Interactive machine learning
Daniel Hsu
Columbia University
1

Non-interactive machine learning
“Cartoon” of (non-interactive) machine learning
2

Non-interactive machine learning
“Cartoon” of (non-interactive) machine learning
1. Get labeled data {(inputi , outputi )}n
i=1.
2

Non-interactive machine learning
“Cartoon” of (non-interactive) machine learning
1. Get labeled data {(inputi , outputi )}n
i=1.
2. Learn prediction function ˆf (e.g., classifier, regressor, policy)
such that
ˆf (inputi ) ≈ outputi
for most i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
2

Non-interactive machine learning
“Cartoon” of (non-interactive) machine learning
1. Get labeled data {(inputi , outputi )}n
i=1.
2. Learn prediction function ˆf (e.g., classifier, regressor, policy)
such that
ˆf (inputi ) ≈ outputi
for most i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Goal: ˆf (input) ≈ output for future (input, output) pairs.
2

Non-interactive machine learning
“Cartoon” of (non-interactive) machine learning
1. Get labeled data {(inputi , outputi )}n
i=1.
2. Learn prediction function ˆf (e.g., classifier, regressor, policy)
such that
ˆf (inputi ) ≈ outputi
for most i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Goal: ˆf (input) ≈ output for future (input, output) pairs.
Some applications: document classification, face detection,
speech recognition, machine translation, credit rating, . . .
2

Non-interactive machine learning
“Cartoon” of (non-interactive) machine learning
1. Get labeled data {(inputi , outputi )}n
i=1.
2. Learn prediction function ˆf (e.g., classifier, regressor, policy)
such that
ˆf (inputi ) ≈ outputi
for most i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Goal: ˆf (input) ≈ output for future (input, output) pairs.
Some applications: document classification, face detection,
speech recognition, machine translation, credit rating, . . .
There is a lot of technology for doing this,
and a lot of mathematical theories for understanding this.
2

Interactive machine learning: example #1
Practicing physician
3

Interactive machine learning: example #1
Practicing physician
Loop:
1. Patient arrives with symptoms, medical history, genome . . .
3

Interactive machine learning: example #1
Practicing physician
Loop:
1. Patient arrives with symptoms, medical history, genome . . .
2. Prescribe treatment.
3

Interactive machine learning: example #1
Practicing physician
Loop:
1. Patient arrives with symptoms, medical history, genome . . .
2. Prescribe treatment.
3. Observe impact on patient’s health (e.g., improves, worsens).
3

Interactive machine learning: example #1
Practicing physician
Loop:
1. Patient arrives with symptoms, medical history, genome . . .
2. Prescribe treatment.
3. Observe impact on patient’s health (e.g., improves, worsens).
Goal prescribe treatments that yield good health outcomes.
3

Interactive machine learning: example #2
Website operator
4

Interactive machine learning: example #2
Website operator
Loop:
1. User visits website with profile, browsing history . . .
4

Interactive machine learning: example #2
Website operator
Loop:
1. User visits website with profile, browsing history . . .
2. Choose content to display on website.
4

Interactive machine learning: example #2
Website operator
Loop:
1. User visits website with profile, browsing history . . .
2. Choose content to display on website.
3. Observe user reaction to content (e.g., click, “like”).
4

Interactive machine learning: example #2
Website operator
Loop:
1. User visits website with profile, browsing history . . .
2. Choose content to display on website.
3. Observe user reaction to content (e.g., click, “like”).
Goal choose content that yield desired user behavior.
4

Interactive machine learning: example #3
E-mail service provider
5

Interactive machine learning: example #3
E-mail service provider
Loop:
1. Receive e-mail messages for users (spam or not).
5

Interactive machine learning: example #3
E-mail service provider
Loop:
1. Receive e-mail messages for users (spam or not).
2. Ask users to provide labels for some borderline cases.
5

Interactive machine learning: example #3
E-mail service provider
Loop:
1. Receive e-mail messages for users (spam or not).
2. Ask users to provide labels for some borderline cases.
3. Improve spam filter using newly labeled messages.
5

Interactive machine learning: example #3
E-mail service provider
Loop:
1. Receive e-mail messages for users (spam or not).
2. Ask users to provide labels for some borderline cases.
3. Improve spam filter using newly labeled messages.
Goal maximize accuracy of spam filter,
minimize number of queries to users.
5

Characteristics of interactive machine learning problems
6

Characteristics of interactive machine learning problems
1. Learning agent (a.k.a. “learner”) interacts with the world
(e.g., patients, users) to gather data.
6

Characteristics of interactive machine learning problems
1. Learning agent (a.k.a. “learner”) interacts with the world
(e.g., patients, users) to gather data.
2. Learner’s performance based on learner’s decisions.
6

Characteristics of interactive machine learning problems
1. Learning agent (a.k.a. “learner”) interacts with the world
(e.g., patients, users) to gather data.
2. Learner’s performance based on learner’s decisions.
3. Data available to learner depends on learner’s decisions.
6

Characteristics of interactive machine learning problems
1. Learning agent (a.k.a. “learner”) interacts with the world
(e.g., patients, users) to gather data.
2. Learner’s performance based on learner’s decisions.
3. Data available to learner depends on learner’s decisions.
4. State of the world depends on learner’s decisions.
6

Characteristics of interactive machine learning problems
1. Learning agent (a.k.a. “learner”) interacts with the world
(e.g., patients, users) to gather data.
2. Learner’s performance based on learner’s decisions.
3. Data available to learner depends on learner’s decisions.
4. State of the world depends on learner’s decisions.
This talk: two interactive machine learning problems,
1. active learning, and
2. contextual bandit learning.
(Our models for these problems have all but the last of above characteristics.)
6

Active learning

Motivation
Recall non-interactive (a.k.a. passive) machine learning:
1. Get labeled data {(inputi , labeli )}n
i=1.
2. Learn function ˆf (e.g., classifier, regressor, decision rule, policy)
such that
ˆf (inputi ) ≈ labeli
for most i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
8

Motivation
Recall non-interactive (a.k.a. passive) machine learning:
1. Get labeled data {(inputi , labeli )}n
i=1.
2. Learn function ˆf (e.g., classifier, regressor, decision rule, policy)
such that
ˆf (inputi ) ≈ labeli
for most i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Problem: labels often much more expensive to get than inputs.
E.g., can’t ask for spam/not-spam label of every e-mail.
8

Active learning
Basic structure of active learning:
9

Active learning
Basic structure of active learning:
Start with pool of unlabeled inputs
(and maybe some (input, label) pairs).
9

Active learning
Basic structure of active learning:
Start with pool of unlabeled inputs
(and maybe some (input, label) pairs).
Repeat:
1. Train prediction function ˆf using current labeled pairs.
9

Active learning
Basic structure of active learning:
Start with pool of unlabeled inputs
(and maybe some (input, label) pairs).
Repeat:
1. Train prediction function ˆf using current labeled pairs.
2. Pick some inputs from the pool, and query their labels.
9

Active learning
Basic structure of active learning:
Start with pool of unlabeled inputs
(and maybe some (input, label) pairs).
Repeat:
1. Train prediction function ˆf using current labeled pairs.
2. Pick some inputs from the pool, and query their labels.
Goal:
9

Active learning
Basic structure of active learning:
Start with pool of unlabeled inputs
(and maybe some (input, label) pairs).
Repeat:
1. Train prediction function ˆf using current labeled pairs.
2. Pick some inputs from the pool, and query their labels.
Goal:
Final prediction function ˆf satisfies ˆf (input) ≈ label for
most future (input, label) pairs.
9

Active learning
Basic structure of active learning:
Start with pool of unlabeled inputs
(and maybe some (input, label) pairs).
Repeat:
1. Train prediction function ˆf using current labeled pairs.
2. Pick some inputs from the pool, and query their labels.
Goal:
Final prediction function ˆf satisfies ˆf (input) ≈ label for
most future (input, label) pairs.
Number of label queries is small.
(Can be selective/adaptive about which labels to query . . . )
9

Sampling bias
Main difficulty of active learning: sampling bias.
10

Sampling bias
Main difficulty of active learning: sampling bias.
At any point in active learning process, labeled data set
typically not representative of overall data.
10

Sampling bias
Main difficulty of active learning: sampling bias.
At any point in active learning process, labeled data set
typically not representative of overall data.
Problem can derail learning and go unnoticed!
10

Sampling bias
Main difficulty of active learning: sampling bias.
At any point in active learning process, labeled data set
typically not representative of overall data.
Problem can derail learning and go unnoticed!
input ∈ R, label ∈ {0, 1}, classifier type = threshold functions.
45%45% 5%5%
10

Sampling bias
Typical active learning heuristic:
Start with pool of unlabeled inputs.
input ∈ R, label ∈ {0, 1}, classifier type = threshold functions.
45%45% 5%5%
10

Sampling bias
Typical active learning heuristic:
Start with pool of unlabeled inputs.
Pick a handful of inputs, and query their labels.
input ∈ R, label ∈ {0, 1}, classifier type = threshold functions.
45%45% 5%5%
10

Sampling bias
Typical active learning heuristic:
Start with pool of unlabeled inputs.
Pick a handful of inputs, and query their labels.
Repeat:
1. Train classifier ˆf using current labeled pairs.
input ∈ R, label ∈ {0, 1}, classifier type = threshold functions.
45%45% 5%5%
10

Sampling bias
Typical active learning heuristic:
Start with pool of unlabeled inputs.
Pick a handful of inputs, and query their labels.
Repeat:
1. Train classifier ˆf using current labeled pairs.
2. Pick input from pool closest to decision boundary of ˆf ,
and query its label.
input ∈ R, label ∈ {0, 1}, classifier type = threshold functions.
45%45% 5%5%
10

Sampling bias
Typical active learning heuristic:
Start with pool of unlabeled inputs.
Pick a handful of inputs, and query their labels.
Repeat:
1. Train classifier ˆf using current labeled pairs.
2. Pick input from pool closest to decision boundary of ˆf ,
and query its label.
input ∈ R, label ∈ {0, 1}, classifier type = threshold functions.
45%45% 5%5%
Learner converges to classifier with 5% error rate, even though
there’s a classifier with 2.5% error rate. Not statistically consistent!
10

Framework for statistically consistent active learning
Importance weighted active learning
(Beygelzimer, Dasgupta, and Langford, ICML 2009)
11

Framework for statistically consistent active learning
Importance weighted active learning
(Beygelzimer, Dasgupta, and Langford, ICML 2009)
Start with unlabeled pool {inputi }n
i=1.
11

Framework for statistically consistent active learning
Importance weighted active learning
(Beygelzimer, Dasgupta, and Langford, ICML 2009)
Start with unlabeled pool {inputi }n
i=1.
For each i = 1, 2, . . . , n (in random order):
1. Get inputi .
11

Framework for statistically consistent active learning
Importance weighted active learning
(Beygelzimer, Dasgupta, and Langford, ICML 2009)
Start with unlabeled pool {inputi }n
i=1.
For each i = 1, 2, . . . , n (in random order):
1. Get inputi .
2. Pick probability pi ∈ [0, 1], toss coin with P(heads) = pi .
11

Framework for statistically consistent active learning
Importance weighted active learning
(Beygelzimer, Dasgupta, and Langford, ICML 2009)
Start with unlabeled pool {inputi }n
i=1.
For each i = 1, 2, . . . , n (in random order):
1. Get inputi .
2. Pick probability pi ∈ [0, 1], toss coin with P(heads) = pi .
3. If heads, query labeli , and include (inputi , labeli ) with
importance weight 1/pi in data set.
11

Framework for statistically consistent active learning
Importance weighted active learning
(Beygelzimer, Dasgupta, and Langford, ICML 2009)
Start with unlabeled pool {inputi }n
i=1.
For each i = 1, 2, . . . , n (in random order):
1. Get inputi .
2. Pick probability pi ∈ [0, 1], toss coin with P(heads) = pi .
3. If heads, query labeli , and include (inputi , labeli ) with
importance weight 1/pi in data set.
Importance weight = “inverse propensity” that labeli is queried.
Used to account for sampling bias in error rate estimates.
11

Importance weighted active learning algorithms
How to choose pi ?
12

Importance weighted active learning algorithms
How to choose pi ?
1. Use your favorite heuristic (as long as pi is never too small).
12

Importance weighted active learning algorithms
How to choose pi ?
1. Use your favorite heuristic (as long as pi is never too small).
2. Simple rule based on estimated error rate differences
(Beygelzimer, Hsu, Langford, and Zhang, NIPS 2010).
12

Importance weighted active learning algorithms
How to choose pi ?
1. Use your favorite heuristic (as long as pi is never too small).
2. Simple rule based on estimated error rate differences
(Beygelzimer, Hsu, Langford, and Zhang, NIPS 2010).
In many cases, can prove the following:
Final classifier is as accurate as learner that queries all n labels.
Expected number of queries
n
i=1 pi grows sub-linearly with n.
12

Importance weighted active learning algorithms
How to choose pi ?
1. Use your favorite heuristic (as long as pi is never too small).
2. Simple rule based on estimated error rate differences
(Beygelzimer, Hsu, Langford, and Zhang, NIPS 2010).
In many cases, can prove the following:
Final classifier is as accurate as learner that queries all n labels.
Expected number of queries
n
i=1 pi grows sub-linearly with n.
3. Solve a large convex optimization problem
(Huang, Agarwal, Hsu, Langford, and Schapire, NIPS 2015).
12

Importance weighted active learning algorithms
How to choose pi ?
1. Use your favorite heuristic (as long as pi is never too small).
2. Simple rule based on estimated error rate differences
(Beygelzimer, Hsu, Langford, and Zhang, NIPS 2010).
In many cases, can prove the following:
Final classifier is as accurate as learner that queries all n labels.
Expected number of queries
n
i=1 pi grows sub-linearly with n.
3. Solve a large convex optimization problem
(Huang, Agarwal, Hsu, Langford, and Schapire, NIPS 2015).
Even stronger theoretical guarantees.
12

Importance weighted active learning algorithms
How to choose pi ?
1. Use your favorite heuristic (as long as pi is never too small).
2. Simple rule based on estimated error rate differences
(Beygelzimer, Hsu, Langford, and Zhang, NIPS 2010).
In many cases, can prove the following:
Final classifier is as accurate as learner that queries all n labels.
Expected number of queries
n
i=1 pi grows sub-linearly with n.
3. Solve a large convex optimization problem
(Huang, Agarwal, Hsu, Langford, and Schapire, NIPS 2015).
Even stronger theoretical guarantees.
Latter two methods can be made to work with any classifier type,
provided a good (non-interactive) learning algorithm.
12

Contextual bandit learning

Contextual bandit learning
14

Contextual bandit learning
Protocol for contextual bandit learning:
For round t = 1, 2, . . . , T:
14

Contextual bandit learning
Protocol for contextual bandit learning:
For round t = 1, 2, . . . , T:
1. Observe contextt. [e.g., user profile]
14

Contextual bandit learning
Protocol for contextual bandit learning:
For round t = 1, 2, . . . , T:
1. Observe contextt. [e.g., user profile]
2. Choose actiont ∈ Actions. [e.g., display ad]
14

Contextual bandit learning
Protocol for contextual bandit learning:
For round t = 1, 2, . . . , T:
1. Observe contextt. [e.g., user profile]
2. Choose actiont ∈ Actions. [e.g., display ad]
3. Collect rewardt(actiont) ∈ [0, 1]. [e.g., click or no-click]
14

Contextual bandit learning
Protocol for contextual bandit learning:
For round t = 1, 2, . . . , T:
1. Observe contextt. [e.g., user profile]
2. Choose actiont ∈ Actions. [e.g., display ad]
3. Collect rewardt(actiont) ∈ [0, 1]. [e.g., click or no-click]
Goal: Choose actions that yield high reward.
14

Contextual bandit learning
Protocol for contextual bandit learning:
For round t = 1, 2, . . . , T:
1. Observe contextt. [e.g., user profile]
2. Choose actiont ∈ Actions. [e.g., display ad]
3. Collect rewardt(actiont) ∈ [0, 1]. [e.g., click or no-click]
Goal: Choose actions that yield high reward.
Note: In round t, only observe reward for chosen actiont, and not
reward that you would’ve received if you’d chosen a different action.
14

Challenges in contextual bandit learning
15

Challenges in contextual bandit learning
1. Explore vs. exploit:
Should use what you’ve already learned about actions.
Must also learn about new actions that could be good.
15

Challenges in contextual bandit learning
1. Explore vs. exploit:
Should use what you’ve already learned about actions.
Must also learn about new actions that could be good.
2. Must use context effectively.
Which action is good likely to depend on current context.
Want to do as well as the best policy (i.e., decision rule)
π: context → action
from some rich class of policies Π.
15

Challenges in contextual bandit learning
1. Explore vs. exploit:
Should use what you’ve already learned about actions.
Must also learn about new actions that could be good.
2. Must use context effectively.
Which action is good likely to depend on current context.
Want to do as well as the best policy (i.e., decision rule)
π: context → action
from some rich class of policies Π.
3. Selection bias, especially when exploiting.
15

Why is exploration necessary?
No-exploration approach:
16

Why is exploration necessary?
No-exploration approach:
1. Using historical data, learn a “reward predictor” for each action
based on context:
reward(action | context) .
16

Why is exploration necessary?
No-exploration approach:
1. Using historical data, learn a “reward predictor” for each action
based on context:
reward(action | context) .
2. Then deploy policy ˆπ, given by
ˆπ(context) := arg max
action∈Actions
reward(action | context) ,
and collect more data.
16

Using no-exploration
Example: two actions {a1, a2}, two contexts {x1, x2}.
Suppose initial policy says ˆπ(x1) = a1 and ˆπ(x2) = a2.
17

Using no-exploration
Example: two actions {a1, a2}, two contexts {x1, x2}.
Suppose initial policy says ˆπ(x1) = a1 and ˆπ(x2) = a2.
Observed rewards
a1 a2
x1 0.7 —
x2 — 0.1
17

Using no-exploration
Example: two actions {a1, a2}, two contexts {x1, x2}.
Suppose initial policy says ˆπ(x1) = a1 and ˆπ(x2) = a2.
Observed rewards
a1 a2
x1 0.7 —
x2 — 0.1
Reward estimates
a1 a2
x1 0.7 0.5
x2 0.5 0.1
17

Using no-exploration
Example: two actions {a1, a2}, two contexts {x1, x2}.
Suppose initial policy says ˆπ(x1) = a1 and ˆπ(x2) = a2.
Observed rewards
a1 a2
x1 0.7 —
x2 — 0.1
Reward estimates
a1 a2
x1 0.7 0.5
x2 0.5 0.1
New policy: ˆπ (x1) = ˆπ (x2) = a1.
17

Using no-exploration
Example: two actions {a1, a2}, two contexts {x1, x2}.
Suppose initial policy says ˆπ(x1) = a1 and ˆπ(x2) = a2.
Observed rewards
a1 a2
x1 0.7 —
x2 — 0.1
Reward estimates
a1 a2
x1 0.7 0.5
x2 0.5 0.1
New policy: ˆπ (x1) = ˆπ (x2) = a1.
Observed rewards
a1 a2
x1 0.7 —
x2 0.3 0.1
17

Using no-exploration
Example: two actions {a1, a2}, two contexts {x1, x2}.
Suppose initial policy says ˆπ(x1) = a1 and ˆπ(x2) = a2.
Observed rewards
a1 a2
x1 0.7 —
x2 — 0.1
Reward estimates
a1 a2
x1 0.7 0.5
x2 0.5 0.1
New policy: ˆπ (x1) = ˆπ (x2) = a1.
Observed rewards
a1 a2
x1 0.7 —
x2 0.3 0.1
Reward estimates
a1 a2
x1 0.7 0.5
x2 0.3 0.1
17

Using no-exploration
Example: two actions {a1, a2}, two contexts {x1, x2}.
Suppose initial policy says ˆπ(x1) = a1 and ˆπ(x2) = a2.
Observed rewards
a1 a2
x1 0.7 —
x2 — 0.1
Reward estimates
a1 a2
x1 0.7 0.5
x2 0.5 0.1
New policy: ˆπ (x1) = ˆπ (x2) = a1.
Observed rewards
a1 a2
x1 0.7 —
x2 0.3 0.1
Reward estimates
a1 a2
x1 0.7 0.5
x2 0.3 0.1
Never try a2 in context x1.
17

Using no-exploration
Example: two actions {a1, a2}, two contexts {x1, x2}.
Suppose initial policy says ˆπ(x1) = a1 and ˆπ(x2) = a2.
Observed rewards
a1 a2
x1 0.7 —
x2 — 0.1
Reward estimates
a1 a2
x1 0.7 0.5
x2 0.5 0.1
New policy: ˆπ (x1) = ˆπ (x2) = a1.
Observed rewards
a1 a2
x1 0.7 —
x2 0.3 0.1
Reward estimates
a1 a2
x1 0.7 0.5
x2 0.3 0.1
True rewards
a1 a2
x1 0.7 1.0
x2 0.3 0.1
Never try a2 in context x1. Highly sub-optimal.
17

Framework for simultaneous exploration and exploitation
18

Framework for simultaneous exploration and exploitation
Initialize distribution W over some policies.
For t = 1, 2, . . . , T:
18

Framework for simultaneous exploration and exploitation
Initialize distribution W over some policies.
For t = 1, 2, . . . , T:
1. Observe contextt.
18

Framework for simultaneous exploration and exploitation
Initialize distribution W over some policies.
For t = 1, 2, . . . , T:
1. Observe contextt.
2. Randomly pick policy ˆπ ∼ W ,
choose ˆπ(contextt) ∈ Actions.
18

Framework for simultaneous exploration and exploitation
Initialize distribution W over some policies.
For t = 1, 2, . . . , T:
1. Observe contextt.
2. Randomly pick policy ˆπ ∼ W ,
choose ˆπ(contextt) ∈ Actions.
3. Collect rewardt(actiont) ∈ [0, 1],
update distribution W .
18

Framework for simultaneous exploration and exploitation
Initialize distribution W over some policies.
For t = 1, 2, . . . , T:
1. Observe contextt.
2. Randomly pick policy ˆπ ∼ W ,
choose ˆπ(contextt) ∈ Actions.
3. Collect rewardt(actiont) ∈ [0, 1],
update distribution W .
Can use “inverse propensity” importance weights to account for
sampling bias when estimating expected rewards of policies.
18

Algorithms for contextual bandit learning
How to choose the distribution W over policies?
19

Algorithms for contextual bandit learning
How to choose the distribution W over policies?
Exp4 (Auer, Cesa-Bianchi, Freund, and Schapire, FOCS 1995)
Maintains exponential weights over all policies in a
policy class Π.
19

Algorithms for contextual bandit learning
How to choose the distribution W over policies?
Exp4 (Auer, Cesa-Bianchi, Freund, and Schapire, FOCS 1995)
Maintains exponential weights over all policies in a
policy class Π.
Monster (Dudik, Hsu, Kale, Karampatziakis, Langford, Reyzin, and
Zhang, UAI 2011)
Solves optimization problem to come up with
poly(T, log |Π|)-sparse weights over policies.
19

Algorithms for contextual bandit learning
How to choose the distribution W over policies?
Exp4 (Auer, Cesa-Bianchi, Freund, and Schapire, FOCS 1995)
Maintains exponential weights over all policies in a
policy class Π.
Monster (Dudik, Hsu, Kale, Karampatziakis, Langford, Reyzin, and
Zhang, UAI 2011)
Solves optimization problem to come up with
poly(T, log |Π|)-sparse weights over policies.
Mini-monster (Agarwal, Hsu, Kale, Langford, Li, and Schapire, ICML 2014)
Simpler and faster algorithm to solve optimization
problem; get much sparser weights over policies.
19

Algorithms for contextual bandit learning
How to choose the distribution W over policies?
Exp4 (Auer, Cesa-Bianchi, Freund, and Schapire, FOCS 1995)
Maintains exponential weights over all policies in a
policy class Π.
Monster (Dudik, Hsu, Kale, Karampatziakis, Langford, Reyzin, and
Zhang, UAI 2011)
Solves optimization problem to come up with
poly(T, log |Π|)-sparse weights over policies.
Mini-monster (Agarwal, Hsu, Kale, Langford, Li, and Schapire, ICML 2014)
Simpler and faster algorithm to solve optimization
problem; get much sparser weights over policies.
Latter two methods rely on a good (non-interactive) learning
algorithm for policy class Π.
19

Wrap-up
20

Wrap-up
Interactive machine learning models better capture how
machine learning is used in many applications (than
non-interactive frameworks).
20

Wrap-up
Interactive machine learning models better capture how
machine learning is used in many applications (than
non-interactive frameworks).
Sampling bias is a pervasive issue.
20

Wrap-up
Interactive machine learning models better capture how
machine learning is used in many applications (than
non-interactive frameworks).
Sampling bias is a pervasive issue.
Research: how to use non-interactive machine learning
technology in these new interactive settings.
20

Wrap-up
Interactive machine learning models better capture how
machine learning is used in many applications (than
non-interactive frameworks).
Sampling bias is a pervasive issue.
Research: how to use non-interactive machine learning
technology in these new interactive settings.
Thanks!
20