V5n2 lodge act_part_2

28 Veritas
America’s Foreign Legionnaires:
The Lodge Act Soldiers –Part II
by Charles H. Briscoe
28 Veritas

u Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.,
the U.S. Ambassador to South
Vietnam in the 1960s, was the
primary architect of the post-WWII
East European alien enlistment
program for the U.S. Army.
John C. Anderson*
(Karlis J. Borovskis)
Peter V. Astalos
Edward Bator
Bronislaw Binas
Andre V. Carson*
(Andrej Vasilev)
Paul Ettman
Karel Fux
Egon Goldschmidts
John F. Gordon*
(Woloszyn Wojciech)
John Honer*
(Johann Hontschlaeger)
Rudolph G. Horvath
Vaclav Hradecky
Frank Jaks*
(Frantisek Jaks)
John Koenig
Frank Kokosza*
(Franciszek Kokosza)
Victor Kreisman
Henry M. Kwiatkowski
Clarence C. Mann
Josef Masin
Ctirad Masin
Stanley Minkinow*
(Stanislaw Minkinorow)
Teodor Padalinski
Anthony Pilarczyk
Julius Reinitzer
Hans Saul
Stanley Skowron*
(Stanislaw Skowrovy)
Walter J. Smith*
(Wladyslaw J. Naumowicz)
Jan J. Strek
Henryk Szarek
George S. Taylor*
(Ryszard J. Tayler)
Martin Urich
Jan Wiatr
Lucien Zochowski*
(Lucjan Zochowski)
Lodge Act & Family Contributors
*Changed Name
assachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. (Republican),
who as a U.S. Sixth Army staff officer in WWII, had
seen the British, Russians, and Germans use foreign
military units, had promoted the formation of a Volunteer
Freedom Corps (VFC) since 1948. The VFC, made up
of stateless East European males, was to be a bulwark
against Communism on the continent. While some U.S.
congressmen recognized its merits, the postwar West
European governments regarded the formation of a multi-
national paramilitary element as a potential economic
burden and possible threat to stability.
The single step towards a VFC was passed by Congress
on 30 June 1950 five days after North Korea invaded the
South. The initial Lodge Act (U.S. Public Law 597, 81st
Congress, 2nd
Session) authorized voluntary enlistment of
2,500 unmarried foreign national males in the U.S. Army
for five years.1
It was almost a year before the first group
of forty-five Lodge Act enlistees was sworn in at the 720th
Replacement Battalion in Sonthofen, Germany. By then,
the Congress had raised the authorization to 12,500, but
prohibitions on recruiting in Austria, France, Belgium, the
Netherlands, Luxemburg, and Germany [the future NATO
(North Atlantic Treaty Organization) members] negated
opportunities to reach the increased authorization.2
The Cold War had already doomed the program. The
final number of enlistees (1,302) was just over half of the
2,500 authorized in 1950, and just 10.4 % of the 12,500.3
Little more than a hundred of the Lodge Act soldiers, all
of whom enlisted in the U.S. Army in Germany, would
be assigned to Special Forces and Psychological Warfare
units between 1951 and 1955.4
The Lodge Act soldiers should not to be confused with
the émigré aliens who joined the Army in the United
States under the provisions of Army Regulations (AR)
601-210 and 601-249. As alien émigrés their five years
residence for citizenship began when they entered the
U.S., not after joining the service.5
Thus, those aliens that
enlisted in the U.S. in the 1950s could become eligible for
naturalization with less than five years of military service;
Lodge Act soldiers could not. Army Special Regulation
(SR) 615-120-15 dated 19 December 1952 applied only to
Lodge Act enlistees.6
This article will cover some Lodge Act enlistee
experiences as they transited Camp Kilmer, New
Jersey, enroute to basic combat training or English
language school at Fort Devens, Massachusetts. Selected
circumstances at basic and airborne training will follow.
After first unit postings, how some of the Lodge Act
men got into Special Forces and Psychological Warfare
at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, proved interesting. Since
recruitment,administrativeprocessing,andassimilation
of the Lodge Act soldiers was a constant “work in
progress” during the Korean War era, few routines were
established and standards simply evolved. How one
group was processed in 1951 did not mean that the next
and subsequent groups were handled the same way.
The Congressionally-mandated Lodge Act enlistment
was for only five years. Contrary to popular Special Forces
mythology not every Lodge Act soldier volunteered for
airborneletaloneSFtraining.Therewasneveran“alumni”
association. Long term friendships were maintained
by some military careerists. The vast majority worked
themselves into American society after their five years in
the conventional Army. The conclusion explains why the
alien recruiting program in Europe (1950-1955), though a
success for individuals, did not meet the expectations of
Senator Lodge, provides commonalities among Lodge Act
enlistees, and shows the impact that they had on Special
Forces during their service and afterwards.
While the article will span experiences over five
years, it must be remembered that this Congressional
program was conducted by U.S. Army, Europe, Adjutant
General (USAREUR AG) in the early years of the Cold
War, during a hot war in Korea and an ongoing Red
Scare in the United States,
and while presidentially-
mandated integration of
the armed forces was taking
M
Vol. 5 No. 2 29

p Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. shakes hands with Private
Stanislaw P. Nowalski (Poland) in Havens Hall, Camp
Kilmer, NJ on Sunday, 14 October 1951. Standing in the
background left to right are: BG Charles F. Craig, CG, Camp
Kilmer; COL W.H. Nutter, Deputy Chief of Staff, First Army,
and LTC James F. Delaney, 1277th ASU (Army Support Unit)
Reception Center commander.
p PVT Edward Bator and friend from the last
Lodge Act group aboard ship in 1955.
p Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. chats with Private Thomas
Von Doza and several of his Lodge Act buddies about their
impressions of the U.S. Army and the United States outside
their barracks at Camp Kilmer, NJ on 14 October 1951.
p Aerial view of Camp Kilmer, NJ, where most Lodge Act soldiers were
in-processed in the United States.
place. Just as recruiting and induction was a continual
work in progress, training and assignment of the new
soldiers from East Europe in America was likewise. It
was the personal determination of these 1,300 enlistees
that made the initiative viable. However, enthusiasm
was severely tested crossing the North Atlantic aboard
U.S. military troop ships.
The majority of the Lodge Act enlistees were seasick.
The winter crossings were the worse. When Walter
Smith spotted the Empire State Building towering above
the New York skyline, he knew that they had entered a
“new world.”7
Sometimes the troops were unloaded onto
barges when the Army Transportation Corps dock was
occupied by another troopship.8
But, once everyone got
ashore in the New York Terminal, the Lodge Act soldiers
boarded a bus for Camp Kilmer, New Jersey (*Note: By
the fall of 1955 when the last group of Lodge Act soldiers (14)
came to the U.S., they were processed through Fort Hamilton,
NY, before being shipped to Fort Dix, NJ.9
The newly-arrived recruits quickly discovered that the
barracks at Camp Kilmer were a major step down from
the Sonthofen kaserne that housed German SS officer
candidates during WWII. “That was more like a hotel
with two to four men per room with their own bathroom.
Many rooms had balconies and views of the Bavarian
Alps,” stated Second Lieutenant (2LT) Clarence C. “Larry”
Mann, the replacement company commander.10
The
wooden “temporary” two-story barracks, constructed
in the country between Edison and Piscataway, NJ, for
Army divisions slated for the war in Europe, would
house the Lodge Act soldiers.11
It was there that Senator
Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. welcomed the first group of alien
enlistees to America.
On 14 October 1951 the junior senator from Massachusetts
explained that “above all we want you to feel that you do
not enter the U.S. Army as mercenaries or as a foreign
legion. You are very definitely volunteers in the world
struggle for human freedom.”12
His short visit was a
memorable event for the Lodge Act soldiers. The senator
formally shook the hand of all soldiers and posed for
30 Veritas

u Artist sketch of The
Army Hour television show
with PVT Rudi Horvath
from Hungary. Illustration
by Mariano Santillan
p PVT Frantisek Jaks and a few Lodge Act buddies at Camp Kilmer, New
Jersey, in February 1953.
pPrivate Teodor W. Padalinski at Camp Kilmer,
NJ, in late April 1952.
pPVTs Victor Kreisman (2nd soldier from left) and Josef
Torok (4th soldier from left) get USO tour at Camp Kilmer.
photos outside the barracks. The first group of 45 came
from Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union, Hungary,
Bulgaria, Poland, Latvia, Estonia, and Rumania.13
Andre
Carson, a Bulgarian, commented, “About thirty percent
of us were Poles. Because many of the Czechs were from
the Sudetenland, I could speak ‘Volks Deutsch’ (peoples’
German) to them and use Russian with a former Soviet
paratrooper, Yuri Asurenko.”14
Senator Lodge was not happy with how the military
was implementing the Lodge Act. He sent repeated
letters to Army officials complaining that they were not
aggressive enough in recruiting aliens. Lodge wanted the
Army to streamline and simplify its registration, testing,
and background security investigations, and he pushed
the Chief of Staff of the Army to appoint an energetic,
committed general to oversee the project. However,
the small postwar Army, fighting an undeclared war
Vol. 5 No. 2 31

“Remember, it was 1952. TV was very new
and the broadcasts were quite primitive. I tried
to answer all the questions to the best of my
ability and thus became a ‘shadow TV star.’”
— Rudolph G. Horvath
p Frank Jaks and his Lodge Act group at Fort Devens, Massachusetts, for English language training in 1953.
p Franciszek Kokosza and his Lodge Act group marching at
Fort Devens, Massachusetts.
in Korea, was unwilling to devote much effort beyond
publicizing it.15
In November 1951, the Army Information Digest,
published by the Public Affairs Office (PAO), explained
the “alien enlistment program” in hypothetical terms. “A
young man…once a loyal citizen of a European country…
that have been swallowed up in the aftermath of war and
no longer exist as independent political entities, Doe and
thousands more like him fled his native land and can
never go back. He found refuge in the United States Zone
of Germany. Whether he be a displaced person (DP), a
stateless person, or an exile, his status for the purpose
of this story is the same.”16
This was the staff response.
Army commanders were not being held accountable.
Going beyond its origins as a WWII radio show, The
Army Hour dedicated a television broadcast to the Lodge
Act program. Hungarian Rudolf G. Horvath and George
S. Taylor from Poland, who were in basic combat training
at Fort Dix, NJ, were taken to Radio City in New York City.
The two were escorted by their company commander, a
black captain and Korean War veteran. Horvath agreed
to answer questions hidden by a screen because his
family was still behind the Iron Curtain. The producer
agreed because it added some mystery. “Remember, it
was 1952. TV was very new and the broadcasts were quite
primitive. I tried to answer all the questions to the best of
my ability and thus became a ‘shadow TV star,’” laughed
the good-natured Horvath years later.17
Like recruiting,
testing, and induction done by the USAREUR Adjutant
General (AG), the Lodge Act program was administered
by staff elements in the stateside Army. The program
was not made a command issue. At troop level where
the individual Lodge Act enlistees were, they were
processed through Camp Kilmer, NJ, like all other new
U.S. Army recruits.
More technical aptitude, general intelligence, and
English language examinations were given, medical
and dental records were screened, and a physical fitness
test was administered to verify the individual records
prepared by USAREUR. At Camp Kilmer further orders
were cut based on English language proficiency.18
Lodge
Act soldiers with a “satisfactory” understanding of
English were sent directly to Army branch basic combat
training (BCT) centers according to individual technical
aptitude scores. The rest were sent to Fort Devens,
Massachusetts, for eight weeks of English language
training before starting BCT. Sometimes, the system
short-circuited.
Henryk Szarek, a French Foreign Legion paratrooper
and Indochina War veteran, was given a “P1” rating
(qualified for parachute and combat arms training).
Though scheduled for English language training at Fort
Devens, his orders were reversed; the English speakers
were shipped to Fort Devens and those that did not were
sent to the 9th
Infantry Division at Fort Dix, NJ, for sixteen
weeks of basic and advanced infantry training.19
The difficulties of teaching a new language to men 18
to 35 years old whose educations ranged from primary
32 Veritas

“I was in the second group. It was cold
as hell at Fort Devens in January 1952.
I slept between two bunk bed mattresses
to keep warm in those old barracks.”
— Egon Goldschmidts
p Vaclav Hradecky (left) and a Lodge Act buddy pose by the
Detachment 1, 1013th ASU (Army Support Unit) Language
Qualification sign at Fort Devens.
p The Elementary Spoken and
Written English Course certificate
issued to Private E-2 Bronislaw
Binas on 17 July 1952 by the
1013th ASU, Reception Center,
Fort Devens, Massachusetts.
u PVT Henry Kwiatkowski with
one of the military English
instructors at Fort Devens.
p Vaclav Hradecky and Lodge Act friends relax at Ayer lake in Massachusetts. p (L) Jan Wiatr and Josef Bukartek at
Fort Devens.
to secondary school levels (American equivalents) were
tremendous. The number of teachers today, who know
that one’s ability to learn another language after the age of
twenty-five drops dramatically, are limited. Most of those
with a natural gift for languages had already learned
enough English to be sent directly to basic training. As
the Lodge Act soldiers soon realized, speaking was just
one aspect of learning English while simultaneously
trying to assimilate American culture. Conditions
conducive to learning were important as well.
Latvian Egon Goldschmidts remembered: “I was
inthesecondgroup.ItwascoldashellatFortDevens
in January 1952. I slept between two bunk bed
mattresses to keep warm in those old barracks.”20
“That was where I met Frantisek Jaks from Jablonc,
Czechoslovakia,” said Jan Wiatr from Poland. “He
was finishing up as my group began classes.”21
“Most of the twenty-six Lodge Act guys in my
class were Poles so I learned a lot of Polish and a little
English,” recalled Jaks. “It was very basic…identifying
things in pictures, describing them—colors, objects, etc.
and responding to commands like ‘Put your hand on
your head’ in English. Our teachers were civilians and
soldiers. They tried hard but it was difficult because we
ranged in ages from 18 to 35 and had different educations
Vol. 5 No. 2 33

p Lodge Act recruits at the Greyhound Bus terminal after a
day of sightseeing in Boston. The train was also popular.
p Playing volleyball at Fort Devens, MA.
q Julius Reinitzer with his group at Fort Devens, MA in 1952.
p Private Stanley Skowron
received the English Course
Certificate at Fort Devens,
MA from COL George V. Baker
on 15 April 1954.
p A group of Lodge Act soldiers visit the Minuteman
statue in Concord, MA.
and language aptitudes. There were also several barracks
filled with Puerto Ricans who took English in the
afternoons.”22
“We started with the alphabet, just like
First grade in grammar school,” remarked Martin Urich
from Filibovo, Yugoslavia.23
It was a gentleman’s course compared to BCT and
parachute school. “Language classes were in the mornings.
We had reading and spelling tests weekly. At the end of
the course we retook our first exam to see how much we
had improved in eight weeks,” said Walter Smith.24
“My
test scores showed that I had improved 8 percent after eight
weeks of classes. While that was mediocre, it was typical,”
said Egon Goldschmidts, the ex-Luftwaffe pilot and
graduate of the prestigious Hugo Daimler-Benz Institute.25
Close order drill, physical training, and sports filled
the afternoons. Passes were liberal after Saturday
Morning Inspections (SMI). Bus service into town (Ayer)
and Boston was readily available. With a sizeable Polish-
American population around Fort Devens the ethnic
clubs in Lowell, Lawrence, and Worcester were popular
with the Poles. For soldiers in uniform drinks in the clubs
were usually gratis.26
Yugoslav Martin Urich visited some
of his mother’s relatives who had emigrated to Long
Island, NY in the 1920’s.27
“When asked at Fort Devens which branch I wanted,
I simply said ‘Airborne’ like several others. We were
assigned to the 11th
Airborne Division for basic training.
I was a Private E-2 rifleman in F Company, 511th
Infantry
34 Veritas

“I carried simple phrases written on scraps
of paper; English on one side, German on the
other. I pulled them out of my pocket one by one,
cycling through them until I learned every one.
Off duty I read comic books and went to lots of
movies because they were cheap ways to learn
English (10 cents and 20 cents respectively).”
— Andre V. Carson
p PVT Karel Fux (rear rank – right) attended
Transportation Corps AIT at Fort Eustis, VA.
82nd Airborne
Division SSI
2nd Special
Engineer Brigade
(Amphibious) SSI
69th Infantry
Division SSI
11th Airborne
Division SSI
q PVT Stanley Skowron was retained as AIT cadre in the 69th Infantry Division at
Fort Dix, NJ, for three months.
q PVT Egon Goldschmidts (wearing the garrison
cap) was part of the second group of Lodge Act
soldiers and served in the 2nd Special Engineer
Brigrade (Amphibious) in Korea.
Third U. S. Army SSI
when I went to jump school at Fort Benning, Georgia. In
those days it took 18 months to make PFC. By then I was
an acting sergeant in 3rd
Platoon, H Company,” said Frank
Jaks. “Promotion was really slow in the 11th
Airborne, so
I volunteered for Special Forces.” 28
Slated for the 11th
Airborne, Vaclav Hradecky was sent
to B Battery, 89th
Field Artillery (FA) Battalion (Bn) for
sixteen weeks of basic training before being assigned to
B Battery, 457th
FA Battalion (Airborne). “After Sonthofen
and Fort Devens, I looked like an old soldier in my
starched khakis and shined boots, but couldn’t speak
English very well. The basic instructors were oblivious of
language problems. Designated a squad leader, I ‘taught’
my men how to scrub latrines, sew on patches, and set
up footlocker displays by simply showing them. I did
it without talking. It was just leading by example,” said
Hradecky. “How I survived blackout driving in a deuce
and a half [2 ½ ton] truck to get a driver’s license, I’ll never
know.”29
The Czech from Bilenice learned that each day
in the Army would be another challenge. Three Lodge
Act men who ended up in Special Forces, Jan Wiatr,
Andre Carson, and Walter Smith, had very different basic
training experiences at Fort Dix.
“After English language school several of us were
assigned to H Company, 42nd
Infantry Regiment for basic.
The company was filled with Puerto Ricans. The cadre
figured that since we all spoke foreign languages that we
could communicate with one another. I learned quite a
lot of Spanish. The only English words that the Puerto
Ricans paid attention to were ‘mess hall’ and ‘pass’”
chuckled Wiatr.30
“None of our instructors spoke foreign
languages. I simply said, ‘Yes, sergeant,’ and mimicked
what the other recruits were doing. I was always a half
step or a move behind and was constantly ‘chewed out’
for being slow and for not understanding,” remembered
Andre Carson.31
“The lieutenant couldn’t pronounce my
name (Wladyslaw J. Naumowicz), so he simply called
me ‘No Name’ and chalked it on my helmet liner,” said
Walter J. Smith.32
Trying to improve their understanding
and spoken English were constant struggles.
“Since we marched to all training, I carried simple
phrases written on scraps of paper; English on one side,
German on the other. I pulled them out of my pocket one
by one, cycling through them until I learned every one.
Off duty I read comic books and went to lots of movies
because they were cheap ways to learn English (10 cents
and 20 cents respectively). I reduced my vocabulary study
by determining which words meant the same thing. As
I marched through the winter morning snow, the rain at
noon, and the afternoon sunshine at Fort Dix, studying
my phrases on scraps of paper, my English improved,”
said Carson.33
For some Lodge Act soldiers Fort Dix was
a good assignment.
“I was assigned to D Company, 364th
Infantry, 9th
ID
while Stanley Minkinow went to a different company. All
Vol. 5 No. 2 35

q SSG Lucien Zochowski was an M-46 gunner
and tank commander in the tank company of the
21st Infantry Regiment, 24th Infantry Division.
q SSG Karel Fux, a Czech, and
SSG Edward Bator, a Pole, were
neighbors in Nellingen, Germany.
t PVT Edward Bator’s
bunk photo for AIT with
the 3rd Infantry at Fort
Benning, Georgia.
the recruits in my company had ‘A to J’ names. I was the
only ‘K’ name so I never pulled KP (kitchen police), guard
duty, or any details. I was paid by other soldiers to pull
their guard duty. By splitting the money with the tactical
sergeant, I was off every weekend to go to New York or
Trenton and do what I wanted,” chuckled an enterprising
John Koenig. “It was so good that I spent another year at
Fort Dix as a company clerk before going to Augsburg,
Germany.”34
Stanley Skowron from Podgorzc, Poland,
was kept on after AIT at Fort Dix as cadre for three
months in the 69th
Infantry Division.35
Henry Kwiatkowski, unlike the vast majority of Lodge
Act soldiers, got married in the Catholic Chapel at Fort
Dix the day after completing basic training. Army Special
Regulation (SR) 615-120-15, Subject: Enlisted Personnel:
Enlistment of Aliens in the Regular Army, 19 December
1952specifiedthatLodgeActenlistees“remainunmarried
until the completion of basic training.” The honeymoon
was short. Kwiatkowski had orders to airborne school at
Fort Benning, GA, enroute to Special Forces at Fort Bragg,
NC.36
Most Lodge Act soldiers elected not to volunteer for
parachute training nor Special Forces.
Lucjan Zochowski, featured in a 11 October 1953 Stars
and Stripes article, “27 Refugees Find Army Leading to
New Way of Life, ” was one of the older Lodge Act recruits
at 33, who processed at Sonthofen, Germany, in 1953 with
Henryk Szarek (photo on page 41, “America’s Foreign
Legionnaires: The Lodge Act Soldiers – Part I,” Veritas,
5:1:2009). Instead of being sent to Fort Devens and then
to Fort Dix for infantry basic training, Zochowski was
assigned directly to the 3rd
Armored Division at Fort Knox,
Kentucky. There, he was trained as an M-46 and M-47
“Patton” tank crewman before going to the war in Korea.
The Pole served as an M-46 gunner and tank commander
in the 21st
Infantry Regiment’s tank company.37
Latvian Egon Goldschmidts, who served as a Luftwaffe
pilot during WWII, graduated from the Hugo Daimler-Benz
Institute in Konigsburg before being drafted in 1944. Based
on a postwar Axis equipment analysis assignment with the
U.S. Army in Bavaria, Goldschmidts was sent to Ordnance
basic and AIT at Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD. He
served with the 2nd
Special Engineer Brigade (Amphibious)
in Korea during the war and Japan afterwards.38
Edward Bator, from Chocznia, Poland, did pipeline
construction at Mildenhall Airbase in England before
enlisting under the Lodge Act. Labeled as fluent in
English, Bator did BCT with the 69th
Infantry Division at
Fort Dix. Then, he and fellow Lodge Act comrades Emil
P. Fiszer, Gyorgy Gaal, Janos G. Nemeth, and Franciszek
Turewicz went to Fort Benning for AIT in the 3rd
Infantry
Division. Bator was sent to a US Army engineer pipeline
construction battalion in France and lost contact with
Lodge Act soldiers until assigned to Nellingen, Germany.
SSG Karel Fux from Czechoslovakia, a truckmaster in a
transportation battalion, was his neighbor in government
quarters. While the majority of Lodge Act soldiers served
36 Veritas

q Victor Kreisman served in the Israeli Army and Navy
from 1948-1953.
p Henry M. Kwiatkowski’s short tenure in the Polish Naval
Academy before serving as a merchant seaman on the
MS Batory of the Gdynia-America Line was enough for
Army CIC to deny him a security clearance.
p PFC Henryk Szarek (center) was a former French Foreign
Legion paratrooper assigned to the 10th SFG.
u French
Parachute Badge
the Army in conventional assignments, airborne volunteers
often sought out Special Forces assignments.
While assigned to the I&R (Intelligence & Reconnaissance)
Platoon of the 504th
Parachute Infantry Regiment (PIR), 82nd
Airborne Division in the summer of 1952, Corporal (CPL)
Stanley Minkinow, was contacted by an “older” lieutenant
(most likely 2LT Caesar J. Civitella, a WWII OSS veteran
and ex-504th
PIR Intelligence Sergeant) recruiting for
Special Forces. “He spoke of living with guerrillas in the
woods, operating behind enemy lines in civilian clothes,
things that would appeal to an ambitious and adventurous
young man,” said the young Pole. “He told me to report to
Captain Herbert R. Brucker in the Special Forces office in
the Psywar Center on Smoke Bomb Hill. The next thing
that I knew I was a guerrilla supporting Brucker’s escape
and evasion (E&E) exercise, TENDERFOOT, at Camp
Mackall,” said Minkinow.39
It was late 1955 when SF
radioman Minkinow, Paul Ettman, and Henryk “Frenchy”
Szarek left the 77th
SFG for the 10th
in Germany.40
Private Szarek happened to meet a German-speaking
SF soldier on leave enroute to 10th
SFG in the post exchange
(PX) at Fort Dix. He explained what Special Forces were
all about and told Szarek to find Colonel (COL) Edson D.
Raff, the 77th
SFG commander, when he got to Fort Bragg.
Though assigned to the 82nd
Airborne Division’s 504th
PIR, the former French Foreign Legion paratrooper “bee-
lined” straight to Smoke Bomb Hill. The intrepid Raff
could not help. The Indochina veteran with two combat
jumps was sent to the division jump school to
become “American airborne qualified” and to
do a lot of push-ups. 41
“My big French jump wings got
me a lot of push-ups. After serving in
the Legion, the only assignment that
appealed was Special Forces. I did not
want the parades, singing cadence
while running, or spit-shined boots.
Those guys were just soldiering. SF could use my foreign
languages and experience, but COL Raff lectured me in
French after jump school when I tried again. ‘If I cannot
get you assigned as a colonel, how can you do it?’ I said,
‘Sometimes little guys can get things done that the big
people cannot.’ So, I got my car and drove to the Pentagon,
found my military file, and went to the SF assignment
office. At first they were reluctant because another Legion
veteran had refused to go to SF, but I convinced them and
got my orders to the 77th
SFG on 21 September 1954. Boy,
was COL Raff surprised!”42
Szarek’s comrade, Jan Wiatr,
did not have to go to all that bother.
“In January 1953, Lieutenant [2LT Timothy G.] Gannon
and Sergeant First Class [SFC Antonino] Tony Zarba
came to Fort Dix to recruit volunteers for Special Forces.
Those of us who did would go to jump school at Fort
Benning next. Then, we would go to Fort Bragg for more
training. That all sounded good to me. I wanted to go
to the war in Korea,” said Wiatr.43
Teodor Padalinski
thought that Special Forces were actually Special Services
(today’s Morale, Welfare and Recreation) and he felt that
Vol. 5 No. 2 37

“When I got back to Fort Campbell and the first
sergeant saw my wings, he welcomed me like
some kind of hero. Finally, I had been accepted.”
— Vaclav Hradecky
p LtoR: SFC Michael Kremar (Czech), SP3 John F. Gordon (Pole),
and Michael Daradan (Russian) were sworn in as naturalized
citizens in the U.S. District Court in Washington, DC in late
August 1956.
t PVT Walter Smith while
in Airborne School (March
1953) at Fort Benning, GA.
he “had it made” in the
Army until they shipped
him off to Fort Benning to
jump school.44
When Czech
Vaclav Hradecky completed
artillery basic at Fort
Campbell, he was still not
accepted; he was just a “leg”
(non-airborne) in the 457th
FA Battalion (Airborne). The
Army was not prepared to train foreign volunteers.
“The first sergeant of B Battery, 457th
FA Battalion, 11th
Airborne Division did not know what to do with someone
who spoke little English and was not airborne-qualified.
After weeks as the Dining Room Orderly [DRO] in the
messhall, I was sent off to the dispensary for all kinds
of shots and told to pack my bags for Fort Benning. The
band was playing when my bus arrived. When I got off,
all hell broke loose. The instructors descended on us like
locusts, screaming orders to drop for push-ups. Our heads
were shaved several times. Since I copied the responses
to these orders, I was always a half step behind,” related
the Czech private.
“During the 34-foot tower training, I happened to
be the fifth man in line. I put my risers over the wrong
shoulder for the left door because that’s how the guys
in front of me did it. After doing 40 squat jumps three
times for not repositioning my risers the tower sergeant
said ‘Don’t you understand English?’ When I said, ‘No,’
he looked at me incredulously, but he called down for a
corporal that spoke Serbo-Croatian. After that, instead of
responding when I did something wrong, I ignored them
and dropped for 40 push-ups. I was the only one of the
four guys from my battalion to graduate. When I got back
to Fort Campbell and the first sergeant saw my wings,
he welcomed me like some kind of hero. Finally, I had
been accepted,” said Private Hradecky.45
Walter Smith from Majdan, Poland, wanted to go to
KoreaafterBCTatFortDix.HewastoldthatallLodgeAct
soldiers were going to Special Forces at Fort Bragg, NC,
and then would attend airborne training at Fort Benning,
GA. After finishing jump school on 3 April 1953, Smith
was assigned to the 10th
SFG’s FA Team 39 with then SGT
Clyde J. Sincere, Jr.46
Czech Victor Kreisman related a
similar account of his Lodge Act group. “After basic at
Fort Dix, we were all sent to the 82nd
Airborne Division
for jump school enroute to Special Forces. Those Lodge
Act guys having a hard time with parachute training
feared that failure to graduate would jeopardize their
enlistment and they’d be sent back to Eastern Europe.
They were quite relieved to know that they would be
reassigned to the non-airborne 525th
Military Intelligence
Battalion to ‘finish their five years on the bayonet’ as they
say in the Israeli Army” said Kreisman.47
Not all airborne-qualified Lodge Act soldiers sent to SF
wereallowedtostay.HenryM.Kwiatkowski,fromJaroslav,
Poland, a merchant seaman on the M.S. Batory (Gdynia-
American Line), jumped ship in Copenhagen, Denmark in
1950. After service in the Auxiliary Service of the British
Army of the Rhine, he joined Polish Labor Service (LS) in
Captieu, France. There he volunteered for the U.S. Army.
Assigned to the 77th
SFG, the Polish demolitions specialist
was assigned to an SF team after finishing jump school.
When his security clearance was not granted after several
months, the SF aspirant was sent for a polygraph. His short
time at the Polish Naval Academy, not the Bronze Cross of
Valor awarded to the M.S. Batory seaman for smuggling the
SecretaryoftheAmericanCommunistPartyoutoftheU.S.,
doomed his chances for a clearance. After just four months
in SF, the newly-wed Army private was unceremoniously
reassigned to the 82nd
Airborne Division.48
While provided the opportunity to volunteer for
airborne training, not every Lodge Act man, whose age
ranged from 18 to 35, wanted to go let alone join Special
Forces. Franciszek “Frank” Kokosza from Warsaw and
another Pole (John F. Gordon) were sent directly from
Fort Dix to Fort Benning in late 1952. “When we arrived
and I saw everyone double-timing around, I said, ‘What’s
going on? I didn’t volunteer for jump school.’ Because I
refused to go, I had to march around the interior of those
big quadrangle barracks carrying a rifle and a pack full
of bricks. At each corner I had to yell out, ‘I’m a quitter.’
That was OK as long as they fed me and gave me a place
to sleep. After several days they finally gave up and sent
both of us to the 6th
RB&L Group (Radio Broadcast and
38 Veritas

p SGT George Taylor* in Korea with the
987th Field Artillery in 1953.
p CPL Anthony Pilarczyk, 13th Consolidated Company, U.S. Army
Psywar Center, was the repair parts and supply clerk in the 6th
RB&L Group Motor Pool on Smoke Bomb Hill, Fort Bragg, NC.
While he did some radio broadcast work, Pilarczyk learned to
drive a 2 ½ ton truck supporting the 10th SFG.
q LtoR George S. Taylor, John F. Gordon, and Anthony Pilarczyk with their first car
at the Psychological Warfare Center on Smoke Bomb Hill, Fort Bragg, NC, 1952.
Leaflet) at Fort Bragg,” said Kokosza. “I showed that I
was a good soldier, so my first sergeant sent me to the
6th
Armored Cavalry Regiment in Germany in 1953.
Twenty-seven months after enlisting at Sonthofen, I was
an SFC (E-6). Those who went to SF early were PFCs
and CPLs.”49
In 1962, SFC (E-7) Kokosza volunteered for
Special Forces.50
Meanwhile, John F. Gordon served as a light vehicle
driver and automotive repairman in Headquarters &
Headquarters Company (HHC), 6th
RB&L Group from
May 1952 until February 1954, when he left for Japan
and the Army Ordnance Automotive Rehabilitation
Depot (8071 AU) at Oppama. While there he visited SGT
Anthony J. Pilarczyk, the former 6th
RB&L parts clerk, who
was assigned to the Ordnance Depot in Tokyo. At the end
of August 1956, Specialist Three (SP3) Gordon returned
to Washington, DC, to become an American citizen in the
U.S. Federal District Court with ten other East European
refugees. Though all were aliens, Gordon was the only
Lodge Act enlistee in the group. He returned to spend
five years in Japan.51
George S. Taylor, Poznan, Poland, was assigned as the
Headquarters Company clerk in the Psywar Center, but
trained with the 8th
Mobile Radio Broadcast Company of
the 6th
RB&L. His warrant officer supervisor, WO Surles,
erroneously told him that he could not be assigned to
Europe because he was not an American citizen. But,
service in the Far East was OK. By mid-November 1953,
SGT Taylor was in the 987th
Field Artillery Battalion in
Korea and the Lodge Act soldiers in the 10th
SFG were in
Germany. Following his Korea tour Taylor volunteered
for Yokohama, Japan, and renewed his acquaintance with
two old friends from the 6th
RB&L Group at Fort Bragg,
John F. Gordon and Anthony J. Pilarczyk.52
Unlike Lucien Zochowski, Romanian Peter Astalos
and Yugoslav Martin Urich, WWII German Panzer
veterans of the Russian Front, wanted to go to tank
training. But, instead of basic armor and AIT at Fort
Knox, KY the two recruits fought forest fires. “We were
curiosities. The Armor School officers and sergeants
were more interested in German tanks and knowing
about our experiences. It was easy to figure out how to
operate the American tanks. They were pretty good, but
the German Tiger I and King Tiger tanks were the best
in the world, considering most had the extended barrel
88mm gun. U.S. main tank guns were quite inferior to
what we used,” said Urich, a well-decorated veteran like
Astalos.53
When the two reported in to the 10th
SFG, COL
Aaron Bank welcomed them in perfect German.54
They
were assigned to FA Teams and sent to Fort Benning
for jump school. The twenty-eight year old former coal
miner and textile worker, Astalos, enjoyed mountain,
glacier, and ice climbing and ski training in Colorado and
Wyoming before going to Germany with the 10th
SFG.55
Pole Stanley Skowron, another coal miner, had a much
different experience.
Vol. 5 No. 2 39

t The WWI Polish eagle
coat of arms. q The Polish
Silver Cross of Valor
was awarded to Stanley
Skowron’s father by the
Russian Czar for gallantry
in action in WWI.
p 10th SFG Lodge Act soldiers during snowshoe training in
Germany. (LtoR) Paul Ettman, Teodor Padalinski, Zbigniew
Bernatowicz, Alexander A. Paduch, Jan Wiatr, unk, and
Tadeus Kempczyk.
t PVTs Martin Urich and Peter
Astalos during BCT at Fort Knox, KY.
t The 6th RB&L Group
published “The Psyn-Post” to
keep the printers and Psywar
writers busy. It highlighted
activities on Smoke Bomb Hill
at Fort Bragg, NC.
u After the Lodge Act soldiers in
the 6th RB&L translated Communist
Bloc radio broadcasts, they were
transcribed, summarized, and printed
daily as a training exercise. This was a
boon to SF recruiting.
Skowron, the son of a highly decorated WWI veteran,
had done forced labor in Germany from 1939 until 1945.
After a five-year stint as a coal miner in Holland, he
rejoined the Polish Labor Service to serve in France. In
Verdun, he applied to join the U.S. Army. The tough Pole
volunteered for tank and airborne training. He got his
wish. Assigned to C Company, 714th
Tank Battalion, tank
crewman PFC Skowron was the oldest graduate in his
82nd
Airborne Division Airborne School class in February
1955. He later “gyroscoped” (infantry regimental rotation)
to Germany with the 505th
Airborne Infantry Regiment’s
tank company. Skowron was a senior SSG when he joined
SF in May 1969.56
Only twenty-two Lodge Act soldiers were assigned to
the 10th
SFG at Fort Bragg, NC, in December 1952.57
Three
of the early ones were Paul Ettman, Rudi Horvath, and
Andre Carson. Paul Ettman from Poland did not raise
his hand for tank, airborne, or Special Forces training at
Fort Dix. When he got to Fort Benning, he thought it was
advanced infantry training until they started
double-timing and doing push-ups all the time.
“But, after I made that first jump there was no
way that I was going to quit. Being airborne
provided $50 dollars more a month. I wasn’t so
sure about Special Forces. I thought that it had
something to do with Special Services and sports
and entertainment. After meeting COL Aaron
Bank I was sold. He was a wonderful guy. We
called him ‘Daddy’ in Polish,” recalled Ettman fondly.58
Bulgarian Andre Carson thought his college major would
determine his assignment.
“Before graduating from basic and advanced infantry
training at Fort Dix, I requested assignment to the
Chemical Corps because I had a chemistry degree.
It turned out that the 6th RB&L at Fort Bragg, NC,
needed Bulgarian and Russian speakers,” said Carson.
For weeks I listened and transcribed taped Soviet Bloc
news broadcasts and helped with leaflet production. We
supported field exercises at Camp Mackall. The work was
pretty boring, but I met Rudi Horvath, another Lodge
Act guy who had managed to escape Psywar and gotten
assigned to Special Forces.”59
“In early 1952, they were organizing Special Forces
next door to the 6th RB&L. LTC (Jack) Shannon
talked sixteen of us into joining. We were told that
we could make rank faster and would not be sent
to Korea. As privates drawing $71 a month, that
40 Veritas

p Private Stanley Skowron,
C Company, 714th Armored
Battalion, 82nd Airborne
Division, at Camp Stewart, GA,
for tank gunnery with an M-48
Patton tank, 1954.
p Martin Urich with the Panzers in Poland after
withdrawing from Russia.
p 10th SFG soldiers at E&E safehouse with SGT Martin Urich
(2nd from left) and SFC Antonino “Tony” Zarba (far right).
u OSS veteran, Captain
Herbert R. Brucker, 10th
Special Forces Group.
had real appeal. We all
knew that the colonel’s
driver in the RB&L retired
as a corporal after twenty years. Though he had more
than 12 years in grade, he competed for sergeant with
the youngsters,” said Carson.60
“We carried footlockers and set up bunk beds with
LTC Shannon and pulled a lot of KP before being told that
we had to be airborne to stay in Special Forces. Sixteen
Lodge Act guys went to jump school at Fort Benning in
April 1952. Several Poles and Czechs did not graduate in
May 1952. I started out in the 16th
Detachment, but went
to Germany in the 21st
,” said Carson.61
Since Special Forces at Fort Bragg essentially split
in half when the 10th
SFG left for Germany, there was a
good number of Lodge Act soldiers in SF training and
more scheduled after Airborne School. The remaining
SF soldiers were assigned to the newly created 77th
SFG under the command of LTC Jack Shannon, the SF
Department deputy, until COL Edson Raff arrived in
mid-1953. Though John C. Anderson from Riga, Latvia,
was in the second group of Lodge Act men, he was
initially assigned as a clerk-typist in the 6th
RB&L. He
spent most of his time in-processing soldiers for the 10th
SFG. Anderson did finally get himself transferred to 10th
SFG on 19 August 1952, but did not go to jump school
until October. “The die was cast”—77th
SFG.”62
With the
10th
going to Europe, the 77th
had to be filled to strength.
Corporal Vaclav Hradecky was involuntarily
reassigned to SF from the 11th
Airborne Division in early
June 1954. “Everything was in a state of flux. Everyone
was assigned an MOS and put on an FA team for training.
My first company commander was CPT Frank Dawson,
DSC (Distinguished Service Cross) at Omaha Beach with
the 5th Ranger Battalion. Our teams were understrength;
seven men led by a lieutenant. After finishing the
classroom training and being awarded a 1½ prefix [one
half of the SF designation (prefix 3) number before the
MOS (military occupation specialty)], CPT (Herbert
R.) Brucker pulled me for his E&E (escape and evasion)
exercise called Tenderfoot I,” recalled Hradecky.
“That was better than barracks fire guard, whitewashing
coal bins, and guard duty because corporals were not
treated as junior NCOs. Brucker didn’t refer to us as DPs
(displaced persons) either.”63
CPL Julius Reinitzer was
also drafted from the 11th
Airborne.
Julius “Bear” Reinitzer from Prague, Czechoslovakia,
third Lodge Act group (November 1952), processed at
Camp Grohn in Bremen. He did BCT and AIT in the 11th
Airborne Division at Fort Campbell. He volunteered for
Korea several times but his First Sergeant refused, filling
weekly 20-30 man levies with “8 Balls” (problem soldiers).
“You’re too good a soldier,” said the WWII combat
veteran. “With your languages, you should be in Europe.
That’s why you’re going to Special Forces at Fort Bragg.”64
Reinitzer, Frank Jaks, Jan Novy, and Vaclav Hradecky, 11th
Airborne paratroopers, all eventually joined the 10th
SFG
in Germany. “I was happy as a pig in a mud puddle at
Bad Toelz,” said Hradecky.65
It was while the three were
Vol. 5 No. 2 41

p PFC Julius Reinitzer graduated from the 11th
Airborne Division Jump School in May 1954.
p The SF MOS 1 ½ training certificate awarded
to CPL Vaclav Hradecky on 1 October 1954 by
COL Edson D. Raff, 77th SFG. p PFC Julius Reinitzer after completing airborne and basic training
with the 11th Airborne Division, Fort Campbell, Kentucky in 1953.
p Josef (right) and Ctirad “Ray” Masin (center) and Milam
Paumer (2nd from right) with friends in front of the 77th
SFG Gymnasium sign on Smoke Bomb Hill, Fort Bragg, NC.
p Corporal Victor Kreisman (right) and 77th SFG buddies
sport green berets at Fort Bragg.
in the 77th
SFG that they met three Czechs who joined the
Army’s Lodge Act program through a side door.
Three Czech anti-Communist guerrillas bypassed
the Lodge Act application and testing phase. With
their armed resistance against Communist authorities
on the verge of compromise and some facing military
conscription, Josef and Ctirad “Ray” Masin, Milan
Paumer, and two others left Czechoslovakia in October
1953. A planned three-day exodus to West Berlin via
East Germany (200+ miles) stretched into a month after
they killed several policemen while resisting arrest.
This triggered a nationwide manhunt. The fugitives
had to live off the land in one of the harshest winters
in history. Following a second shootout in which two
were wounded, two were also captured. The Masin
brothers, manhandling the badly wounded Paumer the
final thirty-five miles to West Berlin, narrowly escaped
thousands of East German police and military that had
been mobilized for the declared national emergency.
After reaching safety in West Berlin, the three survivors
were covertly flown to West Germany. Ensconced
in a safehouse in Erlangen, they were interrogated,
polygraphed, and debriefed for several weeks.66
When they declined to return to Czechoslovakia as
ArmyCIC(Counter-IntelligenceCorps)agents,enlistment
in the U.S. Army under the provisions of the Lodge Act
was offered. “At the time, it was the only acceptable
option. We had informed U.S. intelligence that, in the
event of armed conflict in the European theater, segments
of the Czechoslovak Army would be disposed to support
American military actions. My father’s old friend,
Frantisek Vanek, a former general in Czechoslovak Army,
and his group could deliver a whole frontline division—
fourteen thousand men. If the division stood down and
didn’t fight, the Western forces could pour through the
breach and attack Soviet bloc troops to the north and
south from the rear,” said Josef Masin. “Radio Free Europe
had been encouraging resistance for years and Dwight
42 Veritas

p Lto R: PFC Josef Masin, PFC Smith, MSG Jones, and SFC George
Maracek, 77th SFG, after completing the 100+ mile march from
Camp Lejeune to Fort Bragg, NC.
q The Order of Bunioneers certificate that COL William J. Mullen
awarded to all 77th SFG soldiers who completed the 100+ mile
march on 4 February 1955.
p A view of the 77th SFG headquarters area on Smoke Bomb
Hill, Fort Bragg, NC.
p Jan Wiatr, 10th SFG, guerrilla agent at work.
D. Eisenhower had promised to free the Eastern Europe
countries during his presidential campaign.”67
The three Czechs were delivered to Zweibrucken,
issued U.S. Army uniforms, and sworn in. They joined
a group of Lodge Act enlistees in Sonthofen and shipped
out from Bremerhaven aboard the USTS General Butler
in December 1953. While in AIT at Fort Dix, NJ, the trio
volunteered for airborne and Special Forces training and
got orders to the 77th
SFG at Fort Bragg. They wanted to
return home to organize, train, and fight with the Czech
resistance forces when the Americans came to free
Eastern Europe from Communist control.68
They were among the hundred Lodge Act soldiers
that served in Psywar and Special Forces during the
early years (1952-1960). When 10th
SFG left for Germany
in December 1953, thirty-three Lodge Act soldiers went
with it.69
Some were replaced later by Lodge Act men
from the 77th
SFG at Fort Bragg, like the Masin brothers,
Milam Paumer, Frank Jaks, Jan Novy, Julius Reinitzer,
and Vaclav Hradecky. A lot of Lodge Act soldiers had
already worked together in the escape and evasion
exercises directed by CPT Herb Brucker, the 10th
SFG
S-2 (Intelligence Officer), who had been a British SOE
(Special Operations Executive) and OSS operative in
France, Burma, and China during WWII.
Numerous Lodge Act soldiers were selected by
CPT Brucker to assist with escape and evasion (E&E)
exercises at Fort Bragg (TENDERFOOT I) and in Europe
(CORDON BLEU). “The area of operations was south of
Munich in the vicinity of Chiemsee and Garmisch. It had
fifteen or twenty small towns where we could establish
safehouses. Brucker typically issued us bicycles (like
he had ridden in France during WWII), but he checked
the network regularly in his Studebaker. Herb was one
of the few guys in the 10th
who was shorter than me,”
laughed Martin Urich. “Teodor Padalinski and Marian
Romeo [Marin Tymczyszyn] also worked for Brucker.”70
“CPT Brucker gave me a bicycle to work my sector. I
traded a case of the resupply C-rations for a motorcycle,”
Vol. 5 No. 2 43

t p The majority of the 10th SFG Championship Soccer Team
in 1954 were Lodge Act soldiers.
u Andre Carson,
far left, bottom row,
with fellow Lodge
Act soldiers, at
one of CPT Herbert
R. Brucker’s E&E
exercise safehouses
in Bavaria.
chuckled Stanley Minkinow.71
Jan Wiatr bought a WWII-
era automobile from his host farmer. “I would drive it
on a Sunday, not realizing that it still had Nazi license
plates with swastikas. The local Polizei flagged me down.
The farmer and I had to do a lot of explaining to avoid a
citation,” recalled Wiatr.72
Service in the Army’s Special Forces after fulfilling
initial enlistment obligations was not sufficient incentive
for all SF-qualified Lodge Act soldiers. Promotion came
slow.73
Many still struggled with English after several
years.74
Josef and Ctirad Masin, Milam Paumer, and
Andre Carson became disillusioned with SF in the mid-
1950s, more so after the Hungarian Revolution in 1956
when President Eisenhower reneged on his campaign
pledge to free Eastern Europe from Communism.75
Two 10th
SFG soldiers had no choice. Severe injuries as
aggressors against the 11th
Airborne Division resulted
in medical evacuations to the States and subsequent
permanent medical profiles for Teodor Padalinski and
Marian Romeo.76
One Lodge Act soldier assigned to the
10th
in Bad Toelz, a Czech named Orolin, fell to his death
after losing his balance on a Flint Kaserne window sill in
the early 1950s. It was a sobering tragedy.77
Final numbers of enlistees fell far short of the Lodge
Act authorizations. According to the Annual Reports
of the Immigration and Naturalization Service (U.S.
Department of Justice), Lodge Act enlistees naturalized
in 1958 numbered 173. The following year, 179 became
citizens. After those years the numbers dropped below a
hundred until 1963. Then they dwindled to single digits
from 1967 to 1970. The last big group naturalized was 56
in 1971 and after that it is single digits through 1977. Some
naturalizationswereposthumoustoeliminatecitizenship
questions for family members. The total number of
Lodge Act enlistees that became U.S. citizens from 1958
through 1977 is 815. Those naturalized in 1956 and 1957
were lumped together with the WWI, WWII, and Korean
War veterans. As of May 1957 only 1,302 aliens had been
enlisted via the Lodge Act, a little over half of the initial
2,500 authorized in 1950. That amounted to 10.4 % of the
12,500 authorized in 1951.78
The enlistment period for Lodge Act citizenship
entitlements was 25 June 1950 through 1 July 1955.79
Expeditious naturalization of alien military personnel
was offered as a quid pro quo for honorable service in the
U.S. military. The philosophy that anyone who fights
for the United States is entitled to become a citizen is
deeply engrained in America’s social values.80
However,
extraterritorial judicial issues were rarely considered
for Lodge Act soldiers and other alien U.S. servicemen
assigned overseas duty.
The legal status of Lodge Act alien enlistees overseas
depended on whether Status of Forces Agreements
(SOFA) approved by the U.S. Senate had been ratified by
44 Veritas

p COL Donald D. Blackburn with a group of Lodge Act
soldiers in the 77th SFG.
the individual country wherein the soldier was serving.
They were ineligible under U.S. laws and treaties to serve
a foreign court-imposed sentence in the country of their
military allegiance. While Lodge Act enlistees took the
same oath to protect and defend the Constitution and
the United States as American citizens did, they were not
entitled to the same protection under the American flag.81
“It wasn’t really safe for Lodge Act soldiers to be
wandering around Europe alone. While we were in the
U.S. Army, we were not American citizens,” said Vaclav
Hradecky.82
Jan Wiatr volunteered to go to the war in Korea
but was denied because there was no SOFA in effect.83
This element alone should have been an impetus to apply
for naturalized citizenship, but it was not. Someone was
watching over those Lodge Act innocents who served
faithfully overseas in blissful ignorance of the risk.
The timing of the alien enlistment initiative could not
have been much worse. Between the Cold War defense
and reconstruction in postwar Europe and Japan, the
hot war in Korea, a Congressionally-promulgated Red
Scare, and presidentially-mandated integration of the
armed forces, the program had little chance of success.
Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. got lukewarm support
from the Congress, the Pentagon, Army commanders in
Germany and Austria, and the West European nations.
The recruiting achievements are attributed to USAREUR
AG, but the credit for enlistment really belongs to the
1,302 determined men who persisted against long odds
to join the U.S. Army. Since it was an evolving social
experiment, a number of the Lodge Act enlistees, typical
inanymilitaryforce,werenotgoodsoldiersandtheywere
released from the service or disciplined accordingly.84
While Senator Lodge may have been disappointed,
the vast majority of the individual Lodge Act men were
not. “This program enabled East Europeans to serve and
contribute to the U.S. Army and afterwards to the civilian
work force. We all brought something to the table. It was a
great success from an individual point of view,” reminded
Egon Goldschmidts.85
It was Special Forces that probably
benefited the most.
There were several constants among Lodge Act soldiers
that served in Special Forces during the early days (1952-
1960). Most served in an ethnic Labor Service unit that
supportedtheU.S.ArmyinpostwarGermanyandFrance.
Polygraph tests were required; some annually until the
Lodge Act soldiers became naturalized U.S. citizens.86
They had Regular Army (RA) serial numbers allocated
from “RA10812016 through RA10814515” and issued
chronologically according to date on enlistment.87
Most
of the early SF soldiers were demolitions sergeants and
specialists (some had been miners in postwar Europe).
Many of them worked with OSS veteran, CPT Herb
Brucker, supporting his E&E exercises at Camp Mackall
outside Fort Bragg, NC, and in Europe. All universally
respected Colonels Aaron Bank, Edson Raff, and Donald
Blackburn, the early 10th
and 77th
SFG commanders.
The Army had no specific “bootstrap” education
programs to level the playing field for Lodge Act soldiers.
Few improved their English in formal classes. It must be
remembered that adults were taught languages just like
children were in the 1950s. It would be forty years before
linguistics specialists “discovered” that adults should
be taught differently. The foreign language capabilities
and European cultural experiences were unappreciated
and not capitalized upon by most Special Forces officers
and enlisted men. Lodge Act soldiers and the emigrants
that joined the Army in the U.S. were typically lumped
together by SF soldiers and all were euphemistically
referred as DPs (displaced persons).
However, while their numbers were small, they were
true force multipliers in Special Forces into the 1980s
because of their languages and cultural experience. How
hollow the SF language capability was did not become
glaringly apparent until Operation DESERT STORM
when the Lodge Act soldiers were long gone. There was
a certain innocence shared by Lodge Act soldiers, a belief
and sincere trust that the great democratic America and
its Army would treat them right. All are strong patriots
and extremely proud to have served their country in its
Army and the Special Forces.
“I am an American citizen. Though I was born in
Poland, I am not a Polish American. My children are
American citizens of Polish descent. I’m an American,”
Henry Kwiatkowski reminded me after the funeral of BG
Donald D. Blackburn at Arlington National Cemetery.88
“See that American flag flying in my back yard. It flies 24
hours a day. Floodlights come on automatically at dusk.
I am so very proud to be an American and to have been
able to serve in the U.S. Army. It is my simple way of
showing respect for the greatest country in the world,”
said Edward Bator with great pride.89
The purpose of this article was to explain the Lodge
Act and the training of these East European unmarried
volunteers and to allow these soldiers to share their
experiences at Camp Kilmer, NJ, English language school
at Fort Devens, MA, and during BCT and AIT at Forts
Dix, Knox, Campbell, Benning, Eustis, and Aberdeen
Proving Ground. Life in the airborne schools at Forts
Benning, Bragg, and Campbell was another adventure.
Why the program envisioned by Senator Henry Cabot
Lodge, Jr. did not achieve its authorized numbers was
Vol. 5 No. 2 45

explained. The article was designed to introduce these
veterans, well-known to older SFers, to today’s Army SOF
soldiers. There is much more to the story. We hope that
these two articles will prompt other Lodge Act soldiers to
become involved in a command-sponsored book, like
Weapon of Choice: ARSOF in Afghanistan and All Roads Lead
to Baghdad: ARSOF in Iraq, to commemorate the Lodge Act
volunteers who served in the U.S. Army. I will conclude
with a sincere thank you to all Lodge Act veterans and
families who gave generously of their time, documents,
and photos to make this article possible.
Endnotes
1 Department of the Army. Bulletin No. 10 dated 20 July 1950, IV. ENLISTMENT OF
ALIENS IN REGULAR ARMY. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge initiated the bill in
the U.S. Senate and Congressman Philip J. Philbin, a Democrat from Massachusetts
introduced the Alien Enlistment (Lodge) Bill in the U.S. House of Representatives.
Credit rightfully belongs to the Senator, hence it has been referred to as the Lodge
Act. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodge-Philbin_Act, U.S. Code, Title 8, Chapter
12, Subchapter III, Part II, §1440 dated 3 January 2005 at http://www.law.cornell.
edu/uscode/html/uscode08/usc_sec_08_00001440----000-notes.html dated 7
January 2009 and Letter, Lodge to General James Lawton Collins, Army Chief of
Staff, 26 November 1951, Henry Cabot Lodge II Papers, Legislative Subject Files,
Box 39, Massachusetts Historical Society cited in James J. Carafano, “Mobilizing
America’s Stateless,” Journal of Cold War Studies 1:2 (1999), 69.
2 The Act of June 19, 1951, ch. 144 § 21, 65 Stat. 75 increased the alien recruiting
authorization from 2,500 to 12,500. Department of the Army. Bulletin No. 12 dated
9 July 1951, UNIVERSAL MILITARY TRAINING AND SERVICE ACT. TITLE
II, Enlistment of aliens, retired COL/Dr. Alfred H. Paddock, Jr. email to retired
COL John H. Crerar, 24 September 2007, Subject: Lodge Act, USASOC History
Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited by name and date. These
numbers came from Department of the Army, Office of the Chief of Psychological
Warfare (MG Robert A. McClure) files for 1952 and Carafano, “Mobilizing Europe’s
Stateless,” 64.
3 James B. Jacobs and Leslie Anne Hayes, “Aliens in the U.S. Armed Forces: A Historico-
Legal Analysis,” Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Winter 1981), 197.
4 Jacobs and Hayes, “Aliens in the U.S. Armed Forces,” 196, 197 and endnote 95 [H.R.
Rep. No. 689, 85th
Cong., 1st
Sess. 102 (1957) and H.R. Rep. No. 834, 89th
Cong., 1st
Sess. 2 (1955)].
5 Army Regulation (AR) 601-249, PERSONNEL PROCUREMENT: ENLISTMENT
OF ALIENS IN REGULAR ARMY, dated 8 November 1957 and retired CSM
Tadeusz Gaveda, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 18 May 2009,
Fayetteville, NC, personal notes, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort
Bragg, NC. Rules change. By the 1980s, an alien who performed three years of
honorable peacetime service and who was lawfully admitted to permanent residence
could be excused from ordinary residence requirements if he filed a naturalization
petition within six months after leaving the service. The six months residence in
a state, residence within the jurisdiction of a naturalization court, and the 30-day
delay period between petition and hearing requirements could also be waived if the
person was still in the armed forces and if he/she and his/her witnesses appeared
before a naturalization examiner. Jacobs and Hayes, “Aliens in the U.S. Armed
Forces,” 197 and endnote 96.
6 ArmySpecialRegulation(SR)615-120-15,ENLISTEDPERSONNEL:ENLISTMENT
OF ALIENS IN THE REGULAR ARMY, dated 19 December 1952.
7 Walter J. Smith, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 28 July 2008,
Lochbuie, CO, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort
Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Smith interview with date.
8 Egon Goldschmidts, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 22 April 2009, Silver
Springs, MD, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort
Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Goldschmidts interview with date.
9 Retired MSG Edward Bator, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 23 April 2009,
Vass, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg,
NC hereafter cited as Bator interview with date. This final group had personnel
who had enlisted as early as July 1955 as well as Edward Bator and Emil P. Fiszer
in October 1955. Bator and Fiszer were sworn into the U.S. Army in civilian clothes
by CWO George Candee, OIC, Alien Enlistment Program -Testing & Interviewing
Team #6, US Army, Europe (USAREUR), in Seckenheim, Germany, on 7 October
1955, before going to Zweibrucken to join their Lodge Act group. HQ, USAREUR,
Alien Enlistment Program – Testing and Interviewing Team No. 6, Ltr Ord 10-
20, SUBJECT: Orders, 7 October 1955, HQ, Personnel Center, Fort Hamilton,
1400TH
SU, Returnee-Reassignment Station, Brooklyn 9, NY, SPECIAL ORDERS
NUMBER 109, 4 November 1955, and Bator interview, 23 April 2009.
10 Retired COL Clarence C. Mann, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 14
April 2008, Tucson, AZ, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Mann interview with date.
11 Mann interview, 14 April 2008. These same barracks at Camp Kilmer, NJ, were
also used to house Hungarian refugees after that revolution against the Soviet Union
failed in 1956. Two Lodge Act soldiers supported that program. Rudolf Horvath,
who elected to leave the US Army after five years (deployed with 10th
SFG to Bad
Toelz, Germany, in 1953), volunteered to serve as a translator for several months
before becoming disillusioned with those claiming to be “freedom fighters.” Private
Edward Bator, in basic training at Fort Dix, NJ, was part of a detail sent to clean
the barracks for the incoming Hungarians. Rudolf G. Horvath, telephone interview
by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 10 June 2008, Dumont, NJ, digital recording, USASOC
History Office Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Horvath interview with date
and Bator interview, 22 April 2009.
12 Statement of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., 14 October 1951, Henry Cabot Lodge
II Papers, Legislative Subject Files, Box 39, Massachusetts Historical Society,
Boston, Massachusetts, from Carafano, “Mobilizing Europe’s Stateless,” endnote 6
and “Aliens Start Army Training,” EUCOM Information Bulletin (November 1951),
images.library.wisc.edu/History/Efacs/GerRecon/omg1951Nov/reference/history.
omg1951nov.adenauerproposal.pdf dated 30 January 2009.
13 “Aliens Start Army Training,” EUCOM Information Bulletin (November 1951).
14 Retired Chief Warrant Officer Four (CW4) Andre Vasilev Carson, interview by
Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 28 November 2007, Fayetteville, NC, digital recording,
USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Carson
interview with date and Carson interview, 7 December 2007.
15 Letter, Lodge to General James Lawton Collins, Army Chief of Staff, 26 November
1951, Henry Cabot Lodge II Papers, Legislative Subject Files, Box 39, Massachusetts
Historical Society cited in Carfano, “Mobilizing America’s Stateless,” 69.
16 Joe C. Lambert, “These Aliens Also Serve,” Army Information Digest, Vol. 6, No. 11
(November 1951), 39-42.
17 Horvath interview, 15 May 2008.
18 Smith interview, 28 July 2008 and retired SFC Teodor W. Padalinski, telephone
interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 18 July 2008, Boulder, CO, digital recording,
USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as
Padalinski interview with date. By the last group in the fall of 1955, USAREUR
orders had asterisk annotations by the Lodge Act servicemen who spoke English
fluently. In the last group of 22, only seven did not have asterisks. HQ, 4th
Replacement Group, USAREUR, APO 872, SPECIAL ORDERS NUMBER 248, 12
October 1955, copy USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
19 Headquarters, 9th
Infantry Division, G3, Troop Information and Education Division,
Fort Dix, NJ, Memorandum, SUBJECT: Notification of Test Arrival, dated 9 April
1954, Henryk Szarek personal files, copy in USASOC History Office Classified
Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
20 Goldschmidts interview, 22 April 2009.
21 Retired SFC Jan Wiatr, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 2 October 2007,
Fayetteville, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort
Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Wiatr interview with date.
22 Retired MAJ Frank Jaks interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 14 June 2007, Fort
Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg,
NC, hereafter cited as Franks interview with date, Smith interview, 28 July 2008,
and retired Lieutenant Colonel (LTC) Vaclav Hradecky, telephone interview by
Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 10 September 2008, New Ipswich, NH, digital recording,
USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, hereafter cited as Hradecky
interview with date.
23 Retired MSG Martin Urich, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 25 July
2008, Bensalem, PA, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Urich interview with date.
24 Smith interview, 28 July 2008 and Padalinski interview, 18 July 2008.
26 Hradecky interview, 10 September 2008, retired SFC Paul R. Ettman, telephone
interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 19 September 2008, Worcester, MA, digital
recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited
as Ettman interview with date, and Padalinksi interview, 18 July 2008.
27 Urich interview, 25 July 2008.
Charles H. Briscoe has been the USASOC Command
Historian since 2000. A graduate of The Citadel, this retired
Army special operations officer earned his PhD from the
University of South Carolina. Current research interests
include Army special operations during the Korean War,
in El Salvador, and the Lodge Act.
46 Veritas

28 Jaks interview, 14 June 2007.
29 Hradecky interview, 10 September 2008.
30 Wiatr interview, 2 October 2007.
31 Carson interview, 28 November 2007.
32 Smith interview, 28 July 2008.
33 Carson interview, 28 November 2007.
34 Retired MAJ John Koenig, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 4 September 2008,
Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Koenig interview with date.
35 Retired SFC Stanley Skowron, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 21 September
2008, Fayetteville, NC, digital recordings, USASOC History Office Classified
Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Skowron interview with date.
36 Retired SFC Henry M. Kwiatkowski, telephone interviews by Dr. Charles H.
Briscoe, 21 and 24 October 2008, Silver Springs, MD, digital recordings, USASOC
History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, and U.S. Army Special Regulation
(SR) 615-120-15, ENLISTED PERSONNEL: ENLISTMENT OF ALIENS IN THE
REGULAR ARMY dated 19 December 1952.
37 Lucjan Zochowski, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, Wall
Township, NJ, 31 March 2008, digital recording, USASOC History Office
Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC. The Stars and Stripes elaborated on alien
recruit life at the 320th
Replacement Battalion (Repo Depot) in Sonthofen in
October 1953. Robert J. Dunphy, “27 Refugees Find Army Leading to New
Way of Life,” The Stars and Stripes (Europe), Sunday, 11 October 1953, 7.
39 Retired MAJ Stanley Minkinow, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe,
23 October 2008, Huntsville, AL, digital recording, USASOC History Office
Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Minkinow interview with date
and retired MAJ Caesar J. Civitella, interview by Drs. Kenneth Finlayson and
Charles H. Briscoe, 19 January 2001, Fort Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC
History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
40 Minkinow interview, 28 October 2008.
41 Headquarters, 82d Airborne Division, Fort Bragg, NC, Special Orders Number 236
dated 21 September 1954, Henryk Szarek personal files, copy in USASOC History
Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
42 Headquarters, 82d Airborne Division, Fort Bragg, NC, Special Orders Number 236
dated 21 September 1954, Henryk Szarek personal files, copy in USASOC History
Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
44 Padalinski interview, 18 July 2008.
46 Smith interview, 28 July 2008 and Special Forces Association, “Deployment of the
10th
Special Forces Group in 1953,” Special Forces: The First Fifty Years 1952-2002
(London: Faircount LLC, 2002), 99, 100.
47 Retired CSM Victor Kreisman, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 19
May 2009, Las Vegas, NV, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified
Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
48 Kwiatkowski interviews, 22 September, 1 October, and 24 October 2008.
49 Retired MSG Frank Kokosza, interviews by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 26 June and 7
July 2008, Fayetteville, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified
Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Kokosza interview with date.
50 Kokosza, interviews, 26 June and 7 July 2008.
51 Retired CWO-2 John F. Gordon, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe,
19 June 2008, Shirley, MA, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified
Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Gordon interview with date and “11
Veterans, Iron Curtain Refugees, Made Citizens,” The Evening Star (Washington,
DC), 1 September 1956, copy in USASOC History Office Classified Files.
52 Retired CSM George S. Taylor, telephone interviews by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 11
and 15 September 2008, Hopedale, MA, digital recording, USASOC History Office
Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Taylor interview with date and
retired USAF SSgt Anthony J. Pilarczch, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H.
Briscoe, 10 September 2008, Vacaville, CA, digital recording, USASOC History Office
Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Pilarczyk interview with date.
53 Retired SGM Peter V. Astalos, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 25 June 2008,
Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Astalos interview with date and Urich interviews 22
and 25 July 2008. Both men had received the German Iron Cross Second Class and
several Panzer assault badges. Miraculously, neither was wounded.
54 Astalos interview, 25 June 2008 and Urich interview, 25 July 2008.
55 Astalos interviews, 25 June 2008 and 15 July 2008.
56 Skowron interviews, 21, 23 and 30 September 2008. Skowron’s father was awarded
the Polish Silver Cross of Valor, a level higher than the Bronze Cross presented to
Lodge Act soldier Henry M. Kwiatkowski. Skowron interview, 21 September 2008.
57 Headquarters, The Psychological Warfare Center, Fort Bragg, NC, letter to BG
Robert A. McClure, from COL C.H. Karlstad, 25 November 1952, Record Group
319, Army-Chief of Special Warfare, 1951-54, National Archives cited in Paddock,
US Army Special Warfare, 149.
58 Ettman interview, 19 September 2008.
59 Carson interview, 28 November 2007 and Allan H. Smith, 8th MRBC, telephone
interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 4 June 2009, New Rochelle, NY, digital
recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
60 Carson interviews, 28 November and 7 December 2007. The reality was that 1LT
Joseph M. Castro, his first SF detachment commander, was levied for Korea. Castro
was killed while serving as a partisan advisor with the 8240th
Army Unit. Carson
Interview, 29 April 2008.
61 Carson interviews, 28 November 2007 and 29 April 2008.
62 Retired SGM John C. Anderson, telephone interview by Dr. Briscoe, 26 June 2008,
Boulder, CO, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort
Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Anderson interview with date.
64 Retired SGM Julius Reinitzer, telephone interviews by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe,
25 and 28 August 2008, Hudson, NH, digital recording, USASOC History Office
Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Reinitzer interview and date.
66 Josef Masin, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 10 November 2008,
Santa Barbara, CA, digital recordings, USASOC History Office Classified Files,
Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Masin interview with date and Barbara Masin,
Gauntlet (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2006), 320.
67 Masin interview, 10 November 2008 and Barbara Masin, Gauntlet, 320.
68 Masin interview, 10 November 2008 and Barbara Masin, Gauntlet, 320.
69 Special Forces Association. “Deployment of the 10th
Special Forces Group in 1953,”
Special Forces: The First Fifty Years (London: Faircount LLC, 2002), 94-101 and 10th
Special Forces Group Abn. TEAM FA, SP FORCES OPN DET DIST “B” (ABN).
70 Urich interview, 25 July 2008 and Padalinski interview, 23 July 2008.
71 Minkinow interview, 28 October 2008.
73 Horvath interview, 10 June 2008.
74 Smith interview, 28 July 2008.
75 Masin interview, 10 November 2008 and Carson interview, 28 November 2007.
76 Padalinski interview, 23 July 2008. SGT Padalinski was reclassified to the
Transportation Corps as a truckmaster. During his twenty year career, SFC
Padalinski served overseas in Korea and Germany twice and Vietnam. After
fifteen years with the U.S. Postal Service in Denver, CO, Padalinski retired in 1988.
Padalinski interview, 23 July 2008.
77 Wiatr interview, 6 May 2009.
78 Jacobs and Hayes, “Aliens in the U.S. Armed Forces,” 196, 197 and “Iron Curtain
Fugitives First Citizens Under Lodge Act,” New York Times (1 September 1956), 9
from select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0C13FC345B157B93C3A91782
D85F428585F9, 20 May 2009.
79 U.S. Code, Title 8, Chapter 12, Subchapter III, Part II, §1440 dated 3 January 2005
at http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode08/usc_sec_08_00001440----
000-notes.html dated 7 January 2009.
80 Jacobs and Hayes, “Aliens in the U.S. Armed Forces,” 187-188.
81 Lawrence W. Jackley, “Aliens in the U.S. Armed Forces: Same Service, Different
Justice,” Army (January 1986), 15.
83 Wiatr interview, 2 May 2009 and Horvath interview, 18 May 2009. “When I was
the First Sergeant of the 1st
Loudspeaker & Leaflet Company at Fort Bragg, we
received a number of Lodge Act enlistees. They were either good soldiers or duds
who pretended not to understand English and were trying to get over. I put them on
Fort Bragg furnace detail (cleaning and stoking coal furnaces that heated the family
quarters’ buildings all over post for ninety days. That was a real #%&* detail since
you had to work all day, every day and involved stoking the furnaces for the night.
They didn’t finish up until 2200 hours. When that did not work, I filled my levies
to Korea with them,” said retired MSG Joe Lissberger, Interview by Dr. Charles H.
Briscoe, 20 May 2007, Fort Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office
Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.
84 Horvath interview, 6 May 2009.
85 Goldschmidts interview, 1 June 2009.
87 US Army Special Regulation (SR) 615-120-15, ENLISTED PERSONNEL:
ENLISTMENT OF ALIENS IN THE REGULAR ARMY, Paragraph 10 dated 19
December 1952.
88 Kwiatkowski interview, 5 December 2008.
89 Bator interview, 27 April 2009.
Vol. 5 No. 2 47

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