspondingsocial groupcelebritiesgenerallydifferfromthe social
norm andenjoyhighdegree of publicawareness.
Celebritiesappearinpublicindifferentways.Tostart, theyappearinpublicwhenfulfillingtheir
professionalcommitmentsexample:MahendraSinghDhoni,whoplayedcricketinfrontof anaudience
inTwenty-TwentyWorldCup.Furthermore,celebritiesappearinpublicbyattendingspecialcelebrity
events,example:the movie awardnights;specialscreening;worldpremiersof moviesorforsocial
causes.These celebritieshave universal presence and appeal,theyare presenteverywhere,innews,
fashionshowsandmagazines,tabloidsandabove all advertisements.
CelebrityandaBrand
Star powerinIndiacan be gaugedbythe successful endorsementsdone bySharukhKhan(Pepsi,
Hyundai Santro,Sunfeast,andNavratanetc.),AmitabhBachchan,SachinTendulkar,Rahul Dravid,
HrithikRoshanand the others.The inevitable questionis,if andhow the livelyinterestof the publicin
the rich and famouscan be efficientlyandeffectivelyusedbycompaniestopromote theirbrandsand
consequentlytoincrease theirsalesrevenues.
Thisfact can be broughtout byusingcertainexamplesi.e.Mr.AmitabhBachchanpromotingCadbury
chocolatesafterthe fiascoof infestationwhenthe image of CadburyIndiawentvery low inthe eyesof
people.Soonthe companyfoundaperfectfitanda reliable celebritytotransmitthe correctmessage
and helpregeneratingthe losttrust.The fitbetweenthe productandcelebrityisevidentasMr.
Bachchan and Cadburychocolatesboth have testedtroubledtimesandstill theystandtall andthe love
and trusttheyboth share withthe people all acrossIndia.Thisisa live example of how acelebrity
broughtcertainattributestoa product like chocolate.
Actor Sharukhkhanhas alsoendorseddiversifiedproducts.Hisendorsementbasketisrangingfrom
Hyundai Santroto Sunfeastbiscuitsonone handandfrom CompaqcomputerstoVideoconelectronics
on the other.
Accordingto Advertisingresearchcompaniesboththe actorsare doingwell andthe ad spenton bothby
the companiesisincreasingata phenomenalrate,sodoestheirbasketof endorsements.These actors
bringreliabilityandtrustinthe brand andabove all,theyhelpinincreasingthe salesrevenues.

4. Celebrityendorsementsare powerful,hasbecome evidentfromthe above twoexamplesbut,whyisit
so? Thispowerisofferedbythe followingelements,whichalsocreatesa'Top of the Mind Position'.
* InstantAwareness,knowledge aboutthe brandandeasyrecall.
* Valuesandimage of the brandis defined,highlightedandrefreshedbythe celebrity.
* The celebrityaddsnewedge anddimensiontothe brand.
* Credibility,trust,association,aspirationandconnectivitytobrand.
* Belief inefficiencyandnewappearance thatwill resultinatleasttrial usage.
UnderstandingConsumerBehaviour
Consumerbehaviouristhe studyof howpeople buy,whattheybuy,whentheybuyandwhytheybuy.It
blendselementsfrompsychology,sociology,sociopsychology,anthropologyandeconomics.Itattempts
to understandthe buyerdecision-makingprocess,bothindividuallyandingroups.Itstudies
characteristicsof individual consumerssuchasdemographics,psychographics,andbehavioral variables
inan attemptto understandpeople'swants.Italsotriestoassessinfluencesonthe consumerfrom
groupssuch as family,friends,reference groups,andsocietyingeneral.
The study andknowledge of consumerbehaviorhelpsfirmsandorganizationstoimprove their
marketingstrategiesandproduct offerings.Followingare the importantissuesthathave significant
influenceonconsumer'spsyche andtheirabilitytotake decisions:
The psychologyof howconsumersthink,feel,reason,andselectbetweendifferentalternatives(e.g.,
brands,products);
The psychologyof howthe consumerisinfluencedbyhisorher environment(e.g.,culture,family,signs,
media);
The behaviorof consumerswhile shoppingormakingothermarketingdecisions;
Limitationsinconsumerknowledge orinformationprocessingabilitiesinfluence decisionsand
marketingoutcome;
How consumermotivationanddecisionstrategiesdifferbetweenproductsthatdifferintheirlevel of
importance orinterestthattheyentail forthe consumer;and
How marketerscanadapt and improve theirmarketingcampaignsandmarketingstrategiestomore
effectivelyreachthe consumer.

5. TheirAge,Religion,Culture,Income,informalgroupandReferentGroup.
Understandingthese issueshelpsusadaptourstrategiesbytakingthe consumerintoconsideration.
ConsumerDecision-makingprocess
The givenprocessisverycomplicatedthoughonfirstsightitdoesnotlookso. Processstartswith
problemrecognitionorwithanunsatisfiedneed.Somethingthataconsumerwouldlike tohave or
purchase inorder toattain satisfaction.Thisneedcanbe Psychological,attitudinal orPhysiological but
yesit shouldhave the capacityto be fulfilledbyconsumingaparticularproductor service.
To satisfythe givenneedwhatall are the componentsthatshouldbe takenintoconsiderationandhow
we can maximize the satisfactionisthe nextstage.Inthisstage,we will coverabilitytopurchase,level
of involvement,peoplewhose opinionwillcountandotherrelevantdetailsthatwill helpusin
optimizingsatisfaction.
Baseduponinformationsearchwe will generate variousalternativesi.e.whichbrandorproduct is
affordable forme,where will itbe availablecomfortablyandabove all incomparisontootherbrandsor
productshowbetteror economical itis.
Evaluationstage will looklike costbenefitanalysisandbaseduponmaximumvalue orutilityperrupee
spend,we will decide orshortlistthe productorbrand.This isthe decisionandconfirmationstage
where the consumersprepareshimself forthe purchase of a particularbrandand give preferencetoone
and onlyone overandabove the others.
Nextcomesthe purchase whenthe consumerwill finallygotothe marketand lookforthe brandor the
product,physicallyverifiesitandpurchasesit.
Last is the postpurchase Evaluationinwhichthe customerwantstojustifyhisconsumptionorpurchase
decision.He triestofindoutwhetherhispurchase decisionwasrightornot. Companiesmake lotof
efforttotackle thissituationsuccessfullyandtheywantthe customerto be satisfiedwiththeirproduct.

6. Thisstage may resultintothree situations,firstissatisfactionwhere customerissatisfiedandhe got
expectedresultsbutthisdoesnotnecessitatesthe repeatpurchase bythe consumer.Secondis
dissonance where the consumerisnotsatisfiedashe gotlessutilityorlessthanexpectedresultfrom
the consumptionorproductperformance.ThirdisDelight,here the consumergetsmore thanexpected
satisfactionandutilityandthiswill assure the repeatpurchase andcreationof brandloyalty.
Traditional Factorsaffectingconsumerdecisionmaking
There are several factorsthataffectconsumer'sdecisiontopurchase abrandand a product. These
factors thoughat time are not verymuch visiblebuttheymake an impactand affectssalesof a product
or brand upto a greatextent.The table below showssome of thesefactors.
Impact of a Brand on consumerpurchase decision
Researchstudieshave proventhatknownproductsandnamesare soldmore than unknownones.
Therefore,aknownbrandor an optimallyexposedbrandwill findmore recognitionandbuyersinthe
marketincomparisonto completelyunknownorunexposedbrand.Recognitionof brandandits
significance alongwiththe traditionalfactorsplaysavery significantrole inconsumerdecision-making
process.
More or lesseveryconsumerhasa brand preferenceandgiventhe affordabilityandsocietal norms,
each buyerwouldlike tobuyandconsume one of the highlyacceptable,recognizable,andreputed
brands.
The above givenmodel explainsthe importantrole thatabrand playsinthree differentstagesof
consumer'spurchase decisionmaking.A consumerstartcollectingdataorinformationabouthis
favourite brandthanhe keepshisfavourite asone of the alternativesandhe evaluatehisselectedbrand

7. againstall available optionsandonfindingitsuitable orbestamongall optionsbaseduponaqualitative
and quantitative evaluationhe will ultimatelypurchase the selectedorfavourite brand.
The diagram above explainshowvarioustraditional factorsalongwithbrandpreference interactduring
purchase decisionprocessandfinallyresultsintoaconsumer'sfinal productchoice orultimate
purchase.
Celebrityandabrand
Surveyssuggestthatcomparedtoany othertypesof endorsers,famouspeople achieve ahigherdegree
of attentionandrecall.Theyincrease awarenessof acompany'sadvertisingaswell ashelpinretention
of message inthe psyche of the audience.Theycanalsohelpthe companyinreducingtheirexpenditure
on Mediaand otherformsof publicity.Anexamplewill bringmore clarity,WhenSKumars,aknown
textile brandenteredintoreadymade garmentsbusinesstheyusedHrithikRoshan,thenthe hottest
advertisingiconfortheirlaunchadvertisingforTAMARIND,now one of the premiumreadymadebrands.
Theyreckonedthattheyhave spent40-50 percentlessonmediadue tosheerimpactof usinghottest
star like Hrithik.The Adrecall wasas highas 70 percentandthe campaigncan be termed as a great
success.
Celebritiesalsocreate positive feelingstowardsbrands,connectusertobrandand are perceivedby
consumersasmore entertaining.
Usinga celebrityinadvertisingorforany, othertype of communicationforbrandbuildingislikely to
positivelyaffectconsumers'brandpreference,brandattitude,brandassociationandpurchase
intentions.Toensure positive results,however,itiscritical foradvertiserstohave aclear understanding
of consumer'sreactionsandreinforcementof celebrityendorsement.The impactof celebrity
endorsementonanybrand as well asonconsumer'spurchase decisionisverycritical.
Source Credibility
Central goal of advertisingisthe convincingof consumersandpersuasiontopurchase,the ultimate
objective,thoughnotopenlyspoken,istosome how attract consumerstothe marketofferingof the
company,generatingpositiveattitude,reinforce positive associationandultimatelytogenerate sales,
may be a trial purchase.At laterstages,the sponsormaywork towardscreatinga brandloyaltybut
generatinginitial salesorincreasingthe existingsalesisthe primaryobjective.Inthisrespect,the

8. credibilityof anendorseralongwithadvertisementplaysanimportantrole inconvincingthe target
audience of the attractivenessof the company'sbrandandgeneratessales.Pursuingacelebrity
endorsementstrategyenablesadvertiserstoprojectacredible image intermsof expertise,
persuasiveness,trustworthiness,andobjectiveness.
To create effective messages,celebrityadvertisersalsohave toconsiderthe attractivenessof the
spokesperson.Source attractivenessreferstothe endorser'sPhysical appearance,Personality,
LikeabilityandSimilaritytothe receiver,thustothe perceivedsocial valueof the source.Thisbehavior
mainlygoesbackto haloeffect,wherebypersonswhoperformwellonone dimensionexample:physical
attractivenessortopprofessionalperformance,social statusare assumedtoexcel onotherlevelsas
well i.e.happinessandcoolness.Thisisevidentfromthe use of FardeenKhan,modern,dynamic,
outgoingandsmart personalityforProvogue;he translatesthe modernismof the brandwell.Titanuses
AamirKhanin hisdifferentavatarsforcommunicatingtothe publicthattheirwatchesare as reliable
and passionate asAamirisfor films.BothFardeenandAamircarrythe message well andenhance the
credibilityof the brandtheyendorse.
EstablishingaPerfectMatch
Researchprovesthata spokespersonespeciallyforaservice productor organization(ICICI- First
AmitabhBachchan,nowShahrukhKhan) interactswiththe type of brandbeingadvertised.These stars
communicate the value of the productandtransforman ordinaryservice intoa miracle solutionforall
problemsof anordinarycustomer.
Accordingto FriedmanandFriedman(1979),a famousrelative toa'normal'spokespersonismore
effectiveforproductshighinpsychological orsocial risk,involvingsuchelementsasgoodtaste,self-
image,andopinionof others.Several researchstudieshave examinedthe congruencybetweencelebrity
endorsersandbrandsto explainthe effectivenessof usingfamouspersonstopromote brands.
In India,a brandcalledReid&Taylor presenteditsperfectexample whentheyfirstlaunchedtheir
advertisingcampaignfeaturingJamesBondfame of the time Mr.Pierce Brosnanalongwiththe tagline
'BOND WITH THE BEST' but the JamesBond ideadidnotworkedandthe company wasnot happywith
the results.
Afterthe debacle of the firstcampaign,companyintroducedafamilyadwhere childrenare celebrating
there parentssilverweddinganniversaryandtheyare out withtheirfathertopurchase a suit for him.
Eventhiscommercial didnotworkand it wastakenoff the air.As a lastresort,companyintroducedMr.
AmitabhBachchanas Reid& Taylor man,a man propagatingthe brandfor special occasionandfor very

9. special peopleinlife.The commercial fromthe initial daysgotgoodresponse anddidextremelywellas
people were able toconnectwithMr.Bachchan and the valueshe waspropagating.
For the masses,there wasa perfectmatch of an ideal Indianfamilyman,astar anda goodqualitybut
bithighlypricedbrandreservedespeciallyforspecial occasionsandforveryspecial people.
Secondexample thatcanbe quotedisof VishwanathanAnand,whoendorsedNIIT.NIITadoptedavery
smart strategybyropingin VishwanathanAnandaninternationalchesswizardfortheiradvertising
campaign.Aschessis consideredtobe a game full of strategiesandagame forsmart people andwhen
one of the greatsof the game is askingpeople tojoinNIITitwassuppose tohave a positive influence on
the people and actuallyithad.There was complete congruencyandcompatibilitybetweenthe celebrity
endorser,the productandthe message.
Contraryto onlyfavorable outcomes,there are several exampleswhere the product,eventhe entire
campaigncollapseddue toheavyweightcelebrityasthe agencyor the ad failedtoestablishthe
relationshipbetweenthe endorserandthe product.Keepingthe focusonlyonsuccess,where the
productand the celebritywere aperfectmatch,followingare few examples:
CelebrityEndorser
Company/ Product
AmitabhBachchan
* Dabur
* Cadbury
* ReidandTaylor
* Parker
ShahrukhKhan

10. * Santro
* Videocon
* Sunfeast
* Pepsi
Juhi Chawala
* Kurkure
Ustad ZakirHussain
* Taj mahal tea
AamirKhan
* Titan
* Coke
* ToyotaInnova
AishwaryaRai
* Nakshatra
* Lux
Rani Mukherjee
* Fanta
* Nestle Munch

11. Kajol andAjayDevgan
* Whirlpool
* Tata Indicom
The campaignsare not onlybaskingwiththe gloryof successstories,butthere isconsiderable number
of failuresaswell. Assumingthata personjusthave tobe famoustorepresentasuccessful brand,
however,wouldbe incorrectandmayturn out to be a verydangerousprepositionresultingintoabig
calamityforthe entire advertisingcampaignorthe brand.
Verywell acceptedandattractive superstarslike AbhishekBachchanandAmitabhBachchanfailedin
turningtheirendorsementsintosuccessi.e.Maruti VersasimilarlyVirendraSehwagalsofailedtodeliver
Reliance Telecommunicationwiththe masterstroke of hiscricketinggenius.
Amongthe possible reasonsidentifiedbyseveral authors,includingoverexposure andidentification,the
'match-uphypothesis'specificallysuggeststhatthe effectivenessdependsonthe existenceof a'fit'
betweenthe celebrityspokespersonandendorsedbrand.
Empirical workonthe congruencyof brandwiththe celebrityoftenhasconcentratedonthe physical
attractivenessof the endorser.Resultsshow thatanattractive spokespersonsare more effective in
termsof attitude change whenpromptingbrandsthatenhance one'sattractivenessi.e.cosmetics;
healthdrinksorfashionwear.
Primarydata states,forcelebrityspokespersonstobe trulyeffective,theyshouldbe knowledgeable,
experienced,mature,andabenchmark intheirrespective fieldandqualifiedtotalkaboutthe product.
Transferringthe Meaning
Afterwatchinganadvertisementthe consumerstrytofindthe meaningof the advertisementand
associate the same withthe endorserandeventuallytransfertothe brand.To understandthis
phenomenonMcCracken(1989) suggestedacomprehensive model knownasMeaningTransferModel.
Thisthree-stage modelsuggestshowthe meaningassociatedwiththe famouspersonmovesfromthe
endorsertothe product or the brand.Thus, meaningsattributedtothe celebritybecomeassociated
withthe brand inthe consumer'smind.Finally,inthe consumptionprocess,the customeracquiresthe

12. brand's meaning.The thirdstage of the model explicitlyshowsthe importance of the consumer'srole in
the processof endorsingbrandswithfamouspersons.
In contrastto anonymousendorsers,celebritiesaddvalue tothe image transferprocessbyoffering
meaningsof extradepthandpower,whatiscomplementedbytheirlifestyle andpersonalities.
Therefore,totransferthe correctmeaningtothe consumerthe companyshouldselectacelebritythat
will produce the mostfavorable response forconsumersandforthe purpose the celebrityshouldhave,
the appropriate setof characteristicsandthe publicshouldbe able to visualize andcomprehendthe
same.The companyshouldconsiderthe consumer'sneedswhiledevelopingtheircommunication
strategyand selectinganappropriate celebritytotransmitthe same,i.e.Kurkure usedactressJuhi
Chawalawiththe punchline 'Masti Bole To Kurkure'and the actresson screenand off-screen
personifiesthe masti andhelpsthe brandincommunicatingthe same easily.
Compatibilityof the celebrity'spersonawiththe overall brandimage isveryimportant,asa celebrity
impartscredibilityandinspirational value toabrand and hisor herimage shouldperfectlymatchthe
brand's image.A goodbrand campaignideaandan intrinsiclinkbetweenthe celebrityandthe message
are mustfor a successful campaign.
Certainelementsthat generate aperfectmatchor compatibilitybetweenthe celebrityandbrandimage
are:
* Celebrity'sfitwiththe brandimage alongwithcelebrity-targetaudience match.
* Celebrityassociatedvaluesandcelebrity-productmatch.
* Costsof acquiringthe celebrityandhisorher popularityalongwithcontroversyrisksassociatedwith
the celebrity.
* Credibility,availabilityandphysical attractivenessof celebrity.
The above pointscan be put to perspective byusingtwoexamples,firstKapilDev's'Palmolivedajawaab
nahin'and secondNakshatra'sbrandrecall due to itsendorser,the gorgeousAishwaryaRai Bachchan.
Both brandshave edgedoutand carvedout theirniche inconsumer'sminddue toimage andcredibility
of theirendorsers.Thesewere the cases of perfectmatchbetweenthe brandimage andthe image or
personaof the celebrityendorser.

13. Conclusion
A brief assessmentof the currentmarketsituationindicates,thatcelebrityendorsementadvertising
strategycan underthe right circumstancesindeedjustifythe highcostsassociatedwiththisformof
advertising.The use of celebrityforendorsementscreate averyfavorable impactonthe consumerand
it createsa connectwhichforcesa consumerto purchase a product.However,asseveral failures show,
it isessential foradvertiserstobe aware of the complex processesunderlyingcelebrityendorsement.
It has beenprovedfromthe discussionthatcelebrityendorsementsare apowerful anduseful tool that
magnifiesthe effectof acampaignbut the wordof cautionto be followedseriously;celebritiesalone do
not guarantee successnordoesa great advertisingcampaignorthe bestpossible product.Itisthe
combinationof several factorsandelementsthatworktogetherforthe successof a brand and its
acceptance inthe mindsof consumersaswell asfor itsmarketoffering.
Modernday consumersare well educatedandsmart,theyknow celebritiesare beingpaidforthese
endorsementsandthisknowledge makesconsumersrathermore cynical aboutthe productand
celebrityendorsements.Majorityof the consumingpopulationalsoknowswhatisadvertisingandhow
it actuallyworksandthisknowledge of consumermakesthe taskof celebrityendorsementall the more
difficultandchallengingforthe advertisingcompaniesandthe sponsors.Indiancompaniesboth
advertisingandproductofferingcompanieshave topmake aneffortto overcome thisever-mounting
challenge.
References
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* Daneshvary,Rennae andR.KeithSchwer(2000),"The AssociationEndorsementand
* Consumers'IntentiontoPurchase,"Journal of ConsumerMarketing,17(3), 203-213.
* Friedman,HersheyH.andLindaFriedman(1979),"EndorserEffectivenessbyProductType," Journal of
AdvertisingResearch,19(5),63-71.
* McCracken,Grant (1989), "Who Is the CelebrityEndorser?Cultural Foundationsof the Endorsement
Process,"Journal of ConsumerResearch,16(3), 310-321.