1. An excerpt of
selected
questions &
answers…
together with
sample
photographs
& captions
Now available on
Amazon Kindle
http://www.amazon.com/dp/B00VCFKV9M
Second Edition
Expanded – over 280
questions & answers
Organized thematically
into 18 chapters
Updated statistics & new
explanatory footnotes
Helpful, practical insight
for both novices &
connoisseurs

2. All about grapes: Chardonnay,
Syrah, Riesling & many more
Riesling – sweet or dry?
I like a dry Riesling but unless the bottle states "sweet" or "dry" on the label I have no clue
as to its contents. Is there a way to determine the sugar level of a Riesling?
Riesling is indeed extremely confusing as to degree of sweetness you can expect, so you are
certainly not alone in finding this a difficult and often frustrating issue. We first have to recognize
that perceptions of sweetness vary with each individual as they do with salty, bitter and sour tastes.
To address the perceived sweetness of Riesling, a simple scale has been developed by the
International Riesling Foundation (IRF) and is being displayed by some vintners on back labels.
This visual device is called the Riesling Taste Profile Scale and employs four terms, from left to
right: dry, medium dry, medium sweet and sweet. An "indicator triangle" is placed above the scale
for the specific wine. This is certainly very helpful if not always a perfect depiction for every taster
given how perceptions differ. On the most basic level, how sweet a wine tastes is a function of the
ratio of sugar to acidity. However, to give a truer picture, pH - a reading of the strength of the acid -
has to be brought into the formula. The wine's pH could make it seem drier or sweeter irrespective
of the sugar-acid ratio. Where a wine ultimately falls along the horizontal scale takes all three
parameters into consideration. Hopefully, more Riesling wines will include this scale on their labels
to help consumers anticipate the sweetness, which of course is only one aspect of the taste profile
of this fantastic grape variety! If you want to learn more about the IRF scale, you will find details at
drinkriesling.com. [Author’s footnote: There is some controversy about the application and
reliability of the IRF scale. This is a shame as many wine lovers are searching for a simple way of
knowing, when they purchase a Riesling, how sweet it will prove to be. Wine can be quite
complicated!]
German wine labels can be complicated for many to understand.
Often, the name of the vineyard site appears such as
Scharzhofberg, one of Germany’s prime sites for Riesling. Auslese
– denoting a special selection of the finest grapes – is produced in
small quantities, subject to the conditions of the growing season.
Such wines will taste sweet to most palates, yet the sweetness is
offset to a significant degree by high acidity.

3. Winemaking practices explained
Oaking Wine
When wine is being oaked do they keep the same types of wine in the same barrel; i.e., is
Merlot always in a Merlot barrel or is it sometimes one used for Pinot, Cab, etc.?
Barrels may be new, or they may be used repeatedly by a winery for 2, 3 or more years, and often
for different wines and varietals. Older barrels can be reconditioned to extend their useful life.
Today, many types of wood (principally oak) are employed for wine barrels, and the wood may
come from a number of countries, forests and coopers. Sizes of barrels vary, as do production
techniques such as "toasting" of the interior. A modern winery often purchases barrels from many
coopers, each of whom may have its own signature. How the barrels are used, for which wines, and
for how long, is decided by the individual winery. [Author’s footnote: The barrel is nearly as
fascinating as wine itself and, like the substance it contains, originates with a plant. While there are
far fewer variations in terms of the types of trees – three species of oak primarily – as compared to
one dominant species and hundreds of varieties of grapes, the production or coopering process is a
finely developed art. Barrels, like wine, reflect both the raw material and shaping by human hands.
Making a quality French barrel – the gold standard in the world of wine – is a multifaceted operation.
It begins with the selection of suitable raw wood followed by splitting and cutting into planks to be
“aged” or dried in open air for 12 to 36 months, during which the moisture level drops from about
55% to 14% to 16%. The wood also undergoes other critical chemical changes. The cured boards
are trimmed to fashion staves of the right length and shape. The cooper arranges roughly 30 staves
in a particular order within a metal band and proceeds to soften, bend and toast over a fire. Last, the
barrel is fully assembled, including the heads, and the finished piece is tested for leaks. Permanent
galvanized hoops are applied. I have left out some of the nuances, but you can see this is a
painstaking process involving a great deal of hand labor and skill.]

4. Understanding wine
components & tasting
techniques
Old and new wine
What is the difference between “old” wine and “new” wine?
Wine is a fermented beverage, yet new or young wine, recently bottled, seems "fresh" and exhibits
varying aromas that we commonly identify with fruits (apples, citrus, cherry, plum, etc.), perhaps
along with the influences of wood treatment (vanilla, clove, coconut, etc.). They also may have the
sharpness of acidity and the astringency of tannin. When a wine is young, these characteristics
often seem quite pronounced and separately identifiable. Most of the wine produced in the world is
intended to be consumed "new" on release from the winery, or within a few years thereafter. Wine in
bottle undergoes changes if held for longer periods; the onset and evolution of noticeable changes
depend principally on the type of wine, the vintage and storage conditions. Very few wines can in
fact hold up with lengthy bottle aging. A wine may be considered "old" - and certainly unpalatable -
when it has turned or spoiled, becoming brown and taking on a sharp, volatile aroma. On the other
hand, the best old (red) wines are magnificent, with astonishing, complex bouquets with accents of
leather, leaf, cedar and dried spices together with velvety smooth palates and very long aftertastes.
Gone are the "fruity" aromas and the roughness of tannins. These are the wines of legend that
collectors seek out for their cellars.

5. Making sense of wine ratings
& prices
A perfect wine
What is a "perfect wine"? What makes it perfect?
A "perfect" wine is very much an individual judgment; one person's ideal may not be quite as
sublime to someone else. In this respect, wine is no different from painting, sculpture or music. In
the realm of sensory evaluation and pleasure, subjectivity rules. Of course, the qualities which
may make a wine perfect could be described objectively: balance of constituents, elegance,
aromatic complexity, dimension and length of flavor, and so on. Even so, each taster alone
decides if a given wine (or painting or song) reaches that exquisite and rare state of perfection. If
your expectations and standards are high, finding a perfect wine may be very difficult indeed. It
could be, on the other hand, that a wine seems perfect when the moment or mood is just right; the
next day it might not be as breathtaking. The notion of "perfection" involves so many elements!
Château Latour 1982 is a “perfect” wine according to Robert Parker,
who gave it 100 points. He wrote about this celebrated Bordeaux
First Growth with words such as “amazing” and “extraordinarily
decadent,” saying (in 2009) it could be drunk “now, in 20 years, and
in 50 years!”

6. Common concerns about wine
& health
Sulfites – the Good, Bad & Ugly
What is the Good, the Bad, and the Ugly regarding sulfites? How, when and why are sulfites
used in the making of wine? What are the benefits of a wine with or without sulfites?
Sulfites as sulfur dioxide occur naturally in wine as a result of fermentation, brought about by the
metabolism of yeast. SO2 is also the oldest and most common additive in wine production, having
been used by ancient Egyptian, Greek and Roman winemakers, and universally in contemporary
winemaking. Sulfur dioxide has many practical benefits, notably its antioxidant and antimicrobial
properties, and is also widely used to disinfect equipment. 99% of all wines contain sulfites at
varying concentrations. A very small percentage of individuals are sensitive to sulfites, although
many more may believe that they suffer ill effects due to sulfites rather than other causes. Sulfite-
free wines are certainly critical for asthmatics and some other highly-sensitive people, but it is
difficult to argue that they are superior in terms of taste or stability. [Author’s footnote: The earliest
use of sulfur in wine production is disputed to some extent. While ancient texts by Homer and Pliny
make vague references, we lack precision or definite proof. On the other hand, it is known that
sulfur was understood to be a purifying agent and was used for fumigation, and as a preservative, in
Homer’s time. By extension, historians assume it was used for wine as well. The earliest written
proof of the addition of sulfur to wine was a royal decree in Germany in 1487 officially permitting its
use in a prescribed amount. The Dutch, who played an important role in the development of the
Bordeaux region in the 1600s, also introduced the sulfur wick, known as the allumette hollandaise
or “Dutch match.” The rest, as they say, is history, and today sulfur dioxide is the universal wine
additive. No other agent has been found which has all of its beneficial properties with such a low
risk to human health.]

7. Solutions for aging, cellaring &
transporting wine
Leaking bottles
If I receive a bottle of wine in the mail and it has leaked 6 or 7 drops, is the wine now bad? Or
can it still be cellared?
A leak of wine from the capsule is never a good sign, but it is impossible to know how much
damage has been done. In theory, if there is an indication of a large leak - for example, enough to
stain the main labels - it is reasonable to assume that the bottle has been subjected to excessively
high temperatures during storage or shipping. This would certainly raise serious concerns about the
condition of the wine. When a very small amount of liquid has escaped, it suggests that the seal,
initially formed when the cork was inserted at the time of bottling, has been compromised. Cellaring
such a bottle for many years may no longer be desirable, even if the wine's condition has not been
impaired. However, I've opened bottles kept for a very long time in my cellar and found a dark wine
stain the full length of the cork, indicating leakage at some point in the wine's life - yet the wine was
delicious! In the end, it is really a roll of the dice...if the wine is an outstanding classic which should
be matured, then it may be wise to lay it down but shorten the planned cellaring period. If the wine
would be enjoyable while still young, the best strategy may be to pull the cork sooner rather than
later.

8. Serving wine at home: glasses,
decanting & more
How much air?
Is there any way to predict how much aeration a wine needs before showing its best? With new bottles - for review
or special ones, particularly - I tend to drink them over several days to see how they develop; some wines are better
24, 48 or more hours after initial opening. Obviously, full-bodied young wines (red or white) can take more air than
others, but for fear of a wine spoiling, I tend to find I give them too little air and often they seem to be much better
right at the end of a meal than at the beginning.
I believe you have already discovered for yourself the nuances and uncertainties of opening bottles and exposing them to
varying periods of aeration. I have experienced a similar range of results myself, but I do prefer to err on the side of too little
rather than too much airing. As you point out, powerful young wines can withstand more airing than delicate youthful
examples, or very old vintages. My personal practice is to decant many "big" reds for up to an hour, but not more. I also
concur that young whites of certain types - top white Burgundy, for example - can benefit from airing, and I usually decant
such wines and leave the decanter (sealed with plastic wrap) in the refrigerator before serving. I know many wine lovers
who swear by long aeration, but there really is only anecdotal evidence to rely on. Then add our own preferences to the mix.
It is virtually impossible to conduct reliable taste tests which pertain to all wines in all vintages; in short, there are no
universal rules. With so many aspects of wine - given its remarkable complexity and individuality - we often want simple
answers and are disappointed to find that it's too complicated and variable! [Author’s footnote: Decanter magazine
conducted a series of taste tests under controlled conditions, with experienced tasters, which they wrote about in several
issues in late 2013/early 2014. Focusing on benchmark red wines which are customarily decanted, they found with respect
to high-level Bordeaux and Napa Cabernet that some aeration was “better than none,” decanting one hour before serving
was “consistently good,” but longer aeration was “risky.” When it came to top-flight Syrah/Shiraz from the Rhône Valley and
Australia’s Barossa, they reported that the differences between decanted and non-decanted wines were small compared to
Cabernet Sauvignon. There was, similarly, no benefit from “very long aeration.” Looks as if we should stop decanting wines
hours before dinner!]

9. U.S. wine – Napa, Sonoma &
elsewhere
Oldest cellar still in use in America
I have been told that the wine cellar at the Ten Broeck Mansion in Albany, NY is the oldest,
continuously operated private wine cellar in America (Brotherhood Winery in Millbrook, NY is
older, but theirs is a commercial wine cellar). Do you know if Ten Broeck's wine cellar is the
oldest? It was established around the 1860s by the Olcott family.
Identifying the earliest private wine cellar in America is a fascinating project. The key question is
whether any of the very first cellars have been in "continuous use." We know that wine was a
common beverage in Colonial times, particularly Madeira, Port and Claret (red Bordeaux). The
oldest cellar seems to have been at Jamestown in Virginia and dates from the late 1600s. Thomas
Jefferson was a renowned connoisseur in his day who studied the wine regions of Europe when he
was Ambassador to France. He wrote notes and observations and ordered wines for his own
consumption. Jefferson kept good records of the wines from around the world served at Monticello,
his home in Virginia, which was constructed in the 1770s (thus predating Ten Broeck, built in 1797-
98). The Monticello cellar was even equipped with two dumbwaiters to convey bottles to the dining
room above. I gather that Ten Broeck, like Monticello, is a historic site. Their website does not
mention a wine cellar, so that leaves me curious about the cellar and any present function. If you
have the inclination, please post another question with any specifics you might have so we can try
to get to the bottom of this interesting historical challenge. [Author’s footnote: I learned later that
the cellar at Ten Broeck, which contained wines from the 1850s through 1870s, was blocked off
around the time of Prohibition. It was reopened in 1977, and some of the bottles were sold at
auction.]

10. Wines from other countries –
Portugal, Spain, Argentina &
beyond
South Africa: What is this wine?
Can you explain Pinotage?
I believe you are asking about the Pinotage grape, developed in South Africa as a cross of Pinot
Noir and Cinsaut (called Hermitage locally) in the 1920s. We tend to associate Pinotage with the
Cape although Chenin Blanc - or Steen - is in fact the country's most planted variety. Here and
there around the world, there are very limited plantings of Pinotage with varying results. Pinotage as
a wine in South Africa has had a mixed history, and it is only recently that winemakers seem to have
mastered its somewhat odd, vaguely "chemical" aroma. However, the variety's peculiar originality
still limits its appeal. The best contemporary examples have a deep color and generous dark fruit,
and they are enhanced by aging in small oak barrels. Most are enjoyable quite young - within a few
years of release - but a few led by Kanonkop have shown they can develop in bottle over a decade
and longer. If you are tired of the usual Cab or Shiraz, Pinotage does certainly offer a change of
pace.
Kanonkop is a benchmark example of South African Pinotage and
frequent medal winner. A bottle of the 1998, tasted in 2011, was still
youthful and vigorous, with impressive layering of flavors. A wine to
keep to perhaps 2020…