1. 1
From maps and charts to a digital geographic environment:
TOWARDS A NATIONAL GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION
INFRASTRUCTURE:
A Timeline and Some Commentary
By
R.J. (Bob) Williams
BA Computing Studies (Cartography), MSc (Cartography), PhD (Geography)
Topographic surveyor, cartographer and geospatial scientist (retired)
2012
I retired a few years ago but have still been interested in the development of our surveying
and mapping capability. (I have always been a reluctant user of the term 'spatial' and I hope
the reason becomes clear as you read my commentary). Furthermore, I am writing this letter
because our capability and its primary disciplines are in a seriously poor state!
The transition from producing and distributing traditional maps and charts to the
establishment of an information infrastructure environment - a Geospatial Information
Infrastructure - has been difficult. We need to acknowledge that we have a major capability
deficiency and take affirmative action.
I would like to suggest that the development of our capability towards establishing a National
Geospatial Information Infrastructure [an infrastructure that underpins the majority of things
that happen daily – everything happens somewhere] is years, perhaps decades, behind
where we ought to be and this makes it difficult to respond to, and provide effective reaction
to, contemporary incidents and events.
In order to support this assertion I will provide a timeline of a sample of initiatives that I have
had experience of, or an interest in, over the years.
TIMELINE
1968 The Royal Australian Survey Corps (RASVY) – disestablished in 1996 –
experiments with the use of a Cambridge stereo-comparator and computer
processing to extract precise coordinates from aerial-photography
One of the earliest application
using computers for mapping in
Australia1
.
The precursor to what is now
called a digital point positioning
dataset.
1
I, as a junior technician, worked for Warrant Officer Frank Bryant on the instrument. Frank is
considered as the father of computer assisted mapping in Australia. Frank was acknowledged for his
work by being awarded an MBE (Order of the British Empire - Member).

2. 2
1976 RASVY installed Army Project 42 AUTOMAP
23
computer assisted mapping system
at Bendigo
4
. This was the first system of its type in Australia and [probably] only the
second of its type in the world.
From the earliest days brochures were produced showing that, in the future, maps would
only be a by-product. The primary aim was to create a digital topographic database
expanded by Sub-System
2
Frank Bryant was the project officer for AUTOMAP 1.
3
The contract for the project was awarded to a Canadian company, Systemhouse Limited.
4
I, as SSGT Williams, was the first operational supervisor of the Input Sub-System. In September 1976 I
reported that it was difficult to verify easily whether an area had been fully plotted and ʻit would be nice if
we had some way of viewing the plotted line work over the photographyʼ. Subsequently, DSTO was
tasked to investigate the problem and four years later prototyped a graphic superimposition system and
this was implemented on AUTOMAP 2.

3. 3
1978 – e.g. the relief file
for a map can be
manipulated to produce a
Digital Terrain Model as
basic input to digital
navigation, simulation and
advanced weapon systems.
1980 – e.g. some
applications of the data
base include Infrastructure
Directories; and Command,
Control and
Communication systems.
1982 – e.g.” a Digital Topographic Data Base is a structured and formatted collection of sets of
random accessed files organized into evaluated Military Geographic and Intelligence Data (MGID)
available to meet the needs and requirements of the user”5
.
The AUTOMAP vision of creating a Digital Topographic Database is still to
be achieved – 3 DECADES later!
1978 The Royal Australian Navyʼs Hydrographic Office introduces their AUTOCHART
system (modeled on the AUTOMAP system).
1978 NATMAP
6
(National Mapping) introduces their computer mapping system (also
modeled on the AUTOMAP system).
1979 Dr David Rhind
7
, Reader in Geography at Durham University UK, held the first
Geographical Information Systems workshop in Australia at the Australian National
University. Various speakers delivered papers on user needs and developments in
Australia and overseas. CSIRO delivered a presentation on the South Coast Land
Use Project – perhaps one of the first GIS projects in the world.
1980 I wrote the first mapping software for the Joint Intelligence Organisation (JIO) and
RAAF Aeronautical Information Services (AIS) using the World Data Bank II. The
application used rigorous half-angle spherical trigonometry that enabled radial
5
I developed this definition with Major David Bowen, US Army. Dave was an exchange officer at
Bendigo. His prior position was as a lecturer in the Department Geography and Computer Science, US
Military Academy West Point.
6
NATMAP later became AUSLIG (Australian Land Information Group) before being merged with the
Australian Geological Survey Organisation (AGSO) to become Geoscience Australia (GA). AGSO was
first established in August 1992, when it took over the functions of the Bureau of Mineral Resources.
7
I first met David Rhind in 1979 and later in London in 2003.
David Rhind went onto become an advisor to Lord Chorley who chaired a UK Government committee of
enquiry "Handling of Geographical Information", which reported in 1987, Director General and CEO of
UK Ordnance Survey 1992-98, and Vice Chancellor of City University London. Professor David Rhind
CBE is currently a Non-Executive Director of the Bank of England and the UK Statistical Authority. He is
also Chair of the Governmentʼs Advisory Panel on Public Sector Information.

4. 4
search applications and great circle route mapping – seen applicable for future
navigation along great circles.
1980 RASVY investigated leading edge computer mapping workstations for planning for
AUTOMAP 2.
I accompanied Major Frank Bryant to a demonstration given by M&S Computing8
in
Melbourne. The demonstration was interesting in that, on their INNOVATOR workstation,
the area of application was the Gulf of Mexico with off-shore oil wells with attributes such
as ownership, type of structure, etc.
RASVY purchased a workstation and used it at DSVY-A office at Campbell Park, Canberra
for DCP (Defence Cooperative Program) mapping. The intent was to demonstrate ‘future’
applications to senior officers.
1980 I published in Cartography, Vol 11 No 3, March 1980 and presented at the Fourth
Australian Cartographic Conference, Hobart. The presentation was titled
“Automated cartography with navigational applications”.
1980s RASVY initiated an education program sending officers to universities in North
America and the UK for post-graduate education.
Army officers attended Ohio for studies in geodesy, Wisconsin for studies in cartography
and (what is now called geographic information science), Florida for studies in remote
sensing, Rochester for studies in lithography, New Brunswick for studies in
photogrammetry, Glasgow for studies in cartography, London for studies in
photogrammetry, etc. This program was in addition to undergraduate and post-graduate
courses in universities in most Australian states.
1982 The ACSM (American Congress on Surveying and Mapping) National Committee for
Digital Cartographic Data Standards (NCDCDS) was founded in 1982 by Professor
Harold Moellering of Ohio State University. The so-called Moellering committee
went on to develop the SDTS (Spatial Data Transfer Standard).
1983 A Working Group on Data Quality, as one of four working groups of the NCDCDS,
was established by Dr Nicholas Chrisman at the University of Wisconsin – Madison
(UW). The working group considered that the foundation of data quality is to
communicate information from the producer to a user so that the user can make an
informed judgment on the fitness of the data for a particular use.
I attended UW during 1983-85 and was invited by Nick Chrisman to participate in his
group’s activities. I explained how information was described on topographic maps of
Papua New Guinea and suggested that the concept of truth in labeling was important and
this led to fitness for use.
Whilst the concept of METADATA has generally been accepted, the
concepts of TRUTH-IN-LABELLING and FITNESS FOR USE labels for digital
data are still to be achieved – A QUARTER OF A CENTURY later!
8
Intergraph was founded in 1969 as M&S Computing, Inc., by former IBM engineers who had been
working with NASA and the US Army in developing systems that would apply digital computing to real-
time missile guidance. From this initial work, M&S Computing was among the pioneers in the
development of interactive computer graphics systems, which allowed engineers to display and interact
with drawings and associated alphanumeric information. The company changed its name to Intergraph
Corporation in 1980 to reflect this activity.

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1983 The Digital Geographic Information Working Group (DGIWG) was established in
1983 to develop standards to support the exchange of Digital Geographic
Information among NATO nations. The DGIWG is not an official NATO body;
however, the DGIWG's standardization work has been recognized and welcomed by
the NATO Geographic Conference (NGC).
DGIWG went on to develop DIGEST (Digital Geographic Exchange Standard)
1983 I again rewrote my mapping software in FORTRAN77 this time for use by JIO for
use on a HP2100 series computer. I called my software WIMS (World Interactive
Mapping Software).
Vision – World (or Williams) Interactive Mapping System that could automatically
extract information from a world data base determined by place names and search
criteria
Applications would include producing background maps in normal, radial and
oblique rectangle formats anywhere in the world.
1984 RASVY introduced MES 42 Phase 2 AUTOMAP 2
9
. AUTOMAP 2 was a multi-
million dollar project that had a number of visionary features including
photogrammetric workstations with graphic super-imposition that gave the ability for
workstation operators to superimpose digital representation of linear features onto
the photographic image; voice recognition and response, raster scanning and
plotting; and reproduction quality cartographic layers. These capabilities predate
other capabilities in Australia and the United States of America (for medium scale
topographic mapping) by two years.
9
The contract for the project was awarded to a US company, Intergraph Corporation

6. 6
“Over the past two decades there has been an ever increasing reliance on
computers within the mapping industry. Initially, computers merely provided a means
of automating manual processes and reduced manually intensive procedures.
However, digital data, once seen as a by-product of this computer assistance, has
rapidly developed into a vital product in itself and maps are now viewed as a by-
product of digital topographic data collection.
28. There are many military applications for digital data. The concept of
associating infrastructure data with a digital topographic database offers a
great tool for military planners, command and control, advanced weapons
guidance, war gamimg, navigation and simulation systems all rely on digital
topographic data to operate effectively”
10
.
BUT a sad thing happened. AUTOMAP was intended to have a hierarchically structured
Data Base Management and Retrieval System (DBMRS11
). This capability would have
enabled queries such as “permit the Medical Officer to point to all hospitals in an area
and have the number of beds currently available”. The project unfortunately went over
time and over budget and [an ill informed] decision caused the DBMRS to be deleted. This
meant that AUTOMAP 2, which offered capabilities similar to contemporary GIS, reverted
to a computer mapping system.
10
“An Introduction to Topographic Mapping”, REGT/MISC/1916, Army Survey Regiment, Bendigo, 1984
11
“An Introduction to the Automap 2 System”, Royal Australian Survey Corps (Army Survey Regiment)
publication, January 1983

7. 7
This decision (to reconfigure the system architecture to replace a DMRS
structure with a simplistic Feature Coding scheme) is, probably, the most
significant decision made in overall capability development.
Structured design files and DMRS would have permitted GIS-like
functionality. Routine GIS functionality is still yet to be attained – a quarter
of a century later!
The issue – S&T competency!
However AUTOMAP 2 did include a capability to produce Digital Terrain Elevation
Data (DTED) Level 2 (3 arc second grid spacing) and, therefore, would enable a
vision for the future as stated in a promotional brochure in 1985
12
.
“a profound area of application is expected in the field of airborne navigation systems. It
will include both military and civilian aircraft, particularly low-flying manned and
unmanned systems. In these cases digital terrain models will afford real-time information
about the terrain below and the effects of distant terrain on the aircraft for navigation”.
This VISION still to be achieved – A QUARTER OF A CENTURY later!
1985 During 1983-85 I studied for the award of MSc (Cartography) at the University of
Wisconsin – Madison. My workload included graduate level courses in cartography
and land information systems plus a thesis. The thesis addressed the analysis of
infrastructure information in areas of large geographic extent
13
. My sponsor was the
Director of Survey – Army and my direction was that I should pursue studies that
would ʻinformʼ future application of digital cartographic data.
One of my professors, Prof. Nick Chrisman, was the Chairman of the Technical
Committee of the Auto-Carto 7 Conference and invited me to present my work at
Auto-Carto 7 – Digital Representation of Spatial Knowledge, held at
Washington in 1985.
The presentation included a live demonstration on an Apple IIe computer for the route
between a road junction in the Town of Wyoming, County of Iowa, State of Wisconsin to a
road junction in Oshkosh in the County of Winnebago, State of Wisconsin and via Madison
(the State Capital). In instances whereby only descriptions of the road or associated features
are required or where statements of advice are required then text displays or audio
responses may serve the need. For example, these statements might take the form: From
Sauk City travel along Highway 12 for 17 kilometres (13 minutes) to Springfield Corner.
Proceed along Highway 19 through Waunakee for 12 kilometres (11 minutes) and then onto
Highway 113. Travel for 16 kilometres (14 minutes) to the interstate highway.
Nick Chrisman later, in 1995, commented; “I have no doubts that Bob Williams
had great ideas ahead of the crowd… Who else would have demonstrated a
hierarchical network path algorithm LIVE at AC7 (live on an Apple II of
course…)
12
“Digital Terrain Modelling: An Overview”, Royal Australian Survey Corps (Army Survey Regiment)
publication, April 1985
13
I published a number of the research findings of my studies for the award of MSc (Cartography) in
cartographic journals and in conference proceedings including:
• “Evolution in Cartography: Data intelligence”, Cartography, Volume 16, No.2, September
1987.
• “Analysis of the Road Transportation Network”, Technical Papers, Volume 2 – 7
th
Australian
Cartographic Conference (incl Austra-Carto III), Sydney, August 1988.

8. 8
This capability now exists in commercial applications such as NAVMAN –
BUT still does not exist in military systems
- A QUARTER OF A CENTURY later!!
1983
In December 1983, the Australian Government ʻfloatedʼ the Australian Dollar.
During my attachment in the USA during 1983 to 1985 the Dollarʼs value went from
$0.96 to $0.64. So when it came to posting the next generation of specialist
officers participating in post-graduate studies at major overseas universities the
funding had not been set in place. The consequence was that this mode of post-
graduate education ceased.
The issue - How to develop international education programs
The consequence - Impact on S&T competency!
1985 The Bureau of Mineral, Resources, Geology and Geophysics (BMR)
14
introduced
technology for geoscientific mapping. The system was modelled on RASVYʼs
AUTOMAP 2 system at Bendigo and was proposed by John Hillier
15
.
1986 Review of mapping services - Terms of Reference. Cabinet Decision 3998 of
July 1984 requested the Ministers for Defence and Resources and Energy to
“undertake a complete joint administration review of Commonwealth topographic
resources and needs and the way in which those needs could best be met,
including alternative mechanisms for meeting strategic mapping needs”. The two
departments agreed on the Terms of Reference but were unable to agree on key
issues. In April 1985, the two Ministers, Mr Beazley and Senator Evans, agreed that
before there could be recommendations on the allocation of responsibilities or
resources, it would be necessary to have an independent review of outstanding
differences. The departments agreed that the Public Service Board should
undertake an independent assessment and complete the review.
This led to engagement of Professor Jack Richardson
16
in a consultative capacity to
lead the review.
SPECIAL NOTE – Professor Richardsonʼs Preferred Option
“A mapping and Survey Division should be created in the Department of Defence
headed by a Chief at First Assistant Secretary level. The Chief should be
responsible for the development and maintenance of … Commonwealth
topographic mapping programs in the national interest … . There should be two
Branches in the Division, one military and the other civilian, of which the Director of
Army Survey and the Director of NATMAP should be the respective Branch Heads”.
14
BMR is the forerunner of Geoscience Australia. The Australian Geological Survey Organisation
(AGSO) was first established in August 1992, when it took over the functions of the Bureau of Mineral
Resources. AGSO changed names to Geoscience Australia in 2001.
15
Former Colonel Hillier was a Director of RASVY and made a number of significant contributions
including proposing AUTOMAP 1 and involvement in the procurement of the DSTO Laser Airborne
Profile Recorder.
16
Report submitted to Chairman of Public service Board 16 July 1986. Professor Jack Richardson
instituted the Office of Commonwealth Ombudsman and developed the officeʼs reputation for intellectual
rigour and a robust approach to public administration. He oversaw the first critical years and guided the
office through substantial changes and growth in jurisdiction and case load.

9. 9
“The Terms of Reference do not include the activities of the RAN Hydrographic
Service but, if they had, I would have included the creation of a third Branch in the
proposed Division as a component of the fourth option”.
“Concluding thought. No doubt inventive minds will think of further
objections but, in my opinion, the advantages of the fourth option far
outweigh the disadvantages. They should not be displaced by an
aggregation of arguments stemming from antagonists alert in protecting
their own interests but less knowledgeable or determined when it comes to
an objective pursuit of the national interest.
The fourth option is my first preference”.
Professor Richardsonʼs preferred recommendation was NOT ACCEPTED !!
Our Nationʼs capabilities would be far different if a National Agency have
been established.
The issue - How to establish a National Geographic Support Agency
The need – Surveyor General & Chief Cartographer
1987 The Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Australian National University (ANU),
organized a two-day workshop on Geographic Information Systems and Australian
Defence Requirements held on 20-21 August 1987 in the Combs Building at the
Australian National University.
This workshop included a number of important presentations on future trends and
directions in developing national GIS capabilities
17
. Two papers (as examples) were:
1. A presentation and paper by Ken Burrows titled “Hydrography and the
Management of Geographic Information for Defence”. Topics included the
nature of hydrographic information with discussion of LADS (Laser Airborne
Depth Sounder), ECDIS (Electronic Chart Display and Information System),
physical and oceanographic data and maritime intelligence.
2. A presentation and paper by Perrett, Lyons and Moss titled “Overview of
LIS Activities in Queensland”. Topics included Queenslandʼs satellite
communications project Q-NET and the REGIS (Regional Geographic
Information System) Program; combine these topics addressed
dissemination of geospatial information in a distributed environment.
The proceedings of the workshop were published in 1989 and included a foreword
by the Minister for Defence, the Honorable Kim C. Beazley:
“The Governmentʼs Defence policy and program is comprehensively covered in the
Policy Information Paper, The Defence of Australia, which I tabled in Parliament
on 19 March 1987.
At the core of that policy is the concept of defence self-reliance and a strategy of
defence in depth. Defence self-reliance in Australiaʼs strategic and unique
geographic circumstances is achievable. Self-reliance as a goal is based on a
realistic assessment of our strengths, as well as on a rigorous appraisal of our
weaknesses. It draws on the skilful harnessing of Australiaʼs national resources in
the defence of Australia and its interests.
17
Ball, Desmond and Ross Babbage (Eds), Geographic Information Systems: Defence
Applications, Brasseyʼs Australia, Sydney, 1989.

10. 10
The remoteness and harsh environment of the most likely areas of entry to Australia
would pose considerable difficulties for a would-be enemy as indeed it would for the
development and operations of our own forces. To ensure that the balance is tilted
in our favour we need to know, understand and make use of our environment and
our infrastructure.
The knowledge and judicious exploitation of resources, both natural and man-made,
will play a vital role in any contingency.
While it is true that the importance of geographic information has long been
recognised, little has been done in Australia to develop a comprehensive
geographic information system. Quite simply, until now, Australiaʼs defence policies
have not accorded priority to geographic information on Australia.
The Policy Information Paper on defence clearly corrects that deficiency.
The question now is how are we to establish and maintain a system which will meet
the comprehensive needs of defence planners. Much of the information is already
there. It has been compiled by various governmental and private bodies concerned
with, for example, land use and resource applications. What is required is good
management to exploit this information and to fill any gaps in the particular
requirements of defence.
Recent developments in technologies and systems relevant to geographic
information systems show promise. Advances in data collection and storage
technologies as well as transmission and display systems point the way to defence
planners having access to accurate and detailed geographic information in the near
future and at relatively low cost.
A comprehensive geographic information system is vital to the development
of a national defence capability and consequently this book is a welcome
contribution to this area of Australiaʼs defence effort. I hope it will provide stimulus
for further research and discussion”.
Kim C. Beazley, November 1987
Obviously, Minister Beazley considered that we now had appropriate policy
to develop a geospatial information capability.
Minister Beazleyʼs policy still has NOT BEEN FULLY ACTIONED!!
1988 Review of the Royal Australian Survey Corps
In response to findings of an Army audit in 1986, the Chief of the General Staff,
Lieutenant-General L.G.OʼDonnell instituted a separate review of the Survey Corps
on 13 April 1987. The officer selected for the task was Brigadier J.S.Baker, the
Deputy Chief of Operations (DCOps) and one of the Armyʼs up-and-coming figures
who within eight years would be Australiaʼs top soldier as Chief of the Defence
Force. His terms of reference required him to examine the corpsʼ present and future
role and tasks; analyse the capabilities it required; develop options for its size,
structure, equipment, and manning; and recommend a course of action for any
restructuring that included identified manpower savings. The time frame given to
him stipulated that this report should be with CGS by 1 July the same year, but
shortly afterwards he was promoted. Initially Baker took the review to his new job
but it was subsequently realised that this was not practical and on 23 May 1988
carriage was passed to his successor as DCOps, Brigadier J.K.Byrnes.

11. 11
Byrnesʼ report, completed three months later, agreed that “changes should be made
to planning for AUTOMAP 3 [a follow-on project to AUTOMAP 2 with focus on
database design] on the grounds that the need being met for a MULTI-PRODUCT
DATABASE
18
within a GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM was essentially
an ADF one, not simply an Army requirement, and on that basis he argues for
PROJECT PARARE to be converted into a JOINT submission.
To further define the requirements, capabilities, and procedures of the new system
that was able to serve the whole ADF, a year long trial program using the digital
data storage and manipulation capabilities of AUTOMAP 2 was needed. To provide
the regional inputs for such a trial, Byrnes proposed creating Military Geographic
Information Sections (MGIS) in the 7th Military District (Northern Territory) and the
5th Military District (Western Australia)”.
Planning for AUTOMAP 3 did not go ahead; for reasons I wonʼt go into here.
But planning did go on for JP42 PROJECT PARARE.
AND, as can be seen PARARE needed a complex database structure in order
to meet future Defence-wide applications.
1988-89 Joint Working Party of the Australian Defence Force Geographic Information
System (ADF GIS) - Terms of Reference
19
. “The Joint Working Party on the ADF
GIS is to meet under the auspices of ACOPS HQADF and is to:
a. Examine the nature of GIS related consultative mechanisms and procedures
presently in place within the ADF and the Defence Organisation and make
recommendations for new arrangements if necessary.
b. Examine the requirement for a joint GIS directorate at the HQADF level, and,
should a requirement be identified, recommend the responsibilities and tasks of
the directorate and its outline organisation.
c. In context of the above examinations recommend a GIS management system for
the ADF which will:
(1) develop the ADFʼs GIS strategy and monitor its implementation,
(2) examine the ADFʼs requirements for GIS products including the determination
of priorities (this should include an examination of the present state of
mapping in the ADMI),
(3) examine ADF GIS standards and make recommendations for the
development of suitable standards,
(4) identify those GIS projects that require joint sponsorship (to include an
examination of PROJECT PARARE (MES 42), and a classified mapping
capability for the ADF,
(5) identify GIS related research requiring joint sponsorship.
The Aim of the Strategy was to provide objectives and the outline of the program
that is required to maintain the attributes of the existing system and to progressively
add those qualities and characteristics that are required to develop the system of
the future. The ADFʼs strategy must therefore address:
a. Australiaʼs Defence and civil priorities as identified in higher level Government
policy and strategic guidance;
b. the national and international obligations and legal responsibilities of the ADF,
particularly in the area of hydrography;
c. the provision of geographic information to support advanced weapon systems;
d. the exploitation of modern technology to support the economic and timely
collection, processing and distribution of data;
18
A Multi-Product Database requires a topologically structured relational, or object-oriented, database.
19
The report did not have a CLASSIFICATION but had limited distribution.

12. 12
e. the maximum use of data held by civil and international agencies;
f. the provision of geographic information to the ADF in the most effective and
economical way, particularly in the allocation and use of scarce resources;
g. the achievement of other national outcomes such as hydrographic support to the
civil maritime community; and
h. the provision of the geographic requirements of other sections of the Defence
Organisation where those goals are compatible with its main aim”.
The report of the Joint Working Party of the Australian Defence Force Geographic
Information System was comprehensive and competent.
The basic elements of the ADF GIS strategy are:
 Policy and doctrine;
 the ADF customers and their requirements;
 the management structure;
 the implementation structure;
 the database structure;
 geographic information management;
 education and training; and
 research and technology exploitation.
Unfortunately, only one staff officer was initially allocated to ACOPS [Assistant
Chief Operations]. Since 1989 there have been a number of organisational
changes within Defence and even THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE EXISTENCE OF
THE REPORT OF THE WORKING PARTY HAS BEEN LOST. Consequently,
many, or, perhaps, most, of the issues in the report have never been adequately
addressed.
1988 During 1988-89 I studied for the award of PhD in the Department of Geography and
Oceanography at the University of New South Wales – Australian Defence Force
Academy. My thesis addressed the organisation and analysis of geographic
information with the aim of informing Project PARARE. One chapter addressed a
methodology for describing our world and one chapter addressed techniques for
analyzing geographic information (as below).
“Chapter 7, GEOGRAPHIC KNOWLEDGE BASES, investigates canonical (or
information knowledge) structures or those structures required to describe 'real
world' phenomena. The hermeneutic (or interpretation) problem is a central problem
of phenomenology. It is through an appreciation of the hermeneutic problem that we
best come to see the importance of phenomenology for information system
research. The goal of a hermeneutic theory is to develop methods by which we rid
ourselves of all prejudices and produce an objective analysis of what is really there.
Thus, Chapter 7 attempts to organize the domain of geographic features and
introduces knowledge representation and the concepts of a cognitive concept, and
meta-knowledge.
Administration and institution. This view contains information pertaining to:
Political administration such as countries, states, counties, shires, city and township
limits; as well as Economic Exclusion Zones and territorial claims, etc
Government including facilities and regulated areas such as national parks, state
forests, other legal jurisdictions, etc
Land management, property ownership and parcel records, census areas, zoning and
planning areas, etc
Minor administration and features of delineation such as fences and walls, etc
Military including bases and facilities, ranges and controlled space, etc
Public service facilities such as postal, fire, and police, etc
Education including schools, colleges and universities, etc
Institutions such as training establishments, gaols and corrective institutes, museums
and libraries, clubs and societies, etc

13. 13
Religion including churches, cathedrals, mosques, halls, etc
Memorials including shrines, monuments, cemeteries, etc
Population and habitation. This view contains information describing places of residence of
both permanent and non-permanent status and includes features as:
Cities, towns, suburbs, communities, etc
Residential complexes such as apartments, units, condominiums, flats, duplexes,
dormitories, barrack blocks, etc
House, dwellings, homesteads, huts, etc
Demographic distribution such as those based on race, language, socio-economic
status, etc
Food and nutritional characteristics, etc
Road infrastructure. The road view contains information describing the road transportation
network from national and state levels of importance down to shire and local levels of
importance and includes all related features. The view includes:
Freeways, tollways, highways, distributive roads, local access roads, cul-de-sacs, etc
Tracks, driveways, foot paths, cycle paths, etc
Bridges, elevated roads, overpasses, tunnels, culverts, etc
Cuttings, embankments, levees, causeways, curbs, ramps, safety ramps, etc
Junctions including interchanges, intersections and points of change of road status
Road and feature construction
Impedances including gates, grids, level crossings, toll plazas, rest areas traffic lights,
traffic signs, etc
Rail infrastructure. In addition to the network of railway lines, the rail infrastructure view
consists of related features and facilities that are directly related to the rail network and
structures constructed of rail and cable. Features included in this view are:
Railway lines
Stations
Cargo loading facilities
Maintenance facilities
Marshalling yards, turntables and sidings, etc
Signalling systems
Bridges, culverts, cutting and embankments, levees and causeways, etc
Tramways, trolley bus routes, etc
Cable cars, chair lifts, etc.
Air infrastructure. As a major departure from the current technique of representing airfields
and aerodromes as primary features, this thesis proposes that such features form only a part,
albeit and essential part, of an international and national regulated air network system. As
such, this view includes:
Regulated air space and corridors, etc
Designated flight paths and controlled air space, etc
Airports, aerodromes, landing grounds, etc
Radio navigation beacons and devices, etc
Heliports and helipads, etc
Drop zones and parachute landing areas, etc
Taxiways and tarmacs, etc
Passenger terminals
Hangars and maintenance facilities, etc
Fuel supply and distribution facilities, etc
Car parks, etc
Critical elevations, obstacles, Maximum Elevation Figures, Lowest Safe Altitude, etc
Sea infrastructure. In a similar way that the air infrastructure view transited the land to air
interface, the sea infrastructure transits the land to sea interface and includes features such
as:
Ports and harbours, etc
Channels including buoys, beacons, and critical depths, etc
Wharves, docks, jetties, landings, etc
Passenger terminals
Cargo handling facilities, etc
Dry-dock and maintenance facilities, etc

14. 14
Navigable rivers and canals including locks, etc
Marine navigation aids, lighthouses, etc
Marinas, anchorages, etc.
Telecommunications. The telecommunications view organizes information concerning
transmittal and reception of communications and includes structures and networks. Features
include:
Television stations and transmitters, etc
Radio stations and transmitters, etc
Television and radio relay woers, etc
Telephone and cable networks, etc
Digital networks, antennae, facilities, etc
Power and fuel. The power and fuel view is a transitional view; containing some features
that link features in other views. Features include:
Power stations
Dumps, storage piles and conveyor belts used by power stations
Penstocks and flumes used by power stations
Substations
Powerlines, and connector and distribution lines, etc
Transformers
Windpumps, solar collectors and other means of generating ʻalternativeʼ power, etc
Fuel refineries and processing plants, etc
Storage terminals and pipelines, etc
Distributor pipelines, etc
Outlet facilities and service stations, etc.
Water resources. The water resources view contains some features that superimpose
features in other views, as is the case when a reservoir/dam overlays the original stream
(within the hydrography view). Features within the water resources theme include:
Reservoirs, dams and dam walls, etc
Spillways and water outlets, etc
Elevated reservoirs, tanks, wells and bores, etc
Distributive channels and pipelines, etc
Valves and taps, etc
Drains, etc.
Industry and commerce. This theme contains all features related to industry
(manufacturing, mining, agriculture) and commerce (financial, wholesale, retail) and includes
features such as:
Factories, plants and warehouses, etc
Storage yards
Mines and processing plants
Conveyor belts and storage dumps
Salt evaporators
Oil and gas platforms and wells
Shearing sheds, livestock pens and yards, dairies, poultry farms, sheds and buildings,
etc
Greenhouses and nurseries, etc
Financial districts, buildings and banks, etc
Shopping complexes, malls and districts, etc
Stores, shops and financial and retail outlets, etc.
Health and medical. The health and medical view consists of features such as:
Hospitals
Health clinics, surgeries, and aid posts, etc
Research institutions
Refuse disposal complexes and dumps
Sewage treatment works and drains, etc
Physiography. The physiography view is concerned with the description of the terrain. Part
of the information for this view is determined from geo-referencing and modelling. For
example, elevation models enable the description of elevation, slope, aspect, and so on.
Features included within this view are:

15. 15
Regional physiographic descriptions including deserts, floodplains, tundra, etc
Cliffs, gorges and escarpments
Sand dunes and ridges, etc
Peaks, ranges, ridges, mountains, hills, karst, plain, valleys, etc
Geological formations, and tectonics
Soils, etc
Isogonic models, etc
Hydrography. The hydrography view is concerned with the description of natural drainage
systems and includes land hydrographic features such as:
Rivers, streams, creeks, gullies, etc
Falls and rapids, etc
Sinkholes, springs, etc
Lakes and waterholes, etc
Swampland, marshes, inundated areas, etc
Floodplains, braided watercourses, channel country, deltas, etc
and maritime hydrographic features such as:
Continental coastlines
Islands, islets and exposed rocks
Reefs and ledges
Submerged rocks and wrecks
Foreshore and marine flats and swamps
Straits, channels and passages, etc
Oceanography. As with the physiography theme, the oceanography theme can be partially
described using elevation data but from a sub-surface perspective. This theme includes
features and attributes such as:
global and coastal sea surface temperatures
climatological layers of temperature, salinity and sound speed
tidal variations and currents, sea surface isotherms, etc
Vegetation and cultivation. This view includes natural and cultivated plant life. Features and
characteristics include:
Jungles, forests, woodlands, scrublands, etc
Savannah and grasslands, etc
Plantations and orchards, etc
Cultivated farmland, etc
Meteorology. A further departure from current geographic information processing technology
is to include a meteorology view. This view includes information on:
Climate and weather, temperatures and rainfall, etc
Atmosphere
Cloud, fog and precipitation, etc”.
“Chapter 8, GEOGRAPHIC KNOWLEDGE RULES, investigates knowledge rules
which may be applicable to both mapping and managerial and decision support
functions. There are two technologies within the information sciences that are
applicable. One is the expert system approach. An expert system seeks to replicate,
hence replace the abilities of a human expert in a specific domain problem. Expert
systems typically involve a closed-world assumption; the problem domain is
circumscribed, and the systems performance is confined within those boundaries.
This approach is particularly useful for the production of standardized products such
as maps. The second technology is the knowledge-based decision support system
approach. A knowledge-based decision support system seeks to assist a human
(manager) by taking over the more structured parts of a larger, only partially
formalizable, problem domain. In decision support system contexts, the world is
open. A knowledge-based decision support system must be adaptable and
extendible to meet the evolving needs of the user and changing conditions in the
environment. This technology is particularly applicable to terrain analysis and to
querying infrastructure”.

16. 16
Planning for JP42 PROJECT PARARE.needed design of a complex database
structure in order to meet future Defence-wide applications. This thesis
investigated this issue.
1989 I had the opportunity to present my research in a specialist session of Auto-Carto 9,
the Ninth International Symposium on Computer-Assisted Cartography, Baltimore 2-
7 April, 1989. My paper was titled Geographic Information: Aspects of
Phenomenology and Cognition and, in it, I discussed phenomenological (ʻreal
worldʼ) structures of geographic information and aspects of phenomenology.
As for all presentations I do at conferences, I introduced my presentation with a
contemporary event or incident. I recalled that when I attended UW-Madison we talked
about GIS applications along the Alaskan Pipeline and that work only covered small areas
and addressed fairly trivial issues. I then went on to note that only a week ago an event of
major significance occurred when the EXXON VALDEZ hit a reef in Prince William
Sound, Alaska20
. I suggested that we need to take a broader view of national infrastructure
and suggested that the extraction and transportation of the oil included the shipping routes
and harbours as well as the pipeline, etc.
1989 Electronic hydrographic charts – safe navigation - SEATRANS
The concept of electronic hydrographic charts goes back nearly 60 years, to at least
1952, when an article in the Journal of Navigation suggested combining radar
imagery with digitised chart data. At the time, however, the technology to handle the
data was a serious limiting factor resulting in not much more than speculation. In the
1980s, a number of sea trials were held including the Canadian Hydrographic
Service test beds that ran from 1985 to 1988 in Halifax Harbour, the North Sea
Project onboard the Norwegian survey vessel Lance, followed by the Seatrans
Project onboard the Nornews Express in 1989 and 1990.
The Seatrans Project included a trial between Trondheim, Norway and
Amsterdam with a crew of one.
Objectives included analyzing the combination of NAVSTAR GPS and ECDIS
(Electronic Chart Display and Information System) and contributing to the
development and use of navigational systems utilizing electronic navigation charts.
The trial was a success.
1990 THE DCW PROJECT
21
. A project to develop a Digital Chart of the World (DCW)
was first proposed by the US Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) in early 1988. The
DCW project was a joint R&D venture involving the US, Australia, Canada and the
UK, and sought to develop internationally accepted standards for the exchange of
digitally based mapping, charting and geodetic information. The Australian partner
in the DCW project was the Royal Australian Survey Corps (RASVY). The project
was funded through the Nunn Amendment to the 1987 US Military Appropriations
Bill, which provided for the funding of approved cooperative R&D projects with
certain NATO and non-NATO countries.
20
The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince Williams Sound, Alaska, on March 24, 1989, when the
EXXON VALDEZ, an oil tanker bound for Long Beach, California, hit Bligh Reef and spilled an estimated
minimum 10.8 million US gallons (40.9 million litres) of crude oil It is considered to be one of the most
devastating human-caused environmental ever to occur in history.
21
I, then MAJOR R. Williams, was one of two members of Australiaʼs representative team on DCW
Project meetings.

17. 17
Australiaʼs involvement in the R&D project was through a formal Memorandum of
Understanding with the US government. Australiaʼs role on the Project was as
agreed in Australian Treaty Series 1990 No.23 “Agreement between the
Government of Australia and the Government of the United States of America
Concerning Cooperative Development of the Digital Chart of the World”
22
.
The DCW Project was successful in that it:
• Created a global database of topologically structured data in
a relational form (suitable for use in GIS)
• Made a positive contribution to exchange standards and,
thereby, interoperability
• Was the catalyst for the development of viewing software
through VPFVIEW (ESRI developed a commercial product
called ARCVIEW)
• Was the catalyst for the establishment of cooperative
programs such as VaCWG (Vector ʻsmartʼ map Working
Group)
• Was the forerunner of technical developments embraced by
DGIWG (Digital Geographic Working Group)
I recommended that DSVY-A investigate ways in which Australia could join
the DGIWG. Australia was invited at an observer nation in 1993.
The DCW Project was intended to establish MULTI-NATIONAL
INTEROPERABILITY CAPABILITY and GIS CAPABILITY and WAS
AUTHORISED BY THE GOVERNOR GENERAL IN COUNCIL – Some follow-on
aspects remain outstanding !!
Research and development was to continue for 15 years. R&D was an
agenda item of the Five Nations MC&G Directors Forum until 2000
DCW R&D was suspended as a specialist topic on the formation of DIGO!!
1990 ARMY SURVEY REGIMENT – FORTUNA
ROYAL AUSTRALIAN
SURVEY CORPS
FORTUNA VILLA ADVANCE AUSTRALIA
22
Under authority of the Governor-General In Council.

18. 18
The Technical Development Cell (TDC) of the Army Survey Regiment, Royal
Australian Survey Corps occupied the Music Room of Fortuna Villa and held its
meeting in the Conservatory. One of the etched glass panels had a Coat of Arms
with the banner ADVANCE AUSTRALIA. The exact date of installation of the panel
is not known (to Bendigo Historical Society) but it is likely that the panel was
commissioned in Italy prior to Federation.
Now that’s VISION!
TDC worked on three major initiatives: Australiaʼs technical contribution to the
Digital Chart of the World Project; project requirements for PROJECT PARARE; and
technical support to the MGI (Military Geographic Information) Pilot Project (fielded
in Darwin).
When welcoming visitors to ASR and the TDC I would say something to the effect
“welcome to Fortuna the home of the Army Survey Regiment. The
Regiment has about 240 members with about 24 officers. Eighteen of the
officers have Bachelor degrees from Australian universities in one of the
core disciplines related to Surveying, Cartography or Earth Sciences. Six
have Masters degrees from Australian or overseas universities, and I have
BA Computing Studies, MSc (Cartography) and PhD. In addition, we
have an exchange US Army Major, a UK Military Survey Major, a RAAF
liaison officer and a Navy (Civilian) liaison officer”.
Within a decade this expertise would be ʻgoneʼ!
1991 PROJECT PARARE. Initiated in 1988, Project PARARE (from the RASVY Corps
motto videre parare est) was intended to be the project that would assist in actually
creating a database suitable for GIS applications. Planning began in 1989. Project
PARARE was to be a digital system that could produce a variety of products from a
spatially related topographic database
23
. Maps and charts, reports, photo products,
statistics and topologically structured spatial data would provide the topographical
base reference layers for a military geographic information system. The topographic
information provided would assist with terrain analysis, command and control
systems, weapons systems, and war gaming.
It was hard for many to grasp the revolutionary new way of thinking about
topographic information in which their primary goal, the printed map,
became just one of many products from a topographic database that would
provide a vastly increased military capability for the Australian Defence
Force.
The Defence Force was slow to realise the potential offered by PARARE.
While the Army Survey Regiment had the advantage of American exchange
officers bringing their knowledge to bear on research in the Technical
Services Section, and officers within the Survey Corps who had brought
back new ideas from overseas exchange postings [and tertiary education
through Long Term Schooling], it was difficult to influence or interest senior
officers in Canberra who still thought of topographic data in terms of maps.
The issue – Education and S&T competency!
23
My major contribution was to write a comprehensive description of the Data Services Segment.

19. 19
1991 I became aware that Army was making cuts in a number of areas. I was told that the
number of Specialist Service Officers was being reduced in some corps, including
the Survey Corps. My corps Director asked if I was interested in making an
employment change. He suggested that Army would waiver a return of service
obligation (as a result of time given for long-term schooling) if I got a job as a senior
research scientist in DSTO (Defence Science and Technology Organsiation). He
noted that RASVY had a long relationship with DSTO (and its predecessor
organizations) and was keen to get someone with specialist mapping qualifications
into the organization. I subsequently resigned after twenty five years in RASVY and
was recruited by DSTO.
1992 In May 1991, the Government introduced a Commercial Support Program (CSP) to
promote the transfer of non-core support activities from Defence to industry,
emphasising that the CSP must be understood as part of wider initiatives to
strengthen civil-military relations, which would foster Australiaʼs strategic defence
interests and its policy of self-reliance. The Army Survey Regiment was identified to
undergo two separate commercial support reviews: one logistic (Tier One), the other
technical (Tier Two).
Three commercial tenders were submitted. The In-House Option was selected as
the Preferred Commercial Option and the contract awarded in April 1994.
The implementation of the second CSP would prove to be “painful” … A Defence
decision in November 1994 to introduce PROJECT PARARE in two phases
dramatically narrowed options. Phase One would establish the Army Topographical
Support Establishment (ATSE) staffed by defence civilians to conduct digital
topographic tasks of Australian sovereign territory. It was decided that a study would
be conducted to determine the ADFʼs total digital requirement including examination
of core strategic non-sovereign tasks and another major capability submission
would precede the implementation of Phase Two.
For some unknown reason Army officers were, in effect, excluded from
executive level appointments at ATSE. Indeed, technicians were appointed to
more senior positions than what would have been the case prior to
ʻcivilianisationʼ.
ATSE, later to become Defence Topographic Agency (DTA), became a
technical level contractor working on a defined range of standard products.
Because of this there was a ʻfailureʼ by ATSE to implement an education
program and a ʻfailureʼ to develop advanced capabilities.
The issues – Lack of formal specialist professionals
Education and S&T competency!
Failure to liaise with tertiary institutions [UMelb, RMIT, etc]
Four years onward DTA merged with the Australian Imagery Office (AIO) and the
Directorate of Strategic Military Geographic Information (DSMGI) to become the
Defence Imagery and Geospatial Organisation (DIGO) but, because of its
ʻcontractorʼ status was not truly integrated until 2002.
What should have happened then was that a review of its operational
capability and a comparison of the capability that should have been in place
for the In-House Option for the CSP and comprehensive capabilities of
PARARE should have taken place. In not doing so has meant that known (in
1994) capability deficiencies have not been addressed appropriately until
this present time.
The issues – Lack of knowledge of capabilities prior to and post CSP

20. 20
process
Failure to undertake fundamental reform
1993 Australia (via Director RASY) was invited to attend DGIWG (Digital Geographic
Information Working Group) as an Observer Nation. As I had proposed this
relationship I was invited to participate.
DGIWG is the multi-national body responsible to the defence organizations of
member nations for coordinated advice and policy recommendations on geospatial
standardization issues. It will meet coalition interoperability challenges by creating
the standards and procedures required to enable the provision, exchange and use
of standardized geospatial information.
DGIWG is the custodian of DIGEST (Digital Geographic Information Exchange
Standard). In addition to work regarding standards, DGIWG develops data products
including:
o Terrain Analysis Dataset suitable for cross-country movement applications,
line of sight and range and bearing calculations.
o Transport and Logistics Datasets to support logistics planning and movement
of personnel and materiel and includes road networks, air facilities, maritime
ports and navigable waterways.
o Air Information Dataset to provide information on airfields, airspace structure
and other information on ICAO charts and En Route Charts, etc.
o Digital Nautical Chart containing maritime significant features essential for
safe marine navigation.
o Toponymic Dataset being a list of geographic place names and associated
support, or attribute, information.
1993 The late 1980s and early 1990s was a period of initiatives aimed at addressing
geographic data management
24
. I decided to write a journal paper on Digital
geographic data exchange standards and products: descriptions,
comparisons and opinions. The paper was published as a thirty eight page paper
in the journal Cartography, Volume 22 No. 1, June 1993.
I concluded with presenting A Vision for Australia with sections on Vision,
Management and Technical Solutions.
1993 In August 1993 I wrote a technical report with a defence focus titled “Digital
Geographic Information Exchange Standards and Their Relevance to the
Australian Defence Force”.
“When considering defence requirements for geographic information, the knowledge
of terrain and its impact on military operations is viewed as fundamental. The terrain
is not only the land surface but the natural and man-made features on or beneath
the surface; features which can be described with attributes pertinent in assessing
the conduct of battle. The emerging applications for the use of digital geographic
information can be summarised as:
Navigation and guidance. The requirement is for positional data and map
displays which support the navigation of an air or ground vehicle or sea vessel
and which is linked to the integral system of the vehicle which may include
terrain referenced navigation systems.
24
For example, at the Commonwealth level the Australian Land Information Council (ALIC) was
established in January 1986 by agreement between the Australian Prime Minister and the heads of state
governments and, at the state level, on 26 July 1991, the Victorian Cabinet approved the
implementation of a Geographic Information Management Strategy for Victoria.

21. 21
Surveillance, targeting and weapons. The requirement is for terrain data to
support surveillance of the battlefield for the acquisition of targets. Terrain data is
also required in planning and siting of some weapon systems.
Command, control and communications. The state of the art in information
technology itself is driving this requirement for navy, army and air force
command and control systems. The need extends from simple background map
displays to the sophistication of terrain analysis databases.
Intelligence. Military geographic information can be considered to be a part of
the overall requirement for intelligence by the military, along with strategic and
economic intelligence, to assess the intentions of potential enemies and
intelligence about an enemy's capabilities and equipment”.
Amongst other points I noted that Defence had at least thirty platforms and systems
that needed to exchange digital geographic data.
I recommended that:
1. The exchange of digital geographic data be managed and directed through, say, a
Directorate of Operational Information Systems (with respect to accordance to
standards) and an equivalent organisation within Operations Division (with
respect to supply of data to operational systems), or by organisations
recommended by the Geographic Requirements Committee. (Routine activities
associated with 'programmed' tasking could be delegated to appropriate sub-
organisations.)
2. The exchange of digital geographic data between the ADF and civilian organisations
be managed through a single agency (or a limited number of agencies). (For
example, the Army Survey Regiment currently has cooperative agreements with
civilian organisations such as the Australian Land Information Group and would
be well qualified to conduct this activity.)
3. Exchange of data between ADF and civilian agencies be in accordance with approved
standards such as ASDTS and DIGEST (including VPF).
4. Exchange of digital geographic data between organisations within the ADF be in
accordance with DIGEST, including approved product standards within the
DIGEST family of standards.
5. Such exchange should be formally tasked through appropriate service channels and
resources made available to implement approved requests.
6. In lieu of the absence of an appropriate archival standard for digital geographic data,
new and existing holdings of such data be archived in an approved standard such
as DIGEST. This action should be commenced immediately.
1994 I was asked by DSTO SA (Navy) to provide advice to Navyʼs Mine Warfare System
Centre Project through informing the project director on GIS technology and how
that might assist the project capability. The Mine warfare data centre acts as a data
storage and analysis centre for the vast amounts of data needed for mine warfare
operations. The information is combined with other intelligence sources to provide a
comprehensive mine counter measure coordination capability; ensuring the
protection of vital shipping assets and freedom of navigation.
1994 DI(G) OPS
25
20-3 (Digital. Geographic Information Exchange Standards and
Data Product Standards) Issue 1 was published by the Department of Defence on
6 May 1994. The original version included three fundamental concepts:
25
Defence Instruction (General)

22. 22
o Exchange of digital geographic information between defence organizations
and systems should be DIGEST compliant;
o Exchange of digital geographic information for hydrographic purposes should
conform to IHO (International Hydrographic Organisation) requirements; and
o Exchange of digital geographic information with civilian organizations should
conform to ASDTS (Australian Spatial Data Transfer Standard).
Civilian organizations in Australia did not embrace ASDTS and so this
directive was deleted on subsequent issues.
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION EXCHANGE STANDARDS [2000] 9
Standards endorsed by Defence for the exchange of digital geographic information
are:
a. Digital Geographic Information Exchange Standard (DIGEST) for data
exchange within Defence and with Australia's allies;
b. Special Publication No 57—IHO Transfer Standard for Digital
Hydrographic Data (S–57) for exchange of digital hydrographic data for
navigation.
DIGEST is a generic data exchange standard intended to facilitate the exchange of
militarily significant geographic information. It is sponsored by the Digital
Geographic Information Working Group (DGIWG), an international organisation of
Defence agencies (mostly North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) nations). The
Australian Defence Force is an associate member of DGIWG and is represented by
the Director of Strategic Military Geographic Information (DSMGI). DIGEST is the
endorsed standard for exchanging digital geographic data in Defence.
S–57 is an exchange standard sponsored by the International Hydrographic
Organisation (IHO). The Hydrographer represents Australia in the IHO forum. While
DIGEST does include some hydrographic themes, S–57 is intended for data
supporting nautical charting, navigation, and safety at sea. S–57 is applicable for
use by Defence in order to conform with national and international conventions and
laws regarding ship navigation and safety at sea.
DI(G) OPS 20-3 Issue 1 and Issue 2 concepts are IMPORTANT
– But they are still not operational a decade and a half later!
1993-94
In the early 1990s, a small Australian company
Hydrographic Science Australia (HSA) developed a
prototype ECDIS (Electronic Chart Display and
Information System) in collaboration with the RAN
Hydrographic Office.
HSA demonstrated their system to Defence personnel
on Sydney Harbour in 1993
26
.
The RAN Hydrographer developed a database ECDIS
of Sydney Harbour in accord with International
Hydrographic Organisation standards.
26
I was fortunate to be able to participate in the demonstration.

23. 23
In October 1994 the demonstration (this time on Melbourne’s Port Phillip Bay and
Yarra River) was shown on the ABC’s QUANTUM science program.
1994 – During 1994 I saw a need to write a document setting out a strategy for the
development of a Geospatial Information Infrastructure
27
. I was the first officer in
Australia to use the term.
Initiative – Regional Geospatial Information and Services (ReGIS)
Vision – The Australian Defence Organisation will have the Defence component of
a National Spatial Data Infrastructure
28 29
and accredited analytical tools to utilise
geospatial information for analysis, presentation, modelling, planning, rehearsal and
operation consistently across operational units.
Mission - The mission is to provide scientific leadership in the development of
advanced models and analytical tools for geospatial data, and to actively promote
technological developments through committees, seminars, conferences and the
like to ensure 'real outcomes' on the investment in the research, both to the
Australian Defence Organisation and to Australia in general.
The objectives are:
 Spatial data infrastructure. To promote, foster and participate in the design of
the Defence component of a National Geospatial Data Clearinghouse.
 Standards. To provide standards and guidelines necessary to enable effective
use and integration of geospatial information.
 Organisational framework. To strengthen the organisation and management
structures involved in the management and use of geospatial information.
 Education and training. To actively encourage and involve academia through
collaborative activities.
 Industry involvement. To actively encourage and involve industry through
collaborative activities, and to facilitate technology transfer to commercial
organisations.
These objectives comprise a radically different conceptual approach to the
management and use of military geographic information. This approach essentially
consists of two key components: the generation and management of geospatial
information; and the supply and distribution of services. Placed into a regional
27
The introduction of the term Geospatial Information Infrastructure can be attributed to Roberta
Lenzcowski of the US DMA but a major contribution was made by David McKellar from the Directorate
of Geographic Operations, Canadian Defence.
28
The term “spatial data infrastructure” is often used to denote the relevant base collection of
technologies, policies and institutional arrangements that facilitate the availability of and access to
spatial data. A spatial data infrastructure provides a basis for spatial data discovery, evaluation,
download and application for users and providers within all levels of government, the commercial sector,
the non-profit sector, academia and the general public. The word infrastructure is used to promote the
concept of a reliable, supporting environment, analogous to a road or telecommunications network.
Spatial data infrastructures facilitate access to geographically-related information using a minimum set
of standard practices, protocols, and specifications. Spatial data infrastructures are commonly delivered
electronically via the internet.
29
The term Spatial Data Infrastructure gained highest formal recognition in 1994 when US President
Clinton signed Executive Order 12906, Coordinating Geographic Data Acquisition and Access: The
National Spatial Data Infrastructure.

24. 24
context, the capability might be termed Regional Geospatial Information and
Services (ReGIS). Therefore the goals are to:
Design;
Prototype;
Conduct a pilot project; and
Facilitate the implementation of ReGIS.
Benefits - The benefits of implementing a system for Regional Geospatial
Information and Services promise to be quite substantial and can be summarised
as:
ReGIS Information. It is envisioned that the information will:
Provide regional, accurate, precise and current spatially coreferenced
information about the area of defence military interest.
Use standard data exchange formats to ensure geospatial interoperability
for command support systems, mission planning systems, navigation
systems, and so on.
Support measurement, mapping, visualisation, monitoring, modelling,
terrain evaluation, and spatial reasoning applications.
Harmonise data standards and related technical issues with respect to
agency to agency and organisation to organisation.
Facilitate interaction with Defence, Commonwealth, State and international
organisations with respect to efforts to collect, maintain and disseminate
geospatial information and its metadata.
Promote data structure and data base technology advances.
ReGIS Services. It is envisioned that the services will:
Deliver the right information at the right time through electronic data
transfers and deployable MGI desktops.
Develop community exchange and use of standards both with respect to
data models and elements, and certified toolkits.
Offer responsive technical guidance through analytical tools, improved
requirements identification and electronic training.
Certify new technological capabilities and manage value adding strategies.
Support multi-level electronic gateway interfaces and bulletin board access.
Overall. It is envisioned that the following will be achieved:
Interoperability through the use of consistent geospatial data across
operational units.
Flexibility through diverse uses of the same data for analysis,
presentation, modelling, planning, rehearsal and operation.
Currency of value-adding policies for diverse and remote data updates by
others in a timely manner.
Speed through on-line delivery for high priority data and update information.
Today – Defence does not have Geospatial Information Infrastructure
capability; nor does the Nation.
JP2064 [Currently] does not address all Components of a Geospatial
Information Infrastructure
1995 The United States Defense Science Board presented a report titled Report of the
Defense Science Board on Defense Mapping for Future Operations in
September 1995.
The Task Force concluded that the US Department of Defense (DoD) SHOULD
TRANSITION FROM EMPHASIS ON STANDARD SCALE MAP AND CHART

25. 25
PRODUCTION TO PROVIDING A READILY ACCESSIBLE SOURCE OF
DIGITAL INFORMATION WHICH WILL SATISFY MILITARY GEOSPATIAL,
MAPPING, CHARTING AND WEAPON SYSTEMS REQUIREMENTS.
This repository of digital geospatial information should be accessible electronically for a
large variety of worldwide customers via a distributed architecture designed to make a
major contribution to battlefield information dominance and support the needs for
modeling and simulation, wargaming, training, exercising, rehearsal, operations and post
strike analysis. The information contained in this architecture should serve as the
foundation for all DoD information management systems. Its principle attributes should be
geospatially referenced and temporally tagged using Global Positioning System (GPS)
time and positional standard accuracies, whenever practicable.
1996 CARTOGRAPHY enters a new era.
The journal Cartography , Volume 25 No.1, June 1996 contained articles on
contemporary cartography including:
Cartography: A New Era Has Begun by R.J.Williams
In this paper I state that “cartography is amongst the oldest of the scientific disciplines”
and that technologies may well have changed dramatically over the years but the
fundamental need to represent and communicate geospatial information is enduring.
Electronic Navigation Charting: An Australian Perspective by Ian Halls and Ronald
Furness.
Abstract: “The grounding of two vessels in Tasmanian waters over the past twelve months
has raised issues concerning the need to improve navigation safety in Australian waters. It
is widely thought within the maritime industry that it is only a matter of time before a
major accident occurs, perhaps in or near the Great Barrier Reef. The two Tasmanian
accidents involving vessels of different sizes and function (ie. pleasure and commercial),
could probably have been avoided given the navigation technology that is now emerging”.
Today - This technology is still yet to be commonplace!
1996 Disbandment of the Royal Australian Survey Corps
The Survey Corps was subject to many Government and Defence reviews since the
1950s, with seven from the early-1980s. Review outcomes led to many
reorganisations. In the late 1980s and early 1990s efficiency reviews led to an Army
direction that the non-core strategic mapping functions of the Corps were to be
tested as part of the Defence Commercial Support Program. The outcome of this
review was that the majority of Corps staff positions would be removed and that the
work would be performed by Defence civilians in a new Defence agency (initially
ATSE [Army Topographic Support Establishment], renamed DTA [Defence
Topographic Agency] and then integrated with other organizations to become DIGO
[Defence Imagery and Geospatial Agency]). The Chief of the General Staff (CGS)
decided that the remaining combat force and training force functions of the Corps
would be retained and enhanced and that the Corps and its people would be
integrated with the Corps of Royal Australian Engineers. At the integration parade of
the two Corps on 1 July 1996, 81 years after the formation of the Australian Survey
Corps, the CGS said that “Since 1915 the Survey Corps has not just been a
major contributor to the tactical success of the Australian Army in two World
Wars and other conflicts, it has played an outstanding role in the building of

26. 26
this nation – the Commonwealth of Australia – and the building of other
nations such as Papua New Guinea”. The author of the official Corps history,
himself not a Corps member but a much published military history author, concluded
that “should …the story (of the survey corps) receive the wider recognition
that it deserves, then the part within that tale occupied by military mapmakers
is worthy of special acclaim by a grateful nation
30
” .NOTE
31
1996 EGICS (Environmental and Geographic Information Capability Study)
In March 1995, the Department of Defenceʼs Concepts and Capabilities Committee
(CCC) endorsed the Capability Analysis Plan (CAP) which provides a basis for the
planning and conduct of major capabilities analyses. The CAP provides for a study
of environmental and geographic information to be undertaken in 1996/97
32
.
Vision – National security can be enhanced by an information edge made possible
through a new infrastructure for geospatial information. The infrastructure is the
collection of people, doctrine, policies, architectures, standards, and technologies
necessary to create, maintain, and utilise a shared geospatial framework.
EGICS offered a strategy for the ADO to progress the concept of a GII (Geospatial
Information Infrastructure).
Goal - EGICS suggested that the goal for the Australian Defence Organisation
should be to develop the infrastructure to transition from, essentially, a paper-based
capability to an architecture that provides information and services across the
portfolio: a service that provides the right information to the appropriate user in the
appropriate timeframe.
EGICS was suspended in May 1997 due to the intervention of the Defence
Reform Program.
I took the opportunity to report of the progress of EGICS and submit reports along
with recommendations and suggestions to establish a GEOSPATIAL
INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE (GII) FOR THE AUSTRALIAN DEFENCE
ORGANISATION (ADO).
THE GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE (GII)
GII Vision. The GII is proposed as a new enabling infrastructure to meet the needs of the
community for geospatial information. The infrastructure is the collection of people,
doctrine, policies, architectures, standards, and technologies necessary to create,
maintain, and utilise a shared geospatial framework.
The GII will provide geospatial information, products and services within an increasingly
austere, yet dynamic and demanding national security environment. The vision is based on
concepts which will increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the components of the
infrastructure. The GII:
30
Coulthard-Clark, C.D. Australiaʼs Military Map-Makers, Oxford, Melbourne, 2000 [page 199]
31
On 9 July 2007 the Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia unveiled a plaque, at the
Australian War Memorial, to Royal Australian Survey Corps units which served in war. In his address he
praised the efforts of all personnel of the Corps over its 81 years of service to the nation in both war and
peace.
32
I was appointed manager of the study, guided by the EGICS Steering and Working Groups, until May
1997 when it was suspended.

27. 27
establishes a framework for acquiring, producing, managing, and disseminating
geospatial information;
provides the supporting services needed to ensure information content meets user
needs, is easily accessible, and can readily be applied to support mission
information requirements;
ensures the supporting infrastructure components (including doctrine, policy,
training and force structure) are in place to optimise the use of the geospatial
information, products and services provided.
“It is recommended that:
1. The Defence Capability Committee agree to the GII vision, and agree that the
Department of Defence should transition from emphasis on standard scale map
and chart production to providing a readily accessible source of digital
information which will satisfy military geospatial, mapping, charting, and
weapons systems requirements.
2. Strategic Command Division ‘staff’ policy to that effect with final implementation of
the transition to be effected by 2005.
3. A coordinated approach be pursued by Information Strategic Concepts Branch
(Strategic Command Division), C3ID Development Branch (Capability
Development Division), Command and Support Systems Branch (Systems
Acquisition (Electronic Systems) in Defence Acquisitions), Intelligence Operations
Branch (DIO) and DSTO in addressing interoperability and geospatial data
structure aspects from a technical perspective.
4. Suitably qualified staff be actively involved in activities within the Open GIS
Consortium, technical working groups of Digital Geographic Information
Working Group (DGIWG) and VMap Coproduction Working Group (VaCWG),
and the International Standards Organisation (ISO).
5. With expertise in relevant technical areas having been established, organisational
and resource issues be addressed to maintain and sustain the capability.
6. Existing and emerging systems be assessed with respect to importing geospatial
information in accordance with existing Defence Instructions and action be
initiated to redress deficiencies.
7. The MGI Directorate in Information Strategic Concepts Branch (Strategic
Command Division) confirm, and strengthen, existing relationships with
traditional partners, such as through the Five Nations Mapping, Charting and
Geodesy Directors’ Conference.
8. Australia extend its relationships with the broader defence community through
pursuing full membership of the Digital Geographic Information Working Group
(DGIWG).
9. The MGI Directorate review, and update, agreements and arrangements with
countries in the region.

28. 28
10. The MGI Directorate review, and assess, obligations external to Defence; such as
IHO/IMO (International Hydrographic Organisation / International Maritime
Organisation), ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organisation), CSDC
(Commonwealth Spatial Data Committee), and so on.
11. The MGI Directorate, in conjunction with DSTO, develop a MGI requirements
process based on mission profiles and readiness criteria.
12. A program of activities commence for the development of technology
demonstrators based on mission profiles and readiness criteria.
13. The Director General Information Strategic Concepts Branch (having command
and control of the MGI Directorate), the Director General Intelligence
Operations and the Director General Science Policy Division (DSTO) commence
dialogue with a view to addressing issues that are either not within the mandate of
existing organisational structure, or cross existing structures.
14. A team (similar to the US Integrated Product Team) be established to progress the
GII concept.
15. Projects JP42 Phase 1, JP42 Phase 2A and SEA1430 be progressed as quickly as
possible.
16. R&D tasking be initiated to model the current databases (including those
developed for the projects above) and a strategy be developed to design an
architecture for Framework Information.
17. R&D tasking be initiated to prototype Framework Services.
18. A Major Capability Submission (MCS) be raised to support the goal of the
Information Management and Dissemination component.
19. A project be initiated to develop an electronic Defence map library and metadata
directory.
20. Action be commenced with a view to creating a Geographic Support Agency which
includes all MGI functionality including an imagery component.
21. Australia pursue membership of the VaCWG and attain status as a co-producer;
hence enabling the ADO to have access to VMap Level 1 (a worldwide digital
product similar to the Digital Chart of the World (DCW) but at 1:250,000 scale
content and designed for operational planning) by 2000.
22. The MGI Directorate in Information Strategic Concepts Branch (Strategic
Command Division) confirm and strengthen existing relationships with
Commonwealth and State agencies (in light of significant changes occurring
within departments at both Commonwealth and State level) and update data
exchange and/or acquisition activities.
23. The MGI Directorate consider options for seeking Expressions of Interest from
industry to act as a bureau service to acquire geospatial information.

29. 29
24. The MGI Directorate, in conjunction with DSTO, investigate alternative sources of
information (SAR, multispectral and hyperspectral imagery, etc) and processes to
convert that information into Foundation Data and Mission Specific Data Sets.
25. Information Strategic Concepts Branch (Strategic Command Division) sponsor a
workshop to discuss, in detail, design and implementation aspects of Projects
Parare Phases 1, 2A and 2B and SEA1430 with the goal of migrating their
respective databases towards a model compatible with the Foundation Data
module of the Information Management and Dissemination Component.
Participants should include staff from Information Strategic Concepts Branch
(Strategic Command Division), C3ID Development Branch (Capability
Development Division), Command and Support Systems Branch (Systems
Acquisition (Electronic Systems) in Defence Acquisitions), and DSTO.
26. Information Strategic Concepts Branch (Strategic Command Division) continue
progressing co-production through MOUs with allied Defence organisations.
27. The MGI Directorate, in conjunction with DSTO, investigate co-production with
Commonwealth and State agencies and/or industry partners.
28. The MGI Directorate, in conjunction with DSTO, investigate sources of
information suitable for defence purposes from agencies not normally used in the
past, such as those in environmental management, geological applications,
mining, and so on.
29. DSTO (through Project Takari) research and prototype architectures for
electronic distribution of geospatial information as part of the C3I architecture.
30. An MCS be raised to support the goal of achieving an Internet-like architecture to
link the Framework Information to the Application component.
31. Information Strategic Concepts Branch (Strategic Command Division) sponsor a
workshop to discuss education and training issues. Participants should include
staff from Information Strategic Concepts Branch (Strategic Command Division),
C3ID Development Branch (Capability Development Division), Command and
Support Systems Branch (Systems Acquisition (Electronic Systems) in Defence
Acquisitions), DIO, DSTO, Defence Personnel Branch, representatives from the
producer agencies, and ADFA.
32. DSTO undertake an assessment of education, training and research and
development both nationally and internationally.
The vision
If the ADO acknowledges and agrees to the GII concept, the ADHQ needs to promulgate
a mission statement, not only for the present, but one that will take Defence into the 21st
century. For example:
“Provide responsive geospatial, imagery, and imagery intelligence, support,
and services (to include the coordination of imagery collection requirements,
processing, exploitation, and dissemination), and derived products, to the
ADO components, and, for national intelligence purposes, and other Federal
Government Departments and Agencies”.

30. 30
“Manage imagery and geospatial analysis and production, to include near-
global (or, at lest, regional) production of a geospatial foundation suitable
for immediate support of plans and crisis operations, densification for
support of more deliberate operations, and for use as a registration base by
other disciplines”.
“Maintain the geospatial, imagery, and imagery intelligence databases while
protecting the access and integrity”.
SUGGESTIONS - Technology - R&D and T&E
Implication of the GII
Foundation information. If we agree that we should adopt and implement a GII, then we
need to commence, at the earliest opportunity, the process of populating the Foundation
Information layer. This means that we need to conduct a systems analysis of the current
capability and formulate options to implement the process.
Tough decision. Who authorises a systems analysis? Who conducts a systems analysis?
Intuitively, it will be found that we will be spending too much effort on data elements that
are not overly important and not collecting information that is needed.
Example. In topographic mapping, contours are by far the most expensive data elements to
collect. The current process requires analysts to physically trace contours from three
dimensional models. The contemporary requirement is for terrain models (DTED).
S&T assessment. Alternate techniques (such as image correlation, vectorising existing
reproduction material and densifying or adjusting the model, extraction from other
imagery sources (SAR)) need to be evaluated.
Mission specific data sets. The following step is to determine what mission specific data
sets are required by Defence customers.
Where possible definition of mission specific data sets should be derived from operational
and contingency plans. Alternately, or if such plans do not exist, then scenarios could be
developed to simulate a range of responses and applications.
Example scenarios. Consider the following:
In protection of shipping at Darwin, its approaches and the Torres Strait, determine
those waters that constrain submarine and/or large ship operations.
In defeating incursions onto Australian Territory, provide details and plans of assets
and infrastructure on Christmas and Cocos Islands.
As a result of fires in south east Irian Jaya and south west Papua New Guinea, plan
an evacuation mission to Ok Tedi approaching from the north and in poor
visibility.
S&T challenge. Design a concept demonstrator, prototype the model and analytical tools
and independently test outcomes. The task includes acquiring all relevant information that
would be needed to conduct the operations.
Long term R&D
A cursory analysis of the scenarios above will reveal that the science and technology
challenge is quite complex. Nevertheless, we should be at that stage of development
already. We are not. Therefore, we need to get ourselves up to that level.
If we now visualise what the next stages might be, then certainly one application would be
precision navigation - on the land, on the water, below the surface and in the air. This
concept has associated with it considerable science and technology challenges; but the
potential payoffs have the potential to be enormous. Just in the past few weeks an aircraft
has crashed in Sumatra and two ships have collided in the strait between Sumatra and

31. 31
Malaya - blamed on poor visibility from smoke from fires in Indonesia. Precision
navigation is an R&D area, Australia, and DSTO in particular, could focus on.
A laboratory function
As noted throughout the EGICS reports, the overall MGI capability is uncoordinated and
spread across many parts of the ADO. The same situation occurs in the research and
development domain.
Currently, there is no unit/group/branch/establishment that has responsibility for
coordinating, leading and directing the R&D function.
Likewise, Defence currently does not have a unit/group/branch/establishment (composed
of staff with expertise in the mapping sciences) that has responsibility for conducting tests
and evaluation on methodologies, technologies, architectures, and infrastructure related to
the MGI capability.
In summary, the ADO lacks a laboratory function.
Suggestion. An institute be established and its terms of reference direct that it prototype an
organisation capable of progressing the range of activities required to progress the ADO’s
MGI capability into the 21st century. In effect, establish a modified version of an IPT
(Integrated Product Team)..
And others…..
1996-97 – Defence Efficiency Review / Defence Reform Program
On 15 October 1996, the Minister for Defence established the Defence Efficiency
Review (DER) with the goal of setting “Future Directions for the Management of
Australiaʼs Defence”.
Initiative 15 of the DER was the “Rationalisation of Military Geographic
Information Organisations”. This initiative concluded that “the creation of a
central MGI body, the consolidation of the MGI Production Establishments under it,
and the outsourcing of selected MGI functions will lead to more efficient use of MGI
resources. However, more importantly, it will enable coordinated future planning of
MGI capability development and expert MGI advice to other new capability
acquisitions”.
As a part of the follow on to the DER, the DRP included a number of workshops;
one was the Military Geographic Information Defence Reform Plan Workshop.
I was invited to give the opening address to the workshop. The objective of the
workshop was “to develop and agree on the concept, broad form and
function of a DEFENCE GEOGRAPHIC SUPPORT AGENCY”.
I suggested that the forum was confronted by the issue of whether merely to consolidate
existing assets and continue with current practices and services or to commence the process
of organisational change and set a vision for the future. I made the assumption that we are
looking to the future and do desire to develop the form and function of the Defence MGI
capability to take Defence into the 21st century.
1997 The formation of the Geographic Support Agency was controversial and not
supported by key principles. See figure on next page.
Instead, a “joint” directorate, the Directorate of Strategic Military Geographic
Information (DSMGI), was established firstly in Strategic Command Division and
then under the Chief Knowledge Officer.

32. 32
1998 AURISA (Australasian Urban and Regional Information Systems Association) held
its third Canberra Defence seminar, Spatial Information in Defence. The two-day
seminar/conference, held 24-25 September, had the theme "Managing information
in the new spatial era" and followed on after the Defence Efficiency Review (DER).
The flyer's cover lists Opening Address: Air Marshall Doug Riding; International
Guest Speaker: Paul Strassmann; and Also Speaking: Rear Admiral Peter Briggs,
Brigadier Mike Swan, Dr Roger Bradbury and Dr Bob Williams.
My presentation and paper were titled "Military Geographic Information Research
and Development for the Geospatial Environment to circa 2010".
GII and Geographic Support Agency
2000 In June 2000, DSMGI published its Geospatial Information Strategic Plan. The
document was approved by the Chief Knowledge Officer
33
.
The plan set an ADO (Australian Defence Organisation) Geospatial Information Vision.
The ADO geospatial information capability of the 21st century will comprise a balanced,
flexible, interoperable set of geospatial components, providing the right information to the
right customers, in the right format, at the right time.
This vision statement fully complements the vision of the Defence Information Environment
(DIE), which states “The DIE will ensure commanders and staff have access to the
information needed to perform their tasks, contribute decisively to the knowledge edge
capability, and contribute to the operation of the Defence organisation as a single
enterprise”.
33
I provided mapping sciences support to the Directorate of Strategic Military Geographic Information
assisting with contribution to key policy documents.

33. 33
The vision is to develop a Geospatial Information Infrastructure
The Australian Defence Organisation (ADO) must progress towards establishing a
Geospatial Information Infrastructure (GII). In addition to addressing the key geospatial
information capability gaps, development of the GII must be guided by the Defence
Information Environment (DIE) and cognisant of the Australian Spatial Data
Infrastructure (ASDI), as well as the capabilities being developed by coalition partners.
The GII is an evolutionary infrastructure designed to meet Defence’s need for geospatial
information. It represents the total geospatial information capability of the ADO, which
includes the collection of people, doctrine, policies, architectures, standards, and
technologies necessary to create, maintain, and utilise a shared framework of geospatial
information and services. It provides capabilities such as requirements analysis, source
data acquisition, data modelling, information compilation and production, information
management, and dissemination. The geospatial information environment must support the
development of interoperable applications to assist users in exploiting the information and
achieving an integrated view of the mission space. The GII will:
 Establish a framework for acquiring, producing, managing, and disseminating
geospatial information
 Provide the supporting services needed to ensure information content meets user
needs, is easily accessible, and can readily be applied to support operational
information requirements
 Ensure that the supporting infrastructure components (including policy, doctrine,
training and force structure) are in place to optimise the use of the geospatial
information, products and services provided.
Whilst some components of a GII exist, and whilst some projects carry the
title ʻGeospatial Information Infrastructureʼ, the vision and the goals within
the ʻGeospatial Information Strategic Planʼ remain oustanding!
2000 The Defence Imagery and Geospatial Organisation (DIGO) was established under a
Cabinet Directive on 8 November 2000 by amalgamating the Australian Imagery
Organisation and Directorate of Strategic Military Geographic Information (DSMGI),
and the Defence Topographic Agency.
Minister of Defence MIN 332/00 8 November 2000
NEW DEFENCE IMAGERY AND GEOSPATIAL ARRANGEMENTS
The Minister for Defence, John Moore, today announced the formation of the Defence
Imagery and Geospatial Organisation (DIGO).
This initiative brings together three separate parts of the Defence Department: the
Australian Imagery Organisation (formerly located within the Defence Intelligence
Organisation), the Directorate of Strategic Military Geographic Information (formerly
located within the Defence Headquarters), and the Defence Topographic Agency in
Bendigo, Victoria.
"Imagery and geospatial information provide information about our world. When
combined, as we have done with this new organisation, they enable Defence to extract
knowledge for specific strategic and planning purposes," Mr Moore said.
Key uses for this kind of information include situational awareness, decision making and
operational planning. "The change announced today will provide the Australian Defence
Organisation and the Government with intelligence and geospatial information needed to
effectively operate in an increasingly complex environment.

34. 34
"A modern and versatile defence force needs reliable information, ranging from accurate
paper maps to digital data for electronic equipment, to three-dimensional computer models
for planning operations.
"Advanced weapons systems in particular require ‘smarter’ geospatial information to
support them and Australia must be able to produce this information. The formation of
DIGO is a significant step in developing this capability," said Mr Moore.
While the Defence Topographic Agency will be integrated functionally into DIGO, it will
remain in Bendigo, reflecting the continuing commitment from Defence to regional
Australia.
The Director of the new Organisation is Mr Chris Stephens.
The status of the separate organisations
AIO was only just developing competent imagery analysis capabilities. The
capability had been poorly managed in preceding years. The capability, from a
functionality perspective, was not as advanced as many agencies at the State
Government level. JP2064 Phase 1 was intended to improve the capability.
The MGI component of AIO had reasonable GIS (Geographic Information System)
capabilities (from a functionality perspective) but not nearly as advanced as similar
systems in a number of State Government organisations.
DTA, initially, was seen to have lower priority than AIO – imagery was viewed to be
something new whereas map-making was seen [quite falsely] as old capability.
Secondly, DTA was still subject to its contractual obligations under the Commercial
Support Program. Consequently, the inaugural Director had little technical control.
Surprisingly, DIGO did not seem to conduct a full review of DTAʼs capability. If a
review had been done, by appropriately qualified cartographers, it would have been
observed that the primary product was traditional mapping products and not the
transition to a Geospatial Information Infrastructure capability that Project PARARE
was intended to provide. In addition, DTA staff were predominantly technicians;
Army officers (most of whom had formal tertiary level qualifications in the surveying
and mapping sciences) were excluded from executive level appointments.
DSMGI was predominately a policy organisation which should have provided DIGO
with the guidance and policy to operate as a contemporary geospatial organisation.
DSMGI would also have held agreements and arrangements with our traditional
military partners (UK, US, Canada and New Zealand) nations in the South West
Pacific and South East Asia, and with the States of Australia. AND it did have a
Military Geographic Information Strategic Plan - but that seems to have been almost
ignored as an operational document. And some DSMGI capabilities were not fully
utilised.
So, when compared with DER Initiative 15, only a partial integration had occurred.
Consequently DIGO only manages a part of the (previous) GSA proposal.
The overall geospatial capability remains splintered across a number of
bodies. The major capability of not having a Defence Geographic
Support Agency structured to address the breadth of capabilities across
the Defence Portfolio remains.
Research and Development has been seriously constrained by the lack of
appropriately qualified scientists and engineers.