The Kerala backwaters are a network of brackish lagoons and lakes lying parallel to the Arabian Sea coast (known as the Malabar Coast) of Kerala state in southern India, as well as interconnected canals, rivers, and inlets, a labyrinthine system formed by more than 900 kilometres (560 mi) of waterways, and sometimes compared to American bayous.[3] The network includes five large lakes linked by canals, both man made and natural, fed by 38 rivers, and extending virtually half the length of Kerala state. The backwaters were formed by the action of waves and shore currents creating low barrier islands across the mouths of the many rivers flowing down from the Western Ghats range. In the midst of this landscape, there are a number of towns and cities, which serve as the starting and endpoints of backwater cruises.

1. Backwater
Ecosystems

2. contents
■ Definition
■ Important backwaters of World
■ Ecotourism
■ Important backwater ecosystems of Kerala
■ Genesis of backwater systems
■ Vembanad backwater ecosystem
■ Physico chemical parameters
■ Fauna and flora
■ Astamudi backwater ecosystem and its fauna & flora
■ Socio economic significance of backwaters
■ Threats to ecosystem
■ Major Threats to fisheries
■ Measures taken for protection of Kerala backwaters
■ References

3. ■ A backwater is a part of a river in which there is little or no current. It can refer to a branch of
a main river, which lies alongside it and then rejoins it
■ a body of water in a main river, backed up by the tide or by an obstruction such as a dam
■ It is a large network of natural lakes, inlets of oceans and natural/manmade canals
connected each other and forms a large water body inside the land
e.g. Kerala backwaters

4. Backwaters are a part of coastal wetlands system.
Coastal wetlands include sand or pebble shores, estuarine lakes and lagoons,
coastal floodplain forest, dune swamps, mudflats, coastal lakes, coastal floodplains,
mangrove and saltmarsh swamps.
Wetlands also called as Nature’s kidney.
Wetland function and values
Habitat for fish, wildlife and plants
Habitat for fish, wildlife and plants
Natural water quality improvement and
biogeochemical cycling
Flood protection
Shoreline erosion
Economic benefits of natural services
and products at little or no cost
Recreation ,education and research

5. BACKWATERS OF WORLD
■ Backwaters of Kerala are a major tourist attraction over the world and it may be
considered as one of the unique tourism products of the state Kerala. The state has 30
backwater areas in different districts spreading over 900kms.
■ The important backwaters in India which constitute a sizeable fishery are
Cochin backwaters,
Vembanad backwaters,
Kakinada backwaters and
Killai backwaters
 The other backwater areas of the
world are 1.Venice –Italy
2. Bay area, California- USA
3. Danube delta wetland –
Romania

6. ■ It’s a shallow body of brackish water
situated in Tamil Nadu state between the
Vellar and Colleroon (Kolli dam)
estuaries and extends to about 16 km in
the north-south and 5 km in the east-
west.
■ It has a permanent connection with the
Bay of Bengal.
■ About 100 tonnes of prawns are landed
annually.
■ The prawn species in the order of
abundance include F. indicus, Penaeus
monodon and Metapenaeus dobsoni.
Macrobrachium rosenbergi is found from
October to December indicating that
they migrate to estuary for breeding.
■ Prawns are caught by stake nets, cast
nets and drag nets.
■ It extends from Kakinada in the north to
the Gautami Godavari in the south
■ They border the Kakinada bay on the east
and covers an area of about 330 km2
■ The two rivers viz. the Coringa and the
Gaderu rivers discharge their water in the
Kakinada bay
■ The entire backwater area is traversed by
a network of tidal creeks which are
directly or indirectly connected to the
Kakinada bay
■ Prawn fishery dominates the Kakinada
backwaters.
■ The important prawn species include
Metapenaeus dobsoni, M. monoceros, M.
affinis, M. brevicornis, F. indicus and P.
monodon.
KILLAI BACKWATERS
KAKINADA BACKWATERS

7. Venice is built on a
archipelago of 118
islands in a shallow
lagoon connected by
400 bridges over 177
canals in Italy. The
canals encouraged
the flourishing of a
nautical culture which
proved central to the
economy of the city.
The town of Alapuzha is
often referred to as the
"Venice of the East" for
its large network of canals
linking the Vembanad
Lake. The state was and
is still very beautiful with
many scenic destinations
which many visitors
compared to what they
saw in Venice.
Houseboats are huge, slow
moving exotic barges used
for leisure trips.
What is truly magical
about a houseboat ride is
the breathtaking view of
the untouched and
otherwise inaccessible
rural Kerala that it offers,
while you float in a
relaxed way right through
it.
Kumarakom Bird
Sanctuary (also known
as Vembanad Bird
Sanctuary) is situated
at Kumarakom in
Kottayam district in the
Indian state of Kerala, on
the banks of Vembanad
Lake.
ECOTOURISM Kerala was listed among
“10 paradises on the world’’
and "50 must see
destinations of a lifetime"
by National Geographic
traveler magazine.
The major component of back-water tourism is the houseboat cruising. It
attracts a large number of international and domestic tourists. The “Venice
of east” Alappuzha has become the hub of back water-based tourism
activities. At present more than 2000 houseboats are operating in
Vembanad Lake.

8. Kerala backwaters
■ The Kerala Backwaters are a network of
interconnected canals, rivers, lakes and inlets, a
labyrinthine system formed by more than 900 km of
waterways.
■ Of the 44 rivers in Kerala, 41 flow westward from the
Western Ghats to the Arabian sea through
backwaters.
■ Major rivers are Periyar (5400 km2, 244 km) and
Chalakudy (1700 km2, 130 km) on the north and
Pamba (2250 km2, 76 km), Achankovil (1500 km2,
128 km), Manimala (850 km2, 90 km), Meenachil
(1250 km2, 78 km) and Moovattupuzha (1550km2,
121 km) in the southern region (MaIlik and Suchindan,
1984).
■ The backwaters were formed by the action of waves
and shore currents creating low barrier islands across
the mouths of the many rivers flowing down from the
Western Ghats range.

9. ■ The chain of brackish lagoons and lakes lie parallel to the Arabian
Sea coast.
■ The most potential area in the Kerala backwaters is the Kuttanad
region, which is also known as the rice bowl of Kerala.
■ It is also called by the name Holland of Kerala for the reason that
like Holland, Kuttanad too is a region which is saucer shaped lying
below sea level.
■ It is probably the only place in the continent where farming is done
below sea level(1.2-3m below MSL) , using a system of dykes and
bunds.
Continued..
National Waterway No. 3 from Kollam
to Kottapuram, covers a distance of 205
km and runs almost parallel to the coast
line of southern Kerala facilitating both
cargo movement and backwater
tourism.

10. Backwater Resources of Kerala
Kozhikode has
backwaters which are
largely “unexplored”
by tourist hordes.
Elathur, the Canoly
Canal and the Kallayi
River are favourite
haunts for boating and
cruising.
Other backwaters are
Korapuzha, (the
venue of the
Korapuzha
Jalotsavam), Payyoli
backwater, Beypore
estuary and
Kadalundi estuary.
In Kannur there are 5
namely Kava
backwater,
Dharmapatanam
backwater, Mannayed
estuary, Mahe estuary
and Kattampally
backwaters.
Kasargod known for rice
cultivation, coir processing and
lovely landscape has the sea to
the west and the Western Ghats
to the north and east. It has 2
backwaters named Karingote
estuary and Nileswar backwater.

11. Malappuram district have two backwater
systems named Puraparamba backwater and
Purathur/Ponnani estuary.
Backwaters in Thrissur district are Chettuva
backwater, Azheekode.
In Thiruvananthapuram, 5 named Edava
Nadayara backwater, Anchuthengu backwater,
Kadinamkulam backwater, Veli Lake, Poonthura
backwater and Poovar backwater.
Vembanad Lake being the largest is bordered by
Alappuzha, Kottayam, and Ernakulam district.
Cochin Estuary is another backwater in Cochin.
Kollam is the starting point of the backwater
waterways. Ashtamudi lake, the second largest and
Paravoor backwaters are of Kollam district.

12. Genesis ofVembanad Backwater system
■ According to geological records most of the worlds barrier-beach-lagoon systems had their
origin during the post-glacial sea level rise, 5000-6000 years ago.
■ However, theVembanad Lake extending between Alleppey and Azhikode (between
latitude 9°30' and 10°12' and longitude 76°10' and 76°29') now a typical estuarine system,
which is the largestWestcoast estuarine system of India.
■ It is believed to have attained its present configuration in the 4th century A.D., according
to historians (Anon., 1973).
■ Geomorphologically, all the sectors of the existing backwaters may not be of common
origin

13. It was primarily a
marine environment,
bounded by an alluvial
bar parallel to the
coast line and
interrupted by the
Arabian Sea at
intervals
As a result of a catastrophic
deluge which took place in 1341
A.D., parts of the Alleppey and
Ernakulam Districts including a
number of islands arose lying
scattered in the backwaters by
deposition of alluvium in its
course, thus separating a
distinct water body from the sea
with connecting channels at
Thottapally, Andhakara Azhi and
Cochin.
This transformation of an
originally marine environment
into an estuarine system is
evidenced by the occurance
of large quantity of typically
marine shells deposited in the
vembanad region.
Currently the fresh water
discharge from major
rivers like Periyar and
Chalakudy on the north
and Pamba, Achankovil,
Manimala, Meenachil and
Moovattupuzha in the
south, makes the back-
water typically estuarine
in character.

14. Vembanad lake
Vembanad Lake is the biggest backwater lake in
the kerala state as well as the largest backwater
lake in Asia which stretches out into the Arabian
Sea at Cochin Port.
one of the Ramsar sites in kerala
(declared in August 2002).
Vembanad and Ashtamudi lakes
represent backwater ecosystems in India.
Total area of the lake is about 250km2
and extending 80km from munambam in
the north to Allepy in south.
Spread over the districts Alappuzha,
Kottayam, Ernakulam and Thrissur of
Kerala.

15. Vembanad
lake
Aroor
backwaters
Vayalar
backwaters
Vembanad
lake proper
Aroo
r
Arkooti
A salinity barrier was made in the lake ecosystem with
the construction of Thanneermukkom bundh in the year
1976, which has resulted in partitioning the lake into two
entirely different ecosystems, retaining
estuarine conditions in the northern sector
And southern sector into a freshwater habitat.

16. Cochin
backwater
Kumarakom
backwater
12440 ha
8610 ha

17. Vembanad Backwater Ecosystem
■ An ecosystem is a community of living
organisms in conjunction with the nonliving
components of their environment,
interacting as a system.
■ These biotic and abiotic components are
linked together through nutrient cycles and
energy flows.
■ The backwaters have a unique ecosystem -
freshwater from the rivers meets the
seawater from the Arabian Sea.
Rich biodiversity
Lagoon
Coastal
wetland
Barbuilt
estuary

18. Contd..
■ In certain areas, such as the Vembanad Kayal, where a
barrage has been built near Kumarakom, salt water from
the sea is prevented from entering the deep inside,
keeping the fresh water intact.
■ Such fresh water is extensively used for irrigation
purposes in kuttanad region.
■ Many unique species of aquatic life including crabs, frogs
and mudskippers, water birds such as terns, kingfishers,
darters and cormorants, and animals such as otters and
turtles live in and alongside the backwaters.
■ Palm trees, pandanus shrubs, various leafy plants and
bushes grow alongside the backwaters, providing a green
hue to the surrounding landscape.
■ The backwaters contribute productive ecosystem and the total
fish landings from Kerala backwaters vary from 14000-
17000tonnes/year.
■ 88000 tonnes of live clams and 0.17 million tonnes of dead
molluscs shells are collected manually.
Thannermukkom bundh

19. Climate
• Being situated in the humid tropical
monsoon belt,there is high rainfall and
humidity.
• 2 rainy season southwest and northeast
monsoon
• Mean annual rainfall 2500-4000mm
Soil
• Sandy to sandy loam with alluvial
deposits in lowlands bordering arabian sea
• Alluvial and peaty soil dominate
backwater
• These peaty soils are black and acidic, PH
sometimes as low as 3.9 and become
highly toxic to biota

20. Physico-chemical parameters influencing productivity

21. SPECIES
DIVERSITY

22. Phytoplankton
• Diatoms
• Amphora sp, Asterionella
japonica, Biddulphia
mobiliensis, Chaetoceros sp.
Coscinodiscus perforatus,
Coscinodiscus radiatus,
Fragilleria oceanica, Gyrosigma
balticum, Navicula spp., Nitzschia
• Dinoflagellates
• Ceratium furca, Ceratium spp.,
Dinophysis spp., Peridinium
pentagonum
• Blue Green algae
• Oscillatoria spp., Nostoc spp.
Anabaena spp.
Zooplankton
• The major zooplankton
communities are copepods,
crustacea larvae,
euphausids, mysids,
amphipods, cladocera,
pelagic tunicates, polychaete
larvae, chaetognaths and the
larvae of fishes and other
organisms.
• According to Rao et al
(1975), the seasonal and
spatial distribution of the
zooplankton reflects salinity
changes in the backwater.
• The biomass and the total
number of zooplanktons are
usually higher during pre
monsoon period
Benthos
• Macrobenthic crustaceans
were mainly represented by
amphipods, isopods,
tanaidaceans and decapods.
Amphipods - Gammarus and
Corophium
• Isopods - Sphaeroma species.
The mussel, Musculista
senhausia (Bivalvia: My
tilidae) , which is used as
poultry feed and fertilizer,
occurs in large quantity
ranging in size from 10-29 mm
in length in certain areas of
Cochin backwaters (Sreedhar
and Radhakrishnan, 1995).
• High levels of Zn and Cu have
caused damages to the benthic
life in the vicinity of effluent
discharges
• there is a reduction of bottom
fauna after dredging.
■ Source:
(Thomson et al
2001)

23. Finfish and Shellfish diversity
■ Vembanad backwater was declared as a Ramsar site
(Ramsar site no.1214), a wetland of international importance
declared in august 2002
■ Fishes are mainly oligohaline.
■ Marine penaeid prawns, clams like Villorita cyprinoides
and Mertrix meretrix are exploited
■ About 32.5% of the fisherman population of the state is
concentrated on the banks of the lake
■ 5000 tonnes of fish and almost same quantity of prawns, and
300-400 tonnes of giant freshwater prawn-production per
year
■ 214 species of crustaceans, either adults or larval forms,
belonging to Copepoda, Ostracoda, Cladocera, Amphipoda,
Isopoda and Decapoda have been recorded from Vembanad
Lake
Villorita cyprinoides (black clam)
Mertrix meretrix

24. ■ 39 of gastropods belonging to 24 families
■ 45 species of bivalve belonging to 17
families including the doubtful occurrence
of three bivalves, namely Tellina
(Angulus) rhodon , Pandora flexosa and
Nuculona mauritiana.
■ There are also found a few species of
freshwater snails viz., Bellamya
bengalensis, Melanoides (=Thiara)
tuberculata, Thiara scabra and
lndoplanorbis exustus from Kumarakom
areas of the lake in Kottayam district of
Kerala.
Estimated finfish and shell fish production (tonnes) from
Vembanad wetland during August 2012 to July 2013 period.
(Asha et al., 2014)

25. Mangrove
ecosystem of
vembanad lake

26. The entire
backwater area
including Vembanad
Lake earlier had
mangrove
vegetation
Most of the mangroves
have now been
destroyed, and only a
few isolated pockets of
stunted Rhizophora and
Sonneratia are still
observed. ( 700sq.km
50 sq.km)
Pathiramanal island is
poor in mangrove
vegetation due to
human habitation.
The extent of mangrove
patches at Kumarakom
includes 5 ha at KTDC area,
2.5 ha at Kari and 3 ha at
Nalupanku areas
dominated by Rhizophora,
Avicennia and Acanthus
species respectively.
Patches of mangrove may be
seen at Cherthala, Vayalar and
Chanthirur along filtration
ponds, canals and backwaters
of Alapuzha district.
Vaikom, Vechoor and
Kulasekharamangalam
areas of Kottayam district
support some pockets of
mangrove

27. In Ernakulam district, mangrove species mainly
Rhizophora, Avicennia, Acanthus as well as
Candelia candal occur in patches at several
places like Vypin, Panangad, Marad,
Kumbalam and Thripunithura.
Both the national highway and the railway
tract in this district traverse through the
mangrove patches. However, Mangalavanam
is unique in conservation of Cochin mangrove
diversity.
The common freshwater inhabiting hydrophytes that occur in
the lower reaches of Vembanad Lake at Kumarakom areas
include species such as Nymphoides indica, Pistia stratiotes,
Salvinia molesta, Eichhornia crassipes, Ludwigia adscendens,
Crinum defixum, etc. (Ramachandran and Mohan, 1987).
In the lower regions, coconut and arecanut platations are
grown along with mango, jack, pepper, etc. Paddy and tapioca
are the main cultivated crops. The coconut is the chief tree in
the coastal areas

28. Ashtamudi Backwaters
■ The Ashtamudi Lake has been designated as a Ramsar
Site (No.1204) August 2002 and is also a major tourist
place.
■ Ashtamudi being the second largest estuarine system in
Kerala covers an area of about 32 km2
■ It has eight major creeks known by different names.
■ The Kallada River originating from the Western Ghats
empties into the estuary at Arinalloor after traversing for
about 120km.
■ It has a permanent connection with the adjoining Arabian
Sea at Neendakara which is an important fishing
harbour.
■ The salt penetration is evident up to Uppukootu, a place
several km upstream.

29. ■ The estuarine system is divided into 4 zones
as shown in figure
■ 91 species belonging to 39 families which
comprises 68 species finfishes, 5 species of
crabs and 9 species each of prawns and
Molluscs
■ Of the 68 species of fishes, 24 typically
marine, 9 typically freshwater and four, typical
estuarine.
■ The rest were transient forms inhabiting
estuarine-riverine (8 species), marine-
estuarine (19 species) and marine-estuarine-
riverine (4 species).
■ Etroplus suratensis and Mugilidae support a
good fishery in this estuary.
Mullets Etroplus

30. ■ Astamudi estuary, particularly the Kureepuzhakayal, supports a gobioid fishery based on the
species Oxyurichthys tentacularis, (local name Koozhali). A modified gill net, “koozhalivala”, is
used for its fishing.
■ Gill net is the major gear (used for different type of fishes: njanduvala, chemmeenvala,
koozhalivala, choodavala, neetuvala, chalavala, vaisalivala andnandanvala).
■ Chinese and stake nets are the two main destructive methods of fishing employed in the lake.
Stake nets are used in the estuarine area.
■ The most dominant species in the Ashtamudi Lake clam fishery zone is Marcia recens which
was misidentified as Paphia malabira (short neck clam)
■ The latest in-depth taxonomic study points to the clam having been misidentified from the very
beginning. According to the finding of the team from Department of Aquatic Biology and
Fisheries, University of Kerala, and Graham Oliver of National Museum Wales, United
Kingdom, the Ashtamudi short-neck clam belongs to a totally different genus, while its rightful
scientific name actually is Marcia recens.

31. The fish caught from its waters, the paddy, coconut and other crops harvested along its banks,
the boats they build and use to transport them across the labyrinthine backwaters, are all an
integral part of their traditional way of backwater village life.
Fishing, along with fish curing is an important industry. These particular
processed product made is marketed in different places.
Kerala backwaters have been used for centuries by the local
people for transportation, fishing and agriculture
Boat making has been a traditional craft, so has been the coir
industry.
Kuttanad is crisscrossed with waterways that run alongside extensive
paddy fields, as well as fields of cassava, banana and yam.
A unique feature of Kuttanad is that many of these fields are below sea level
and are surrounded by earthen embankments.

32. Problems in Kerala backwaters
Factors responsible
Tidal
inflow
River
discharge
Agriculture Public-
private uses
Harbour and
urban
development
aquaculture
Causes
siltation Land reclamation
Shrinkage of vembanad backwaters
Vertical shrinkage Horizontal shrinkage

33. Impact of shrinkage on resources
Due to shrinkage in estuarine
systems, estuarine environment
dependant species like shellfish
fishery are badly affected.
Clam fishery has been destructed
due to
1.reduction in backwaters.
2.dredging for reclamation,
3.mining the subsoil shells,
4.saltwater extrusion project
Decreasing volume and limited
exchange rate with the sea
reduces diluting capacity of
backwater.
Agricultural runoff containing
pesticides is paralysing the
activities of fishes and shrimps

34. Threats to
the
Ecosyste
m
Microbial
contamination
around the port
area and river
zone
Pollution
due to coir
retting
Industrial
pollution
Over
exploitation
of fishery
resources
Sand
mining
Municipal
waste
disposal
Chemical
pollution
of water

35. Impact of Thannermukkom barrier
The construction of a 1402 m long barrier atThanneermukkom,
preventing saltwater intrusion into the southern part of the lake has
resulted in the conflicting interests of the agriculturists and
fishermen.
Due to the closure of the shutters of theThanneermukkom barrage,
free movement for foraging purpose becomes restricted.
The salt water incursions as well as tidal flow have been completely
arrested leading to unfavourable environment of the upstream
regions for marine fauna
Reclamation of land and construction of bund and bridges on the lake
and approach roads destroy floodplain, which is the breeding ground
of many fish species.

36. Major
threat to
fisheries
Migratory
path
obstacle by
thannermuk
kom bundh
Aquatic
weed
infestation
Jelly fish
nuisance
Pollution from
industries and
household
sources
Use of
destructive
fishing
practices
Use of
undersized
webbing
Pollution
due to
Aquatouris
m
Urbanized and
uncontrolled
construction
activities
Destruction
of
mangrove
areas
• Reports on the Vembanad ecosystem had pointed out that
electrocution, poisoning and use of explosives were common in the
Vembanad Lake, which is home to 150 species of fishes.
• use of adakkamkolli, which roughly translates into ‘kill-all’ nets and
virtual bottom trawling using small mesh nets were destroying
juveniles in sizeable quantities that the future of varieties such as
pearlspots (karimeen) was seriously threatened.
• Ettamkettu or trapping of fish in the landward side during high tides
had been detected in some places close to Kochi, sources in the
fisheries department said.
• laying of padal or secured artificial shelters that trap both adults and
juveniles. This method was unique to Astamudi backwaters.

37. INITIATIVES TOWARDS THE PROTECTION OF KERALA BACKWATERS
Haritha Keralam is an Umbrella Mission integrating the components ofWaste Management, Organic Farming, Water Resources Management.
ResponsibleTourism was put forth by the Government in February 2007 with the State level consultative meeting titled ‘BetterTogether’.
Through the Department ofTourism (DoT) and the Destination Level ResponsibleTourism Committees (DLRTC) Govt plans and executes
destination level programmes under the control of State Level ResponsibleTourism Committee SLRTC.
State Wetland Authority, Kerala (SWAK) is a statutory authority meant to function as State’s nodal agency to implement the task of policy
development, regulatory frame works, integrated management, planning, implementation of action plans, capacity building, research,
networking, communication, awareness, creation and raising of funds for wetland management.
Kerala State Pollution Control Board’s (PCB) Alappuzha unit in association with houseboat owners, the ResponsibleTourism Mission and
various other agencies to ridVembanad Lake of plastic waste, came up with an idea- “Collect 100 plastic bottles and win a relaxing
houseboat cruise on the backwaters of Alappuzha”.
Kerala Coastal Zone Management Authority (KCZMA) have confirmed that banks of the lake have as many as 625 large buildings blatantly
violating CRZ rules and can be bracketed along with Kapico Resorts and Maradu flats.
The Maradu flats demolitions and the subsequent judicial scrutiny of the violations onVembanad as perThe Supreme Court
orders for the violation of CRZ rules, are giving hope of a possible rebirth of the lake.
The District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) and the Brackish water Fish Farmers Development Agency (BFFDA)
are jointly implementing plans for the development.

38. References
U. K. GOPALAN, DOYIL T. VENGAYIL, P. UDAYAVARMAAND M. KRISHNANKUTTY, THE
SHRINKING BACKWATERS OF KERALA , J. mar. biol. Ass. India, 1983, 25 (1 & 2): 131 -141
 Editor-Director. 2009. Faunal Diversity of Vembanad Lake - A Ramsar site in Kerala, India, Wetland Ecosystem
Series,10 : 1-192. (Published by the Director, Zool. Surv. India, Kolkata)
 Thomson, K.T., 2002. Economic and social issues of biodiversity loss in Cochin backwaters. In Technical report
(pp. 51-82). Cochin University of Science and Technology Cochin, India.Vijaya Krishna, A. and Ammini, P.,
2018. Population characteristics of Villorita cyprinoides in Vembanad Lake, India. Lake and reservoir
management, 34(2), pp.130-140.
 Leena Grace, B., 2014. Biodiversity of Three Backwaters in the South West Coast of India. International
Journal of Biodiversity, 2014.
 www.Wikipedia.org
 envt.kerala.gov.in/state-wetland-authority-kerala-swak
 envt.kerala.gov.in
 https://www.keralatourism.org/responsible-tourism
 Newspaper Articles