Marketing Research PPTs - II

Marketing Research
Unit -II
Dr. Ravindra
Associate Professor
Department of Commerce
Indira Gandhi University, Meerpur
Rewari
6/16/2021 1
Dr. Ravindra, IGU, Meerpur

Secondary Data
Meaning
After the research problem in marketing has been
identified and selected, the next step is to gather the
requisite data. At this stage, there is much temptation
among the researchers to organize a field survey to collect
the data. While a field survey may be necessary for data
collection, it should be resorted to only when all other
sources of data collection have been exhausted. As some
authors have rightly said; “a good operating rule is to
consider a survey akin to a survey to be used only after all
other possibilities have been exhausted.”
6/16/2021 Dr. Ravindra, IGU, Meerpur 2

Secondary Data
Any data which have been gathered earlier for some other
purpose are secondary data in the hands of the marketing
researcher. In contrast, those data which are collected at first
hand either by the researcher or by someone else especially
for the purpose of the study are known as primary data. There
are certain distinct advantages, as also the limitations, of using
secondary data. As a researcher, one should be fully aware of
both the advantages and limitations.
Advantages of Secondary Data: The advantages of the
secondary data are many, some of the advantages are as
follows;

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1. Economical: A major advantage in the use of secondary
data is that it is far more economical, as the cost of collecting
original data is saved. In the collection of primary data, a
good deal of effort is required.
2. Save Time: Another advantages is that the use of secondary
data save much of the time of the researcher. This leads to
prompt completion of the research project.
3. Helpful in identifying the Gap: Search for secondary data
is helpful, not only because secondary data may be useful
but because familiarity with such data indicates the
deficiencies and gap. As a result, the researcher can make his

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primary data collection more specific and more relevant to
his study.
4. Helpful in Understanding the Problem: As the
researcher explores the availability of secondary data
relevant to his project, he finds, in the process, that his
understanding of the problem has improved. He may even
have to change some of his earlier ideas in the light of the
secondary data.
5. Helpful in Comparison: Secondary data can be used as a
basis for comparison with the primary data that the
researcher has just collected.

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Disadvantages of Secondary Data: In practice, one finds that
secondary data seldom fit perfectly into the framework of
marketing research. This is on account of a number of factors.
1. The unit in which secondary data are expressed may not be
the same as is required in the research project. In that case,
secondary data cannot be used.
2. Even if the units are the same as those required by the
research project, it may just be the case that class boundaries
are different from those desired.
3. One does not always know how accurate the secondary data

Secondary Data
are. In case the degree of inaccuracy is high, the use of
such dubious data would undermine the utility of a
research study. In most cases, it is difficult to know with
what care secondary data have been collected and
tabulated. All the same, in the case of well-established and
reputed organizations, both official and non-official,
secondary data would be far more accurate and reliable
and they can be used without much reservation.
4. A severe limitation in the use of secondary data is that
they may be somewhat out of date. A good deal of time is
spent in the collection, processing, tabulation and
publishing of such data and by the time the data are

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available to the researcher, they are already two to three
year old. As a result, the data are no longer up-to-date. It
is moot question as to how such data are relevant at the
time of their use.
Requirement of Using Secondary Data: Since the use
secondary data is substantially cheaper than that of
primary data, it is advisable to explore the possibility of
using secondary data. In this connection, there are four
requirements that must be met. These are – (i) Availability
of secondary data, (ii) Relevance, (iii) Accuracy, and (iv)
Sufficiency.

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1. Availability of Secondary Data: The first and foremost
requirement is that secondary data must be available for
use. At times, one may find that secondary data are just
not available on a problem at hand. In such cases there is
no alternative but to take recourse to the collection of
primary data.
2. Relevance: Another pre-condition for the use of
secondary data is their relevance to the marketing
problem. Relevance means that the data available must
fit the requirements of that problem. This would cover
several aspects. First, the unit of measurement should be

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the same. Second, the concept used should be the same
etc.
3. Accuracy: The third requirement is that the data should
be accurate. In this connection, one should consult the
original source. This would not only enable the researcher
to get more comprehensive information but would also
indicate the context in which data have been collected, the
procedure followed and the extent of care exercised in
their collection.
4. Sufficiency: The data should be sufficient. If the data are
inadequate, then compliance with the preceding
requirement will be in vain.

Sources of Secondary Data
Secondary data can be obtained internally, i.e. within the
firm; or externally, i.e. from one or more outside agencies.
First we discuss the internal sources.
Internal sources of secondary data: Internal sources can be
classified under four broad categories – accounting records,
sales force reports, miscellaneous reports and internal
experts.
• Accounting records generate a good deal of data. As profits
are based on sales, sales invoice is a good source. Normally a
sales invoice includes; name of the customer, address of the
customer, items and quantity ordered.

• Another internal source is in the form of sales force
reports. This source can provide a very useful marketing
information but some how it has remained largely
untapped. This is because sales persons may not be giving
detailed reports. In order to ensure that this source is more
useful, it is necessary to organize the system properly. It
should be a simple process of reporting the information.
Sales person may be encouraged to provide accurate and
comprehensive information. Some incentive may be given
to those who report accurately and adequately.

• Another source of internal data is in the form of
miscellaneous reports. Any studies done earlier on
marketing problems of the company, special audit, etc.
come in this category. Such reports on varying subjects
should be properly maintained and easily accessible when
required.
• Finally, expert working in the company can also be a good
source of internal data. Executives working as product
managers, marketing research managers, public relations
personnel and advertising personnel have specialized
knowledge relevant to marketing problems.

External Sources of Secondary Data
The external secondary data do not originate in the firm and
are obtained from outside sources. It may be noted that
secondary data can be collected from the originating sources
or form secondary sources. For example, the office of the
Economic Adviser, Govt. of India, is the originating source
for the data on wholesale prices.
Generally, the originating sources of the data should be
preferred because;
• These sources explain the object and procedure.
• Present all the data.
• More accurate.

• Secondary data is readily available.
Governmental Publications : A large bulk of secondary data
useful to a marketing researcher is found in various
government publications. The followings Government
publications are the sources of secondary;
• Registrar General of India (Population Census).
• The Central Statistical Organization (National Income,
industrial data etc).
• The Director General Commercial Intelligence, Govt. of India
( Foreign Trade).
• Basic Statistics relating to the Indian Economy, Planning
Commission of India (by-annual).

• Reserve Bank of India Bulletin (economy in general,
currency and finance etc.), monthly.
• Currency and Finance Report (RBI), annual.
• The Economic Survey , Dept. of Economics, Ministry of
Finance, Govt. of India (Budget and other economic
related data)
• The Indian labour Journal, Labour Bureau (employment,
wages, earning, absentees etc.)
• National Sample Survey (NSS) (obtained social,
economic, demographic, industrial and agricultural etc.)

Non-governmental Publications
Here, the broad idea is given of non-governmental
publications. The followings are the major publication that
provides a wide variety of marketing information.
• Business World, publishes every year the Marketing
Whitebook.
• The National Council of Applied Economic Research
(NCAER), premier institute in applied economics.
• R.K. Swamy BBDO Guide to urban market.
• The Indian Cotton Mills Federation.
• Bombay Mill Owners’ Association.
• The Bombay Stock Exchanges Directory.

• The Market Research and Statistical Bureau of the Coffee
Board.
• The Coir Board, Cochin.
• The Rubber Board.
• The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and
Industry (FICCI).
Syndicated Services
Syndicated services are provided by certain organizations,
which collect and tabulate marketing information on a
continuing basis. Report based on the marketing information
collected by such organizations are sent periodically (weekly,
monthly, or quarterly) to clients who are subscribers.

Syndicated services are normally designed to suit the
requirements of many individuals or firms. Such services
are normally useful in the spheres of TV viewing,
magazine readership, and the movement of consumer
goods through retail outlets. Organizations providing
syndicated services may also engage themselves in other
types of research work for their clients. However, such
organizations usually confine themselves to this activity
alone.
Syndicated services may be regarded as an ‘intermediate’
source falling between the primary and secondary sources.

This is because they process the characteristics of both types
of sources.
Apart from syndicated services, a number of research agencies
offer customized research services to their clients. Unlike
syndicated services, in customized services, the research
agency undertakes ad hock studies on behalf of its clients. An
illustrative list of the customized research services offered by
a leading research agency in India is as follows;
Consumer Research Services
Consumer research
• Usage and attitude studies.

• New product development research.
• Brand tracking studies.
• Brand image and positioning studies.
• Simulated test marketing.
• Product testing.
• Market modeling.
• Market estimation and forecasting.
• Customized panel research.
Qualitative Research
• Motivation research.

• Life style research.
• Concept evaluation.
• Corporate image research.
• Strategic research.
Other Marketing Research
• Behavioral and attitude research.
• Test marketing studies.
• Campaign evaluation.
• Opinion survey.
• Product and packaging studies.

• Corporate image studies.
• Media studies.
• Industrial market research.
Publications of International Organization
There are several international organizations that publish
statistic in their respective areas. Some of these
organizations publish data on India along with that of
other countries.
WTO, World Bank, WHO, IMF etc.

Primary Data
As was mentioned in the preceding slides, the marketing
researcher should, first of all, explore the secondary data from
various sources and examine the possibility of their use for his
study. In several cases, he may find the data inadequate or
unusable and therefore, he may realize the need for collecting
first-hand data. As in the case of everyday life, if we want to
have first-hand information on any happening or event, we
either ask someone who knows about it or we observe it
ourselves, or we do both. The same is applicable to marketing
research. Thus, the two main methods by which data can be
collected are observation and communication.

Primary Data
Observation
Observation is one of the methods of collecting data. It is used
to get both past and current information. For example, instead
of asking respondents about their current behaviour, we may
observe it and record our observations. Although it is not
possible to observe past behaviour, we may observe the
results of such behaviour. In a way, secondary data reflect the
results of the past behaviour of people as also of past
occurrences.
In marketing research, the observational method is not used
frequently. All the same, as it is used especially in marketing

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experimentation, a brief discussion is provided here. Let us
understand with some examples;
• One of the factors influencing the sale of a branded product is
how readily it is kept in stock. An interested manufacturer
may send some observers to a sample of stores to find out
how frequently the product is out of stock.
• In order to ascertain what prices are charged by competitors, a
manufacturer may depute some observers to go round the
stores.
• Today, certain mechanical devices are used for observation.
For example, the eye-camera, the pupilometric camera and the
motion picture camera.

Primary Data
There are some advantages of observation as a method of
collecting information. To begin with;
• The direct observational techniques enables a researcher
to record the behaviour as it occurs. In contrast, other
techniques record the data mostly retrospectively on the
basis of the respondent’s report after the event.
• It can be used regardless of whether the respondent is
willing to report or not.
• It can be used even when it pertains to those who are
unable to respond such as infants and animals.
There are, however, some limitations of this method.

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• Only the current behaviour of a person or a group of
person can be observed.
• Observation does not help us in gauging a person’s
attitude or opinion on a certain subject nor his knowledge
of the same.
• The observation method is very slow and as such, when a
large number of persons are to be contacted, it becomes
unsuitable because of the long time required for this
purpose.
Apart from these inherent limitations of observation, there
are certain difficulties too.

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Difficulties in Observation
Certain difficulties come in the way of accurate
observation and cause it to become distorted. These
difficulties arise on account of;
(i) Inadequacies of our sense organs.
(ii) Independence of observation and inference.
(iii) Effects of interaction between the observer and the
observed.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data
The followings are the methods of primary data collection;

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1. Observation
(i) Structured-Unstructured.
(ii) Undisguised-Disguised.
(iii) Natural setting-laboratory setting.
(iv) Human-Mechanical.
(v) Direct-Indirect.
2. Communication
(i) Questionnaire
(a) Structured
• Non-disguised
• Disguised

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(b) Unstructured
• Non-disguised
• Disguised
(ii) Interviews
(a) Personal
(b) Mail Survey
(c) Telephone Survey
(d) Mail Intercept
(e) Mail Panel
(f) Computer Aided

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• Personal Interview
• Telephone Interview
Methods of Observation
There are several methods of observation of which any one or
a combination of some of them can be used by the observer.
Thus, there are structured or unstructured methods, disguised
or undisguised methods, or observations made in a natural
setting or laboratory setting, direct-indirect observation, or
human-mechanical observation. These are briefly discussed
here;
(i) Structured-Unstructured Observation: Structured
observation is used when the research problem has been
formulated precisely and the observer have been told
specifically what is to be observed. They may be given a

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simple form to record their observations. Unstructured
observation implies that observers are free to observe
whatever they think is relevant and important. While
structured observation are free from subjective bias,
unstructured observations are subject to this limitation. The
extent of this bias may vary to the extent an observation is
unstructured.
(ii) Disguised-undisguised Observation: In the case of
disguised observation, the subject do not know that they are
being observed. In some cases, disguised observation may be
made by the observer by posing as one of the shoppers who
are being observed. This type of observation is often preferred

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because it is feared that people may behave differently when
they know they are being observed. It may be difficult to
completely disguise an observation, though this apart, it poses
an ethical question of its desirability when those who are
being observed are kept in the dark.
(iii) Observation Under Natural Setting-Laboratory Setting:
Another way to classify observations is on the basis of their
setting, i.e. natural or laboratory. Observation in field studies
are in their natural setting and are, therefore, undertaken in
extremely realistic conditions. Sometimes, an experimental
manipulation may be introduced in a field study. Observation
in a laboratory setting, on the other hand, enables the observer

Primary Data
to control extraneous variables which influence the
behavior of people. Observational studies in laboratory
settings have certain advantages over field studies. They
enable the collection of data promptly and economically
and in addition, permit the use of more objective
measurements.
(iv) Direct-indirect Observation: In the case of direct
observation, the event or the behaviour of a person is
observed as it occurs. In contrast, indirect observation
implies that some record of past behaviour is observed. In
other words, the behaviour itself is not observed, rather its

Primary Data
effects are observed. An observer engaged in indirect
observation generally looks for physical traces of behaviour or
occurrence of an event. Suppose, he is interested in knowing
about the liquor consumption of a household, he would look
for empty liquor bottles in the garbage. It may be noted that,
the success of an indirect observation largely depends on how
best the observer is able to identify physical traces of the
problem under study. Direct observation far more common
than indirect observation.
(v) Human-mechanical Observation: Another way of
classifying observation is whether they are made manually or

Primary Data
by machines. Most of the studies in marketing research
based on human observation wherein trained observers are
required to observe and faithfully record their
observations. In some cases, mechanical devices such as
eye camera and audiometers are used for observation. One
of the major advantages of electrical/mechanical devices
is that their recordings are free from subjective bias. As
against this advantages, such observations may be less
valid than human observations. This is because the
observer’s power of integration can lead to a more valid
evaluation of the observation.

Primary Data
Communication
The communication method, in fact, is the method of
designing questionnaire with a view to collect the
requisite information. The questionnaire can be classified
into four main types – (i) structured non-disguised, (ii)
structured-disguised, (iii) non-structured-non-disguised,
and (iv) non-structured-disguised.
It may be mentioned here that some authors prefer to call
the ‘non-disguised’ as direct and the ‘disguised’ as
indirect questionnaires.

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A structured questionnaire is a formal list of questions
framed so as to get the facts. The interviewer asks the
questions strictly in accordance with a pre-arranged order.
A structured questionnaire can be of two types, namely,
disguised and non-disguised. This classification is based
on whether the object or purpose of the survey is revealed
or undisclosed to the respondents. Thus, a structured-
non-disguised questionnaire is one where the listing of
questions is in a prearranged order and where the object of
enquiry is revealed to the respondent. Most marketing
research studies use this type of questionnaire. In the case

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of a structured-disguised questionnaire, the researcher
does not disclose the object of the survey. He feels that if
the respondent comes to know the object of the survey, he
may be defeated. He is, therefore, very particular not to
divulge the purpose of the investigation.
It may be mentioned that in a large majority of cases, it is
felt that the respondent should be taken into confidence
and clearly told why the survey is being undertaken, so
that he would realize its relevance and give the desired
information accurately. Questionnaires of this type are
known as structured and non-disguised questionnaires.

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It may be pointed out that most of the surveys for marketing
research use this type of questionnaire.
A non-structured questionnaire is one in which the questions
are not structured and the order in which they are to be asked
from the respondent is left entirely to the researcher. He asks
the questions in the manner in which he deems fit in a
particular situation. In fact, he may only have certain main
points on which he may develop the questions at the time of
the actual interview. As it will be seen, a non-structured
questionnaire is devoid of rigidity and allows considerable
freedom to the researcher in choosing the order as well as the

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the specific content of questions. Normally unstructured
questionnaires are used in exploratory research when some
respondents are contacted. Where the purpose of inquiry is
disclosed to the respondents, the questionnaire are known as
non-structured and non-disguised while in other cases, the
questionnaires are classified as non-structured and disguised
questionnaires. Let us briefly discuss the relative strengths
and weaknesses of the different types of questionnaires. The
structured-non-disguised questionnaire has several
advantages. Firstly, it facilitates the collection of information
in a systematic and orderly manner. Secondly, since the

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questions asked by each interviewer happen to be identical
and are asked in the same order, the information is
generally not vitiated on account of the varying
characteristics of the different interviewers. Third, a
structured questionnaire calls for a straight forward and
simple approach on the part of interviewer. Fourth, such a
questionnaire makes it far easier to edit, tabulate and
interpret the data it contains. Finally, a structured
questionnaire can be conveniently pre-tested so that
suitable modifications can be made in the phraseology of
questions or in their sequence or both.

Primary Data
As against these advantages of a structured questionnaire,
it suffers from a major limitations. This arises when the
respondent is asked questions concerning personal or
motivational factor(s). Despite this weakness, the
structured-non-disguised questionnaire is most frequently
used in marketing research, as was mentioned earlier.
An unstructured questionnaire is most suitable when
motivational factors are involved. The interviewer is free
to ask probing questions to get at the key motivational
factor(s). Questionnaires of this type are normally used in
depth interviews – a subject to which we shall revert later.

Primary Data
Such questionnaires facilitate the conducting of
interviewer in an informal manner. They also lend
flexibility to the whole process of interviewing. A point
worth emphasizing is that in the case of unstructured
questionnaires, the role of the interviewer become far
more important as compared to the one when a structured
questionnaire is used. In view of this, more capable
interviewers are required to handle them, which raises the
cost of the survey. Also, the interviewer need more time
per review if it is unstructured. This also enhances the
overall cost of the field survey. Finally, the researcher
faces problems while editing and tabulating an

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unstructured questionnaire.
Having discussed the relative strengths and weaknesses of
the structured and unstructured questionnaires, we now
turn to the designing of structured questionnaires.
Designing a Questionnaire
Designing a questionnaire is not as simple a job as it looks
at first sight. A marketing researcher intending to collect
primary data has to be extremely careful in deciding what
information is to be collected, how many questions are to
be formulated, what should be their sequence, what should
be the wording of each question, and what should be the

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layout of the questionnaire. All these aspects need
considerable time and effort of the marketing researcher.
If he is able to develop a questionnaire suitable for his
field investigation, he will find that his task of collecting
the data has become much easier than otherwise.
1. Type of Information to be Collected: While attempting
to design a questionnaire, the marketing researcher has to
first ask himself what type of information he needs from
the survey. He should seriously consider this question as it
will have considerable repercussion on the usefulness of
the survey. For, if he omits to collect information on some

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relevant and vital aspects of his survey, his research study is
unlikely to be useful. At the same time, if he collects
information on some issues not directly relevant to his study,
he not only raises the total cost of the survey but also
increases the time factor. This being the case, the survey will
take much more time than is really necessary. It will also lead
to greater inaccuracy as the respondent will have to answer
many more questions than are strictly necessary and he will,
therefore, not be sufficiently careful in giving the exact
answer.
It should be emphasized that the marketing researcher should
be clear about the nature of the information to be collected.

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2. Types of Questions: The second important aspect in the
designing of a questionnaire is to decide which types of
question are to be used. Questions can be classified in various
ways. One way of classification is as follows;
• Open-ended questions.
• Dichotomous questions.
• Multiple choice questions.
An open-ended or simply ‘open’ or ‘free answer’ question
gives the respondent complete freedom to decide the form,
length and detail of the answer. Open questions are preferred

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when the researcher is interested in knowing what is
uppermost in the mind of respondents. However, open
questions pose certain problems. At the time of the actual
interview, it becomes difficult for the interviewer to note
down the respondent’s answer verbatim.
The dichotomous question has only two answers in the form
‘yes’ or ‘no’, ‘true’ or ‘false’, ‘use’ or ‘do not use’, etc.
In the case of multiple-choice questions, the respondent is
offered two or more choices. The marketing researcher
exhausts all the possible choices and the respondent has to
indicate which one is applicable in this case.

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3. Phrasing of the Questions: The next issue in the preparation
of a questionnaire is how to phrase the questions. The way in
which a question is drafted is very important as a slightly
suggestive wording would elicit a very different answer from
the respondents. Consider, for example, the following
question;
Don’t you think that this is a sub-standard product?
A question of this type would prompt respondents to answer in
the affirmative. Many of them, who do not have a definite
opinion about the product, are likely to agree that it is of sub-
standard quality. Suppose this question is put as follows;

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Do you think that this is a sub-standard product?
A question of this type is not a suggestive question. It is
straight forward question and respondents are not likely to
be prompted to say ‘yes’ as was the case in the earlier
question.
In order to ensure the appropriate phrasing questions, one
should be particular about the following factors;
1. Difficult words or technical words should be avoided as
far as possible.
2. Vague word such as ‘many’, ‘often’, generally’, ‘on the
whole’ and ‘reasonably’, should not be used.

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3. Lengthy questions should be avoided.
4. One should avoid combining two questions into one.
5. Questions lacking specificity should be avoided or
modified suitably so that they become more precise.
4. Order of Questions: Another aspect that should receive
the attention of the researcher is the sequence or order of
questions to be contained in a questionnaire. Since, in the
beginning, the researcher has to establish some rapport
with the respondent, it is necessary that questions asked at
the beginning are simple and thereby helpful in
establishing the rapport. Difficult questions or those on

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sensitive issues should be included to the end of the
questionnaire. Further, questions of a general type should be
asked in the beginning while those which are specialized,
needing some in-depth information from the respondents,
should be left to the end. However, care should be sustain the
interest of the respondents until the last so that he is able to
answer the specialized questions in a normal manner without
any stress and indifference.
5. How Many Questions to be Asked?: The researcher has also
to decide how many questions are to be asked. We may add
that the number of questions is not so important as the actual
length of the questionnaire. We have just mentioned above

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that the researcher has to sustain the interest of the respondent
until the last moment so that the interview can be completed
successfully and the requisite information obtained. Too
lengthy a questionnaire would obviously be a disadvantages
and the response to it may be quite poor.
While deciding on the number of questions or the length of the
questionnaire, the researcher should put himself in the
respondent’s shoes and imagine how he would react to that
questionnaire.
6. Layout of the Questionnaire: Finally, the researcher or
someone on his behalf has to decide about the layout of the
questionnaire. This implies that the document should be set in
such a way that it leaves a favorable impression on the

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respondent. It should be neatly printed and the individual
pages should not have too many questions so as to appear
crowded. Proper spacing between the questions and within a
question should be provided for. The more important wording
to which the researcher would like to draw the attention of the
respondents, should be sent in bold types or underlined. If it is
really a lengthy questionnaire, special care should be taken to
reduce its size by providing two columns in a page and by
using finer types. The questionnaire should have ‘easy looks’
which means that it should be short and printed on superior
quality paper so that writing with pen or pencil is smooth.

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Mail Questionnaire
So far the discussion was confined to the designing of
questionnaire to be filled in by personal interviews. In fact,
the type of questionnaire to be designed depend on the type of
survey. Broadly, there are three types of survey namely,
personal, mail and telephone. As far as telephone survey is
concerned, it is not commonly used in India. As such, the
personal interview and mail survey are the only two methods.
Since a mail survey needs a questionnaire which should have
some additional characteristics, it is necessary to look into this
aspect in some detail. First we should know the advantages
and limitations of a mail survey.

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Advantages
1. It is much easier to approach a large number of respondents
spread all over the country through post.
2. A mail questionnaire will not have any distribution bias as it
will not show any particular preference or dislike for a
certain neighborhood, household or individual.
3. Where the question asked is such that it cannot be answered
immediately and needs some thinking on the part of the
respondent, it is the mail questionnaire which will be most
appropriate.
4. Likewise, a mail questionnaire is free from any interviewer’s

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bias and errors which may undermine the reliability and
validity of the results emerging from the survey.
5. Since a large number of respondents can be approached all
over the country through mail in a short period, a mail
questionnaire saves a lot of time in collecting the desired
information.
6. There is good deal of saving in the total cost of a mail survey
as cost of travelling, boarding and lodging of interviewers is
not to be incurred.
7. In case of mail questionnaire, there is no difficulty in having
central supervision and control over the survey operations

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over the survey operations over a large region.
8. Mail questionnaire also avoid the bias arising from any
inhibitions in answering questions.
9. Finally, mail questionnaires will not have the problem of non-
contacts in the strict sense as might be the case in personal
interviews when the interviewer finds that the respondent,
being away from the home, is not available.
Limitations
The mail questionnaire suffers from some major limitations
which are mentioned below.
1. It is not suitable when questions are difficult and complicated.

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In such a case, the help of interviewers is required to offer
some introductory explanation to the respondents.
2. When the researcher is interested in the spontaneous
answers of the respondents or his own answers
uninfluenced by others who may influence his thinking,
the mail questionnaire is inappropriate.
3. In case of mail questionnaires, it is note possible to verify
whether the respondents himself or herself has filled in the
questionnaire.
4. The researcher has to accept the answers as they are
provided in the mail questionnaire.

Primary Data
5. The respondents, in case of a mail questionnaire, may go
through his answers after he has filled in the entire
questionnaire and may make certain modification in his
original answers as a result of which these answers cannot
be regarded as independent.
6. A mail questionnaire does not allow the researcher to
supplement the information by his personal observations.
7. Finally, a mail questionnaire normally has a relatively
poor response compared to a questionnaire canvassed
personally.

Additional Considerations for Preparing
Questionnaire
Additional Considerations for Preparing of a Mail
Questionnaire
As the interviewer is just not available for any explanation or
clarification that a respondent is likely to need, it becomes
necessary to prepare a mail questionnaire with greater care
and more thought. It would, therefore, be worthwhile to look
into additional factors that can significantly improve the
quality of a mail questionnaire.
1. Mail questionnaires should be shorter than the questionnaire
to be used personally otherwise the response rate would be
affected adversely.
2. The wording should be extremely simple so as to avoid any
misunderstanding.

Questionnaire
3. In case of lengthy mail questionnaire has to be used, it may be
desirable to send an advance letter, seeking the cooperation of
the respondents. This may be followed by the questionnaire.
Such a practice will prepare the respondents mentally to
receive a lengthy questionnaire and a reasonably high
response rate can be maintained.
4. Wherever necessary, suitable explanations should be provided
so that respondents understand the questions in the proper
perspective and in the manner in which the researcher
intended.
5. A covering letter must invariably be enclosed with the mail

Questionnaire
questionnaire. The covering letter should explain the
purpose and importance of the survey and solicit the
cooperation of the respondent. It should be emphasized in
a covering letter that the information to be given by the
respondent will be kept strictly confidential and that his
identity will not be disclosed.
6. A mail questionnaire should also be accompanied by a
pre-addressed and stamped envelop to facilitate the
respondents to return the same as soon as it is filled in
without incurring any expenditure himself.

Pre-testing the Questionnaire
Pre-testing the Questionnaire
Once the questionnaire is ready, it should be pre-tested. Pre-
testing of the questionnaire implies that it is tried out on a few
respondents and their reaction to the questionnaire is
observed. It helps the researcher decide whether any changes
in the question-content or the wording of the questions are
called for. If so, specific changes that are desirable can also be
ascertained and incorporated in the questionnaire. This would
improve it and if it is a mail questionnaire, it would perhaps
increases the response rate as well.
The other benefit of pre-testing the questionnaire is that the
researcher can know the suitability of the instructions given to
the interviewers as also their capability. In case certain
changes are required, the same can be introduced.

Important Considerations for Designing
the Questionnaire
Important Considerations While Designing the
Questionnaire
1. Specify the information required for the problem under
study.
2. Select the type of questionnaire and the method for it
administration.
3. Determine the type and content of each question.
4. Be careful in phrasing each question.
5. Decide the sequence of the questions.
6. Determine what form of response each question is likely to
have and provide space accordingly.

Important Considerations for Designing
the Questionnaire
7. Determine the number of question or size of the questionnaire.
8. Determine the layout of the questionnaire.
9. Pre-test the questionnaire among a small number of
respondents.
10. Finalize the questionnaire and use it for the proposed survey.
Interview Method of Data Collection
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation
of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal
responses. This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.

(a) Personal Interview: Personal interview method requires
a person known as the interviewer asking questions
generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person
known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a
face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. This
sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal
investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation. In
the case of direct personal investigation the interviewer
has to collect the information personally from the sources
concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet
people from whom data have to be collected. This method

is particularly suitable for intensive investigations. But in
certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to contact
directly the persons concerned or on account of the extensive
scope of enquiry, the direct personal investigation technique
may not be used. In such cases an indirect oral examination
can be conducted under which the interviewer has to cross-
examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge
about the problem under investigation and the information,
obtained is recorded. Most of the commissions and
committees appointed by government to carry on
investigations make use of this method.

The interview can be of following types;
• Structured interview.
• Unstructured interview.
• Focused interview.
• Clinical interview.
• Non-directive interview.
Structured Interview: The interviewer in a structured interview
follow a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and
order prescribed.
Unstructured Interview: The unstructured interviews are
characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning.
Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined
questions and standardized techniques of recording information. In a
non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater

freedom to asks, in case of need, supplementary questions or
at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so
required, he even change the sequence of the question.
Focused Interview: This type of interview means to focus
attention on the given experience of the respondent and its
effects. Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide the
manner and sequence in which the questions would be asked
and has also the freedom to explore reasons and motives. The
main task of the interviewer in case of a focus interview is to
confine the respondent to a discussion of issues with which he
seeks conversance. Such interviews are used generally in the
development of hypotheses and constitute a major type of

unstructured interviews.
Clinical Interview: This interview is concerned with broad
underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of
individual’s life experience. The method of eliciting the
information under it is generally left to the interviewer’s
discretion.
Non-directive Interview: In this case, the interviewer's
function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about
the given topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning.
The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive
expression of the respondents’ feelings and beliefs and of the
frame of reference within which such feelings and beliefs take

on personal significance.
Despite the variations in interview techniques, the major
advantages and weaknesses of personal interviews can be
enumerated in a general way.
The chief merits are as follows;
1. More information and that too in greater depth can be
obtained.
2. Interviewer can overcome the resistance, if any, by using
the experience.
3. Greater flexibility is available.

4. Observation method can as well be applied to recording the
verbal answer to various questions.
5. Personal information can as well be obtained.
6. Sample can be control more effectively and missing response
as well as non-response is very low.
7. Group discussion may also be possible.
8. Getting spontaneous answer.
9. The language can be adopted as per the education of the
respondents.
10. The interviewer can get supplementary information about the
respondents.

Weaknesses of Interview Method
1. It is very expensive method, specially when large and
widely spread geographical sample is taken.
2. Possibility of bias on the part of interviewer as well as
that of the respondents.
3. Problem of easy accessibility of executive, important
officials etc.
4. This method is relatively more time consuming.
5. The presence of interviewer on the spot may over-
stimulate the respondents.

6. Requirement of selection, training and supervising the field
staff.
7. Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
8. Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with
respondents that would facilitate free and frank responses.
This is often very difficult requirement.
Pre-requisites and basic tents of interviewing: For successful
implementation of the interview method, interviewers should
be carefully selected, trained and briefed. They should be
honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial and must possess the
technical competence and necessary practical experience.

Occasional field check should be made to ensure that
interviewers are neither cheating, nor deviating from
instructions given to them for performing their job
efficiently. In addition, some provision should also be
made in advance so that appropriate action may be taken
if some of the selected respondents refuse to cooperate or
are not available when an interviewer call upon them.
(b) Telephone Interviews: This method of data collection
consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is
not a very widely used method, but plays important part in
industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions. The
chief merits of such a system are;

1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of
obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method.
4. Recall is easy, callbacks are simple and economical.
5. Higher rate of response than the mailing method.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment
to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain the requirements more easily.
8. No field staff is required.

9. Easily assessability of respondents, who otherwise can not be
contacted.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
Demerits of telephonic interview
1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers.
2. Survey are restricted to respondents who have telephone
facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost
considerations.
4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive
answer s are required to various questions.

5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are
difficult to handle.
Interviewing is an art and one learns it by experience.
However, the following points may be kept in view by an
interviewer for eliciting the desired information;
1. Interviewer must plan in advance and should fully know the
problem under consideration. He must chose a suitable time
and place so that the interviewee may be at ease during the
interview period.
2. Interviewer's approach must be friendly and informal.

3. All possible effort should be made to establish proper rapport
with the interviewee; people are motivated to communicate
when the atmosphere is favorable.
4. Interviewer must know the ability to listen with
understanding, respect and curiosity is the gateway to
communication, and hence must act accordingly during the
interview.
5. To the extent possible there should be a free-flowing interview
and the questions must be well phrased in order to have full
cooperation of the interviewee.
6. In case of big inquiries, where the task of collecting
information is to be accomplished by several interviewers,
there should be an interview guide to be observed by all so as

Survey Methods of Data Collection
to ensure reasonable uniformity in respect of all salient points
in the study.
Survey Methods
We discussed four different types of questionnaires based on
two attributes, namely, structure and disguise. After the
questionnaire has been designed based on the objective of the
research study, the researcher has to decide how it is to be
administered. A number of survey methods are available from
which one method is to be selected.
Since there are several survey methods by which data can be
collected, it may be worthwhile to know their relative strength

and weaknesses. The methods in question are – personal
survey, mail survey, telephone survey, mail intercept
interviews mail panels computer aided personal interviews
(CAPI) and computer aided telephone interviews (CATI).
Table in the next slide gives the comparative idea of these
methods on selected criteria. It is evident from this table that
each method of data collection has its uses, but none is
superior in all situations. A method may be good or excellent
in case of a few criteria, but in respect of other criteria, its
rating may be low. For example, when a large sample is needs
through a survey, both telephone and mail survey methods
will be inappropriate. The choice should obviously be in

favor of personal survey. In contrast, if a short survey is to
be conducted in a limited time, telephone survey or CATI
should be preferred. If cost is the major criteria, personal
survey is ruled out and the choice should go in favor of
telephone survey of CATI.
From the forgoing discussion, it is clear that the researcher
has to exercise great care in choosing the survey method
on the bases of a couple of criteria or considerations
which he thinks are important in the survey. A
comparative analysis is given in the table.

Table: Comparison of Survey Methods
Criteria Personal
Survey
Mail
Survey
Telephone
Survey
Mail
Intercept
Survey
Mail
Panels
CAPI CATI
1. Probable
response rate
Fair Poor Good High High High Moderate
2. Time required Slow Slow Fast Moderate to
High
Low to
Moderate
Moderate
to High
Fast
3. Cost High Low Low Moderate to
High
Low to
Moderate
Moderate
to High
Moderate
4. Control of
sample
Good Poor Excellent Moderate Moderate
to High
Moderate Moderate
to High
5. Supervision of
field work
Fair None Excellent Moderate High Moderate Moderate
6. Quantity of
Information
Good Limited Limited Moderate High Moderate Low
7. Quality of
information
Good Fair Excellent High High Fair Limited
8. Versatility Excellent Fair Good High Moderate Moderate
to High
Low to
Moderate

Comparison of Observation and
Communication Methods
We have discussed in the proceeding sections two methods of
primary data collection – observation and communication. At
this stage, it is worth while to know their relative advantages
and limitations. This comparison can be more meaningful
when we use some dimensions for the same. Our comparison
is based on versatility, business logistics, and data quality.
1. Versatility: Versatility means the ability of the method to
collect various types of information or data in which the
marketers are mainly interested. On the basis of versatility, the
observation method has very limited scope to collect varied

information about human behavior as also their socio-
economic characteristics. In contrast, we find that the
communication method is far better as it is capable of
collecting information of a wide range.
2. Speed and Cost: As regards both speed and cost
consideration, communication method has a distinct
advantage over observational method. The latter takes
considerable time in getting required information. In view
of time factor, cost mount up. This apart, far more
information can be collected using communication
method.

3. Objectivity and Accuracy: There is one advantage of
observational method, particularly when the respondents
is unwilling to give information. In such a situation,
observational method can be used even without the
respondent’s knowledge that he is being observed. Again,
it provides more objective data than does communication.
In a survey when one wants to know the opinion of the
respondents on an important issue, it is the communication
methods that alone is suitable. In observation method, as
personal contact with the respondent or object is ruled out,

it cannot give opinion or perception of the subject.
As regards accuracy, observational method provides more
accurate and reliable information than communication.
But this is possible when sufficient care is taken in the
selection, training and supervision of observers.
end of the topic
-------------------◌-------------------◌-------------------

Measurement and Scaling
Introduction
In our daily life, we involve ourselves in measurement though
we may not be aware of it. For instance, when we see a
movie, we may either like or dislike it. Here, we are using
some form of measurement to indicate how that movie is, of
course, this is not in quantitative terms. In reality, the term
‘measurement’ implies that we are using numbers to describe
a specified feature of a given product or service.
In marketing decision-making, measurement has a crucial role.
For example, a firm is interested to know what is the response
in the market for its recently ball-point pens. This means it
must measure the response, which can be in terms of sales.

Definition of Measurement
Measurement may be defined as the assignment of
number to characteristics of objects or events according to
rules. A point worth emphasizing is that the definition of
measurement does not suggest the measurement of objects
or events but the characteristics of interest in the
concerned objects or events. We do not measure a buyer
or a product, but we measure a certain characteristics of a
buyer or a product. For instance, a buyer’s preference
usage rate, income, or attitude can be measured. Likewise,

in respect of a product, we can measure its size, color or its
suitability for a particular purpose.
Types of Scales
There are four types of measurement scales. Which are
discussed below;
1. Nominal Scales: Nominal scales are more widely used than
any other scale for research in social sciences. In such a scale,
the numbers serve as labels to identify persons, objects or
events. Thus, numbers may be assigned to students in a class
or patients in a hospital. We might further use the nominal
scale by counting students with a certain characteristics or

attribute such as those who reside in the University
Hostels and others. In a nominal scale, we split a set into
subsets which are mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive. In a nominal scale, the only operation
involved is the counting of numbers in each group. It is,
therefore, simplest of the four scales and also the least
powerful. The scale does not show any order or distance
relationship nor does it have any arithmetical origin. In
view of these limitations of a nominal scale, it is
unsuitable in determining relationship but is very useful in

preliminary or exploratory work, where it is sufficient to
know the broad dimensions of a certain phenomenon.
2. Ordinal scale: Ordinal scales, as name implies, are ranking
scales. When items are classified according to whether they
have more or less of a characteristic, the scale used is
referred to as an ordinal scale. The main characteristic of the
ordinal scale is that the categories have a logical or ordered
relationship to each other. These types of scale permit the
measurement of degrees of difference, but not the specific
amount of difference. This scale is very common in
marketing, satisfaction and attitudinal research. Any
questions that ask the respondent to rate something are
using ordinal scales. For example,

How would you rate the service of our wait-staff?
Excellent o Very Good o Good o Fair o Poor o
Although we would know that respondent X ("very good")
thought the service to be better than respondent Y
("good"), we have no idea how much better nor can we
even be sure that both respondents have the same
understanding of what constitutes "good service" and
therefore, whether they really differ in their opinion about
its quality.

Likert-scales are commonly used in attitudinal
measurements. This type of scale uses a five-point scale
ranging from strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor
disagree, disagree, strongly disagree to rate people's
attitudes. Variants of the Likert-scale exist that use any
number of points between three and ten, however it is best
to give at least four or five choices. Be sure to include all
possible responses: sometimes respondents may not have
an opinion or may not know the answer, and therefore you
should include a "neutral" category or the possibility to
check off "undecided/uncertain", "no opinion" or "don't
know".

Although some researchers treat them as an interval scale, we
do not really know that the distances between answer
alternatives are equal. Hence only the mode and median can
be calculated, but not the mean. The range and percentile
ranking can also be calculated.
3. Interval Scales: The third type of scale is the interval scale. It
possesses not only the power of the nominal and ordinal scale
but also additional strength which is the determination of the
equality of differences. The classical example of an interval
scale is the measurement of the temperature. Both the
Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales belong to this type. One can

say, on the basis of this scale, that a temperature of 100
degree is 20 degree warmer than 80 degree and 20 degree
cooler 120 degrees. It may be noted that differences
between two values, say, on a temperature scale are
multiples of each other. Thus, the difference between 40oF
and 20oF is half the difference between 60oF and 40oF.
Using the conversion formula from Fahrenheit to
Centigrade.
Degrees centigrade = 5/9 (Degree Fahrenheit - 32), we can
find the corresponding temperatures in Centigrade.

40o = 5/9 (40 – 32) = 5/9 × 40/9 = 4. 44oC
20o = 5/9 (20 – 32) = 5/9 × (- 12) = - 6. 66oC
40o - 20o = 4.44 – (- 6.66) = 4.44 – 6.66 = 11. 10o C
60o = 5/9 (60 – 32) = 5/9 × 28 = 140/9 = 15. 55o C
60o - 20o = 15.55 – (- 6.66) = 15.55 + 6.66 = 22. 21o C
(Which is approximately twice of 11. 10o C)
The above example shows, that on a particular scale, equal
differences indicate equal differences in value with regard to
that scale only.
Interval scales are more powerful than the nominal and ordinal

scales. Also, they are quicker to complete and researchers
find them more convenient.
4. Ratio Scale: Ratio scale posses the powers of the
preceding three scales as also the concept of absolute zero
or origin. Thus, they have order, distance and unique
origin and are the most superior amongst all the scales.
Example of ratio scales are the commonly used physical
dimensions such as height, weight, distance, money value
and population counts. Equal ratio on the ratio scale
indicates the equal ratio among the elements being
measured. For example, 8lbs and 45lbs are in the ratio of

1:5. If we convert pound into ounces, the same ratio will
be obtained. Thus, 144 ounces and 720 ounces have the
same ratio of 1:5, as earlier. In other words, one can
change over from one unit to another by using the relevant
conversion factor. In the above example, a change from
pounds to ounces involved the multiplication of the two
figures by 16. This facility of conversion from one unit of
measurement to another is available in the case of the ratio
scale alone. An example covering all the four types of
scales is given in the next slid;

Assessing a Respondent’s liking of Soft Drinks
Nominal Scale
Which of these soft drinks do you like? Check all that apply.
- Coke
- Pepsi
- Seven up
- Sprite
Ordinal Scale
Please rank the soft drinks on the following list according to
your degree of liking each, assigning your most preferred

drink rank = 1 and your least preferred drink = 4.
- Coke
- Pepsi
- Seven up
- Sprite
Interval Scale
please indicate your degree of liking of each of the soft
drinks on the following list by checking the appropriate
position on the scale.

Dislike a lot Dislike Like Like a lot
- Coke
- Pepsi
- Seven up
- Sprite
Ratio Scale
Please divide 100 points among each of the following soft
drinks according to your degree of liking for each.

- Coke
- Pepsi
- Seven up
- Sprite
____
100
From the foregoing account of the four types of scales, it
should be clear that these scales are in increasing order of
sophistication from the viewpoint of data analysis.
The next slide is showing the characteristics of all four types
of scales ,

Table: Characteristics of Measurement Scales
Scale Number System Marketing Phenomena Permissible Statistics
Nominal Unique definition of
numbers (0, 1, 2,--- ,9)
Classification: Brands,
male-female, store
types etc.
Percentage, Mode,
Binomial test, Chi-
square test.
Ordinal Order of numbers
(0 < 1 < 2 . . . . < 9)
Attitude, preference,
occupation, social class
etc.
Percentiles, Median,
Rank-order Correlation,
Two-way ANOVA
Interval Equality of differences
( 2 – 1 = 7 -6)
Attitude, Opinion, Index
numbers
Range, Mean, Standard
Deviation, product
moment correlation
Ratio Equality of ratio
(5/10 = 3/6)
Sakes (Units/Rupees),
Units produced,
Number of customers
Geometric Mean,
Harmonic Mean,
Coefficient of Variation

Difficulty of Measurement
Unlike physical sciences, measurement in social sciences is
quite difficult. The measurement of length, height, weight is a
simple task involving the use ratio scale. But this type of
situation is normally found in physical sciences. In contrast,
measurement in marketing is more difficult as it involves
lower scales of measurement as compared to those used in the
physical sciences. This would be evident from the figure on
the next slide;
The question that arises is: why measurement is more difficult
in marketing compared to that in physical sciences? This can

Figure: Difficulty of the Measurement Process
Physical science
----------------------
Social Science
-------------------------------------------------------
Length Weight Preference Attitude Happiness Creativity
__________________________________________________________________________
Easy Very Difficult
Ratio Scale Interval Scale Ordinal Scale Nominal Scale

be explained by taking an example. Suppose we have to
conduct a survey on the existence of medical facilities in
certain localities in a city. Here, we have to first design a
questionnaire to collect the information. We will then
interview sample respondents for the information sought
in the questionnaire. The point to note is that the attitude
towards medical facilities would very from respondent to
respondents. Even the questionnaire design may not be a
perfect instrument in eliciting the desired information.
Thus, we see that measurement of attitude poses a major
problem. At this stage, it is worthwhile to know as to what
could be the possible source of error.

Sources of Error
There are four major sources of error in measurement. These
are;
1. The respondent.
2. The situation
3. The measurer.
4. The instrument for data collection.
1. The Respondent: Measurement may get distorted on account
of different opinions of the respondent on a given issue.
Theses differences arise on account of status of the
respondent, level of education, social class, nature of job,
etc. Further, some respondents may reluctant to express their

negative opinion on some issue while some others may
express their attitude deliberately different from others. Again,
there may be respondents who may not know the topic on
which their response is being sought. In such cases, they may
answer the question in a vague manner as they may not
openly confess their ignorance on that issue.
2. The Situation: The situation in which an interview is being
held also influences measurement. For example, an
investigator approaches a respondent who is discussing some
matter with his friends. Naturally, he may not provide answers
by refusing to cooperate with the investigator. Alternatively,
he may gives answers in a casual manner to cut short the

interview time. Again, when the respondents finds that his
identity may not remain undisclosed, he may not express
is actual feelings.
3. The Measurer: The measurer is no one else but the
interviewer who is conducting interviews on the basis of a
questionnaire. Measurement errors may crop up on
account of the method used by the interviewer. It is
possible that he may not be very careful while recording
response. He may change the wordings or may not be able
to record the complete response. This partial, careless
mechanical processing may lead to distortion of the
responses.

4. The Instrument: Finally, a defective instrument for data
collection may cause distortion in a number of ways. These
are explained below.
i. The questionnaire is too lengthy containing a number of
questions.
ii. The questionnaire has an element of ambiguity in the
questions.
iii. The language used in a question is suggestive of a particular
response.
iv. The layout of the instrument, the extent of space available
for response, the type of printing and the quality of paper
used are inadequate and of poor quality.

Criteria For a Good Scale
There are two important criteria for ascertaining whether
the scale developed is good or not. These are reliability
and validity. We first reliability.
1. Reliability: There are three major methods of estimating
the reliability of measurement. These are:
(i) Test-Retest reliability.
(ii) The Alternative forms reliability.
(iii) Split-Half reliability.

(i) Test-Retest Reliability: This form of reliability
involves repeated measurement of the same respondent
or group using the same scaling technique under similar
conditions. This would involve administering a test at
two points of time to the same person or a group of
persons. The score of the two tests would then be
correlated. If the correlation is low, then the reliability
too is less.
As point to note is that reliability is a necessary
contribution to validity but it is not a sufficient condition
for validity. The relationship between reliability and
validity can be better understood by an example, let a

person takes his weight on a weighing machine which gives
accurate results, then the scale is both reliable and valid. If, on
the contrary, the weighing machine always records, say 2 kg.
more than his actual weight, then the scale is reliable but not
valid as it fails to measure what it is supposed to. As the scale
does not satisfy validity, reliability is hardly useful.
(ii) Alternative Forms Reliability: Alternative form reliability
involves the same respondents being given a set of two forms.
The forms are considered equivalent but are not identical. The
results obtained on the basis of these forms are compared to
ascertain whether there is considerable difference between the

two scores.
As each person in the group is given two forms and as the
results of these two forms are to be compared, this
approach needs more time. Also, it is expensive.
(iii) Split Half Reliability: Another approach to reliability
involves administering the measuring instrument only
once to test the internal consistency. The split-half
technique can be used in case of a multi-item instrument.
In fact it is another version of the alternative forms
technique. It involves splitting of a multi-item
measurement instrument into two equivalent groups. The

item responses of the two groups are then correlated to
estimate reliability. A high degree of correlation indicates that
there is similarity or homogeneity among the items.
2. Validity: The second attribute that a scale should have is its
validity.
“By validity is meant the success of the scale in measuring
what it sets out to measure, so that differences between
individuals’ scores can be taken as representing true
differences in the characteristics under study”.
While the concept of validity is simple to understand, it
becomes difficult to apply the test of validity in practice. As

Moser and Kalton have pointed out, there are four
approaches that can be commonly distinguished.
(i) Content Validity: The first is the content validity, which
implies that the contents of the scale correspond to the
contents of the attitude system and that they are
comprehensive enough to cover the full range of the
attitude. The researcher should first define the problem
clearly, identify the items to be measured, and evolve a
suitable scale for the purpose. Despite all this care, he may
be criticized on the ground that the scale developed by
him lacks content validity. This happens because, whether

or not a given scale contains the content validity will depend
on the judgment of the researcher and, this is likely to vary
from individual to individual. To avoid this, it may be
preferable to approach a group of knowledgeable persons,
rather than leaving it to one person alone.
(ii) Construct Validity: One of the difficulties arising in attitude
measurement is that it is perhaps impossible to measure
attitude directly. It can be measured only indirectly on the
basis of answer given by the respondents. In a situation of this
type, the test of construct validity is used. The concept of
construct validity is more complex than that of content
validity. In order to apply construct validity, the researcher

postulates the nature and extent of association between the
attitude and other specified variables. He then examine
whether these relationships exist. If not, there could be two
possible explanations. First, his scale might be invalid as it
does not satisfactorily measure what it set out to measure.
Second, his theory might be deficient in some way and it may
be difficult for him to identify it. The point to emphasize is
that the construct validity is based on theoretical
considerations. For example, the status of an individual in a
society may be dependent upon such variables as the level of
education, occupation or ownership of a car and a house.
Thus, on the basis of theory, an elite class should have a high

degree of association amongst these factors. The existence
of a high degree of correlation in this case is a supporting
evidence and can be regarded as a test of validity.
(iii) Predictive Validity: Predictive validity signifies how
best the researcher can guess the future performance, from
his knowledge of the attitude score. For example, an
opinion questionnaire which forms the basis for correctly
forecasting the demand for a product has predictive
validity. The procedure for predictive validity first
measures the attitude and then predicts the future
behaviour on the basis of this measurement.

This is followed by the measurement of the future
behaviour at an appropriate time. Finally, the obtained
scores are compared with the earlier predicted scores. If
the two series of scores are closely associated, the scale is
said to have predictive validity.
(iv) Concurrent Validity: In the case of concurrent validity,
an attitude scale on one variable can be used to estimate
scores on another variable. For example, one may decide
the social status of respondents on the basis of their
attitude towards savings. Here, the attitude scale as also
the criterion measure are administered almost at the same

time. It may be noted that a high degree of concurrent validity
may sometimes be spurious as the collection of one set of data
may influence the collection of another set.
3. Practicality: The forgoing discussion shows that the scientific
requirements of research study should be valid. In contrast,
the operational requirements call for it to be practical. This
implies that the handling of a research study should be
economical, convenient, and the results should be
interpretable.
(i) Economy: Often one has to strike a balance between the ideal
research and the budget. Data not freely available and

instrument length is one area where economic factors
become dominant. The choice of data collection method is
also subject to economic factors.
(ii) Convenience: Any device used for measurement should
not be inconvenient to administer. A questionnaire or a
measurement scale should have a set of clear instructions
to elicit better response. The more complex the concepts
and constructs, the greater is the need to provide very
clear and complete instructions.
(iii) Interpretability: When persons other than the test
designers have to interpret the results, this aspect becomes

important. It is usually an issue with standardized tests. In
such cases, the researcher who is designing the measuring
instrument must provide important and relevant
information so as to facilitate interpretation in proper
perspective.
Development of Marketing Measures
Suppose we have to develop measurement for a particular
concept such as customer satisfaction in respect of a
particular product, how should we proceed in this regard?
We have to proceed in a systematic manner, involving a
number of steps. These steps are briefly explain here;

1. Specify Domain of Concept: It is very important to
develop a sound conceptual definition. For example, how
do we define customer satisfaction? It may be necessary
not only to review the available literature but also to
discuss the concept of customer satisfaction with
knowledgeable persons.
2. Generate Sample of Items: This step requires that a list
of specific items in the form of questions, phrases or
statements be prepared. It may be noted that items
should cover each aspect of the concept as defined in
Step 1. Here, too, a careful review of the literature and

discussion with well informed individuals, consumers and
executives of trade associations will be helpful in
developing an appropriate list of items.
3. Collect Data: The item included in Step 2 should be
placed in a proper format. This format should then be used
to collect information from the target group.
4. Improve the Measure: On the basis of information
gathered in Step 3, one can know that certain items do not
correlate with the total score for the overall measure. As
such, such items need to be eliminated. Sometimes one
may find that the results are extremely unsatisfactory and

unexpected. In such cases, it is advisable to go back to earlier
steps relating to the conceptual definition and the generation
of sample items.
5.Collect Data for Reliability and Validity Assessments:
Having eliminated superfluous items from the measurement,
one can now collect data afresh on the basis of the revised
instrument.
6. Assess Reliability: Having collected new data on the basis of
the revised instrument, this should be analyzed for reliability.
It is advisable not to depend on one assessment , but two or
more reliability assessments should be used. On the basis of
this assessment, unreliable items should be eliminated from
the overall measurement instrument.

7. Assess Validity: After having insured the reliability of the
measurement in Step 6, its validity needs to be examined.
While any method of assessing validity can be used,
construct validity is preferable.
8. Develop Norms: This is the final step that is concerned
with the administration of the measurement instrument to
various groups of people such as demographic groups,
users,, non-users, etc. Averages and variances should be
calculated as these facilitate better interpretation of data
collected. When measurement is to be used in subsequent
studies, these calculation will be all the more useful.

Attitude Scales
Introduction
Marketing research is often concerned with the behavior
of the consumer. In this respect, marketing researcher
have drawn heavily on the behavioral science such as
psychology and sociology. In fact the contribution of
these sciences to marketing research has been very
significant, especially with regard to two aspects. First,
the research techniques used by the psychologists and
sociologists, being a considerable relevance to marketing
researchers, have been amply used by them. Second, the
concepts and theories of these behavioural sciences have
also proved to be relevant to marketing researcher.

Attitude Scales
The Concept of Attitude
The dictionary meaning of ‘attitude’ is ‘settled behaviour,
as indicating opinion’. This, however, does not help us
much except that it implies that in a given situation a
person will act ‘automatically’ in a certain manner,
depending on his attitude. As far back as 1928, Thurstone
defined attitudes as “the sum total of man’s inclinations
and feelings, prejudice or bias, preconceived notions,
ideas, fears, threats and convictions about any specific
topic.” Attitude is a subjective and personal affair. The
term ‘opinion’ symbolizes an attitude. In fact, it is the
verbal expression of attitude.

Attitude Scales
Definitions
1. According to G.W. Allport, Attitude are individual mental
processes which determine both the actual and potential
responses of each person in a social world. Since an attitude
is always directed towards some object it may be defined as,
“the state of mind of the individual towards a value.”
2. According to D. Katz, “Attitude is a mental and neural
state of readiness organizes through experience exerting a
directive and dynamic influence upon the individual’s
response to all objects and situations with which it is
related.”
3. According to D. Krech, R.S. Crutchfield and E.L.
Ballachey, Attitude is the predisposition of the individual to

Attitude Scales
evaluate some symbol or object or aspect of his world in a
favorable manner.”
4. E.T. krueger and W.C. Reckless, “An attitude, roughly,
is a residuum of experience, by which further activity is
conditioned and controlled. We may think of attitudes as
acquired tendencies to act in specific ways towards
objects.”
Though the foregoing definitions make it abundantly clear
that defining ‘attitude’ is a difficult task, one does find
that there is a common thread running through all of them.
An essential feature of attitude is the preparation or
readiness to response. Further, it is not behaviour but a pre

Attitude Scales
- condition for it. Social psychologists are generally of the
view that attitude involves some evaluation component for
or against an item or acceptance or rejection of an item.
Attitudes will indicate “the response of an individual to a
social object or phenomenon, and the response will have
affective or evaluations connotations.”
Components of Attitude
There are three components of attitude;
• A cognitive component.
• An effective component.
• A behavioural component.

Attitude Scales
A cognitive component indicates that the respondent is
aware of and known about a given object or phenomenon.
This component is very important for many types of
information needs. In marketing research, we want to
know whether the respondent has some idea of product
features, advertising campaigns, pricing of the product as
also its availability, competitive product and such other
aspect.
Affective component indicates the respondent’s liking
and preference for an object or phenomenon. This
component, like the earlier one, is quite important in
knowing the feelings and preferences of the respondent

Attitude Scales
towards a certain product or service.
The behavior component indicates the respondent’s
intention to buy and his actual purchase behavior. Prior to
purchasing/buying a product or service, the respondent
must be inclined to do so. Hence intention to purchase
precedes the actual purchase. A company would very
much like to know whether the respondent’s intention is
to buy its product. If this is so, it is reasonably assured
about the product’s sale in the future.
General Procedure in Attitude Scaling
Although there are a number of methods available for the

Attitude Scales
measurement of attitude, the most commonly used approach is
the self-report, where a person is asked directly how he feels
about an object. The other alternative methods are observation
of behavior, indirect techniques such as word-association
tests, sentence-completion test, story-telling, performance of
‘objective’ tasks and physiological reactions. Since the self-
report method of attitude measurement is most frequently
used.
First, one should assemble a set of items or statements related
to the subject of enquiry. Having collected a set of items or
statements, the next task is to choose the items for inclusion in
the final scale. By a process of elimination, unsuitable items

Attitude Scales
should be discarded, as a result of which the items left in
the pool will form the final scale. Finally, the scale, once
formed, should be tested in regard to its reliability and
validity. If the scale satisfies these criteria, it can be used
in the survey.
Selected Attitude Scales
We now give a brief discussion of some attitude scales
that are frequently used in marketing research. Since this
subject is vast, it is not possible to cover the whole range
of attitude scale here. Few selected scales are discussed
here.

Attitude Scales
A. Comparative Scales
1. Paired Comparison Scale: In this method the
respondent can express his attitude by making a choice
between two objects, say between a new flavor of soft
drink and an established brand of drink. But when there
are more than two stimuli to judge, the number of
judgments required in a paired comparison is given by
the formula;
n(n – 1)
N =
2

Attitude Scales
Where N = Number of judgment.
n = number of stimuli or objects to be judged.
For instance, if there are 10 suggestions for bargaining
proposals available to a worker’s union, there are 45
paired comparison that can be made with them. When N
happens to be a big figure, there is the risk of respondents
giving ill considered answers or they may even refuse to
answer. We can reduce the number of comparisons per
respondent either by presenting to each one of them only a
sample of stimuli or by choosing few objects which cover

Attitude Scales
the range of attractiveness at about equal intervals and
then comparing all other stimuli to these few standard
objects. Thus, paired comparison data may be treated in
several ways. If there is substantial consistency, we will
find that if X is preferred to Y, and Y to Z, then X will
consistently be preferred to Z. if this is true, we may take
the total number of preferences among the comparisons as
the score for that stimulus.
It should be remembered that paired comparison provides
ordinal data, but the same may be converted into an
interval scale by the method of the Law of Comparative
Judgment developed by L.L. Thurstone.

Attitude Scales
This technique involves the conversion of frequencies of
preferences into a table of proportions which are then
transformed into Z matrix by referring to the table of area
under the normal curve. J.P. Guildford in his book
“Psychometric Methods” has given a procedure which is
relatively easier:
Suppose there are four proposals which some union
bargaining committee is considering. The committee
wants to know how the union membership ranks these
proposals. For this purpose a sample of 100 members
might express the views as shown in the following table;

Attitude Scales
Response Patterns of 100 Members’ Paired Comparisons
of Suggestions for Union Bargaining Proposal Priorities
Suggestions
A B C D
A -- 65 32 20
B 40 -- 38 42
C 45 50 -- 70
D 80 20 98 --
TOTAL 165 135 168 132
Mp 0.5375 0.4625 0.5450 0.4550
Zi 0.09 (-) 0.09 0.11 (-) 0.11
Ri 0.20 0.02 0.22 0.00

Attitude Scales
Comparing the total number of preferences for each of the
four proposals, we find that C is the most popular,
followed by A, B, and C respectively in popularity. The
rank order shown in the above table explains all this.
By following the composite standard method, we can
develop an interval scale from the paired comparison
ordinal data given in the above table for which purpose we
have to adopt the following steps in order:
(i) Using the data in the above table, we work out the column
mean with the help of the formula given in the next slide.

Attitude Scales
C + .5(N) 165 + .5(100)
Mp = = = .5375
nN 4(100)
Where; Mp = The mean proportion of the column.
C = The total number of choices for a given suggestion.
n = Number of stimuli (proposal in the given problem).
N = Number of items in the sample.
The column means have been shown in the Mp row in the
above table.
(ii) The Z values for the Mp are secured from the table giving

Attitude Scales
the area under the normal curve. When the Mp value is
less than .5, the Z value is negative and for all Mp values
higher than .5, the Z values are positive. These Z values
are shown in Zi row in the above table.
(iii) As the Zi values represent an interval scale, zero is an
arbitrary value. Hence, we can eliminate negative scale
values by giving the value of zero to the lowest scale
value (this being (-) .11 in our example which we shall
take equal to zero) and then adding the absolute value of
this lowest scale value to all other scale items. This scale
has been shown in Ri row in the above table.

Attitude Scales
Graphically, we can show this interval scale that we have
derived from the paired-comparison data using the composite
standard method as follows:
D B A C
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
2. Rank Order: Under this method of comparative scaling, the
respondents are asked to rank their choices. This method is
easier and faster than the method of paired comparisons stated
above. For example, with10 items it takes 45 pair comparisons
to complete the task, where as the method of rank order simply

Attitude Scales
required ranking of 10 items only. The problem of
transitivity (such as A prefers to B, B to C, but C prefers
to A) is also not there in case we adopt method of rank
order. Moreover, a complete ranking at times is not
needed in which case the respondents may be asked to
rank only their first, say, four choices while the number of
overall items involved may be more than four, say, it may
be 15 or 20 or more. To secure a simple ranking of all
items involved we simply total rank values received by
each item. There are methods through which we can as
well develop an interval scale of these data. But then there

Attitude Scales
are limitations of this method. The first one is that data
obtained through this method is ordinal data and hence
rank ordering is an ordinal scale with all its limitations.
Then there may be the problem of respondents becoming
careless in assigning ranks particularly when there are
many items.
3. Constant Sum: Constant sum scaling technique is used to
assess the relative importance attached by a respondent to
the stimulus objects. The respondent gives certain points
to each stimulus object out of a fixed sum of point.

Attitude Scales
This fixed sum is usually taken as 100, but it could be
some other value also. For example, a family planning a
holiday, fixes the budget of Rs. 50,000. They wish to plan
the expenditures on transportation, accommodation, food,
drinks, and others. The constant sum is 50,000 in this
example which could be divided as;
Transportation 10,000
Accommodation 20,000
Food 12,000
Drink 0
Others 8,000

Attitude Scales
The data obtained here is numeric but cannot be
generalized beyond the list of stimulus objects. So, this
data is considered as ordinal data. This technique
distinguishes the objects in less time. However, it is not
useful with uneducated people or with large number of
objects.
4.Thurstone Scale: The method of equal-appearing
intervals, as originally described by Thurstone and
Chave, is one of the best known techniques in attitude
measurement. First of all, a large number of statements
pertaining to the subject of enquiry are collected. This can

Attitude Scales
be done from a variety sources such as personal
experience, the existing literature on the subject and
discussion with knowledgeable person. The statement
should range from one extreme of favorable attitude to the
other extreme of unfavorable attitude. Although there is
no definite number of statements that should be collected,
the number should be fairly large. Thurston and Chave,
have given five criteria for selecting the statements.
These are: (1) The statement should be brief so that they
may not cause fatigue to the subjects who are to read the
whole list. (2) They should be such that can be accepted or

Attitude Scales
in accordance with the attitude of the respondent. (3) The
acceptance or rejection of the statement should indicate
something regarding the respondent’s attitude regarding
the issue in question. (4) As double-barrelled statements
tend to be highly ambiguous, these should be avoided. (5)
The researcher must ensure that a large number of
statements included in the list belong to the attitude
variable that is to be measured.
Each statement is written on a separate card and subjects
are asked to sort these statements into a number of
intervals. Thurstone and Chave developed a list of 130

Attitude Scales
statements about the church. These were to be sorted into
eleven piles ‘to represent an evenly graduated series of
attitudes from those extremely against the church to those
which are very much in favor of the church’. In addition to the
cards containing the statements, each subject was given 11
cards, each one of these bearing a letter – the first card having
letter A, the second B, and so on. The first card with letter A
seemed to represent the most unfavorable attitude and the last
card with letter K seemed to reflect the most favorable
attitude. The middle card with letter F was described as the
‘neutral’ card, representing neither a favorable nor an
unfavorable attitude about the object. Thus, the cards between

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