Indian Art and Culture: A Concise Guide

1
Indian Art and
Culture
E-book for CSAT and IAS Mains

2
• Puppet forms 3
• Painting Styles
19
• Dance forms
29
Classical
31
Folk
40
Tribal
53
• Theater forms
62
• Music
77
INDEX

• A form of theatre or performance involving
manipulation
of puppets.
• The process of animating inanimate performing
objects.
• Used both as entertainment – in performance – and
ceremonially in rituals and celebrations such as
carnivals.
• Originating in India 4000 years ago, where the main
character in Sanskrit plays was known as
―Sutradhara‖, ―the holder of strings‖.
• Stories mainly from puranic literature, local myths
and
legends.
String Puppet
Shadow Puppet
Glove Puppet
Rod Puppet
Puppet Forms of
India
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1. String Puppets
• Jointed body and limbs that allow movement.
• Made of wood, or wire, or cloth stuffed with
cotton, rags or saw dust and are usually small.
• Manipulated by operating the control as well as
by loosening or pulling the relevant string.
• Regional variations:
Andhra Pradesh (Koyya Bommalata),
Assam (Putala Nach),
Karnataka (Sutrada Gombeyata), Maharashtra
(Kalasutri Bahulya), Rajasthan (Kathputli),
Orissa (Gopalila),
Tamil Nadu (Bommalatam) and
West Bengal (Tarer or Sutor Putul).
Puppet Forms of
India
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1. String Puppets
Kathputli, Rajasthan
• Carved from a single piece of wood.
• Large dolls that are colorfully dressed.
• Costumes and headgears are designed in the
medieval
Rajasthani style.
• Uses highly dramatized version of the regional music.
• Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips.
• Wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs.
• Manipulated with strings attached to puppeteers
fingers.
Kundhei, Orissa
• Made of light wood.
• Have no legs but wear long flowing skirts.
• Have more joints and are, therefore, more
versatile,articulate and easy to manipulate.
• Music of Odissi dance.
• Puppeteers hold a wooden prop, triangular in shape,
to
Puppet Forms of
India
which strings are
attached.
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1. String Puppets
Gombeyatta, Karnataka
• Styled and designed like the characters of
Yakshagana, have joints at the legs, shoulders,
elbows, hips and knees.
• Music is dramatic; blends folk and
classical elements.
• Manipulated by five to seven strings tied to a prop.
Bommalattam, Tamil Nadu
• Techniques of both rod and string puppets.
• Made of wood
• Strings are tied to an iron ring which the
puppeteer wears like a crown on his head.
• Are the largest, heaviest and the most articulate
of all. (A puppet may be as big as 4.5 feet).
• Manipulation Jointed arms sometimes
manipulated by rods (because heavy).
Puppet Forms of
India
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2. Shadow puppet
• Flat figures cut out of leather, treated to make it
translucent.
• Pressed against the screen with a strong source of light
behind it.
• The manipulation between the light and the screen make
silhouettes or colourful shadows, as the case may be, for
the viewers who sit in front of the screen.
• Prevalent in Orissa. Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Puppet Forms of
India
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Togalu Gombeyatta, Karnataka
• Small in size.
• Regional music used.
• The puppets differ in size according to their
social status, for instance, large size for
kings and religious characters and smaller
size for common people or servants.
2. Shadow puppet
Tholu Bommalata, Andhra
Pradesh
• Large in sizeandhave
jointed
wais
t,shoulders, elbows and knees.
• The classical music of the
region.
• Coloured on
both sides. Hence,
throwcoloured shadows on the
screen.
Puppet Forms of
India
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• Small in size and
are
in
on
e
piece with no
joints. deer skin
and are in
bold
dramati
c
• Made of
conceive
d
poses.• Not coloured, hence throw
opaque shadows on the
screen.
• Apart from human and
animal characters, many
props such as trees,
mountains, chariots, etc. are
also used.
2. Shadow puppet
Ravanachhaya, Orissa
Puppet Forms of
India
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• Popular in Uttar Pradesh,Orissa,
WestBengal and Kerala.
• Dialogues play an important role
here.
3. Glove puppet
• The head is made of either papier mache, cloth or
wood, with two hands emerging from just below the
neck.
• The rest of the figure consists of a long
flowing skirt.
• The movements are controlled by the human hand
the first finger inserted in the head and the middle
finger and the thumb are the two arms of the
puppet.
Puppet Forms of
India
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3. Glove puppet
Pavakoothu, Kerala
• Presented usually in a play form. Their
occurrence is almost confined to a few local
villages.
• Uses the narrative format prevalent in Kathakali.
• The puppets, found in Palghat district, are more
than four centuries old. They are carved
delicately on woods, up to two feet high and
beautified with colour paints, gilded tin,
transparent corals and peacock feathers.
• The puppeteer manipulates puppets sitting on an
elevated platform and use instrumental music,
such as, Chenda drums, conch shell, etc.
• Puppeteers perform together for an hour or two
in the evening in front of a brass oil-lamp.
• The episodes used are from Mahabharata.
Puppet Forms of
India
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3. Glove puppet
Bener Putul, West bengal
• Means dolls of commercial people.
• Belong to the scheduled caste of the old palanquin-
bearers (Kahar). They are normally from among land-
less labour.
• The puppets are one and a half foot high, with
terracotta heads and wooden arms.
• The puppeteers sing songs during the show and
play Domru (small drums) to attract crowd.
• The music is based on either common folk tunes or
even popular Hindi or Bengali songs, full of robust
humour and sarcasm.
• The puppets have anklets fixed on arms, which are
used to keep rhythm by clapping.
• There are pairs of male and female puppets used by the
puppeteers with two hands.
• The themes are based on social events like linguistic
differences, escapade of lover- couples, or even family
planning.
• The puppeteer starts early in life and roams from fair to
fair, charging money for each song.
Puppet Forms of
India
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• The puppets, gaudily dressed, have
definiteexpressionsto depict emotions. The
puppeteeroperates with right hand and plays the dhol with
left hand, while singing the lyrics.
• One puppeteer, with another playing the drum,
often manipulates the puppets.
• Treats Radha and Krishna as common village
boy and girl.
• The songs are from medieval poetry, using folk
melodies popular in the village.
3. Glove puppet
Sakhi Kundhei, Orissa
• The puppeteers are poor agricultural labour, running
small shops for livelihood.
• They perform Sakhi Natch showing the dalliance of
Krishna with Radha and the milkmaids.
• The puppeteers, belonging to a subcaste of Rajput,
claim to have migrated from Vrindaban.
• The puppet for Radha is with anklets round her waist,
called Chandra Badani (moon-faced) and the music draws
heavily on folk melodies accompanied by Dhol (barrel-
shaped drum).
Puppet Forms of
India
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• The puppeteers,sitting in an
openspace, use resplendent dolls and
mount
shows around the theme of two
women
: Gulabo and Sitabo.• Th
e
narrative,
recite
d
in a
singsongvoic
e,
is about the
quarrelbetween Sitabo, the
helpless wife andGulabo,the beautiful mistressof
thesame man, around petty
socialhappening
s.• The songs are interspersed with
bawdy jokes and caustic humour,
often reflecting the local incidents.
The puppets are made of papier-
mache with tinsel jewellery.
3. Glove puppet
Gulabu & Sitabu, Uttar
Pradesh
Puppet Forms of
India
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4. Rod puppet
• Extension of glove-puppets, but often much larger and
supported and
manipulated by rods from below.
• Found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa.
Puppet Forms of
India
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Putul Nautch, West Bengal
• Costumedlike the actors of Jatra, a
traditional
theatre.
• Carved from wood and follow the various
artistic styles of a particular region.
• Used to be of human size, but existing
puppets
vary from 3 to 4 feet in height.
• Musicof Jatra theatre (drum,
harmonium and
cymbals).
• Puppeteers themselves sing and deliver the
stylized prose dialogues along with a group
of musicians.
• Manipulated by a bamboo-made hub tied
firmly to the waist of the puppeteer on which
the rod holding the puppet is placed.
• Puppeteers move and dance imparting
4. Rod puppet
Puppet Forms of
India
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4. Rod puppet
Rod puppets, Orissa
• Much smaller in size, sbout twelve to eighteen inches.
• Hands are tied to strings instead of rods. (because they are
small).
• The music blends folk tunes with classical Odissi tunes.
• Most of the dialogues are sung.
• The Orissa rod-puppeteers squat on the ground behind a
screen
and manipulate.
Yampuri, Bihar
• In one piece and have no joints.
• Describes Yampuri (the house of Death).
• The show begins with appearance of the death-god Yama
and his messenger, followed by their record-keeper
Chitragupta. One by one, the people (supposedly after
death) are marched in front of Yama to receive their doles
of punishment.
• The narrative is meant primarily to put the fear of heaven
Puppet Forms of
India
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• Paintings are basically two types:
Murals: large scale paintings
generally
attached to the floor of palaces and
caves.
Miniatures: small scale which are
done on
mainly cloth or paper.
• Can be categorized into seven special
group:
 Rajasthani painting
 Madhubani painting
 Tanjore painting
 Mughal painting
 Bengal style of art
 Patta chitra
Painting styles in
India
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• Also known as Mithila painting.
• Originated in Madhubani village in Bihar.
• According to mythology, this tradition commenced
when Janakraj, father of rani sita asked his
painters to paint the moments of marriage
ceremony of Sita with Lord Rama.
• Traditionally done by Madhubani‘s women on mud
walls, later started on cloth, canvas and
handmade papers.
• Also depict other Hindu devotional stories.
• Natural objects like moon, sun, tulsi etc is also
found as
theme.
• No empty space is left, gaps are filled by different
geometrical motifs, floral, animals, and bird
pictures.
• Are of three kinds : Brahmin style, Tatoo style and
Kshatriya style.
• Done with twigs, brushes, fingers, matchsticks,
and nib pens using natural dyes and colors.
• Eye-catching geometrical
patters.
Painting styles in
India
Madhubani
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16t
h
• Originated form Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu around
century.
• Widely popular as home décor item.
• A unique art-form where precious stones and gold
foils were used.
• Initially used to depict Hindu Gods and Goddesses in
grandeur.
• Figures are large and the faces are round and divine.
Lace
or thread is also used to decorate the jewellery.
• A mixture called "muk" is prepared using chalk
powder and African gum in a ratio of 2:1 and applied
in places around the stones and other areas to give
an embossed look.
• Most of the paintings would depict the Child Krishna
and his various pranks, paintings of other deities
were also created.
• Changing with time - for example, the figures are no
longer round.
• Presiding deities of various famous temples are also
being
Painting styles in
India
TANJOR
E
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• Developed and flourished during the 18th century in the royal courts of
Rajasthan.
• The most important themes are from the life of Lord Krishna, the Great epics of
Ramayana and the Mahabharata, landscapes and human beings.
• Used on the walls of palaces, interior chambers of the forts, havelis and the like.
Schools of Rajput Painting:
• The Mewar school that contains the Chavand, Nathdwara, Devgarh, Udaipur
and Sawar styles of painting.
• The Marwar school comprising the Kishangarh, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali
and Ghanerao styles.
• The Hadoti school with the Kota, Bundi and Jhalawar styles.
• The Dhundar school of Amber, Jaipur,
Shekhawati and Uniara styles of painting.
Painting styles in
India
RAJASTHAN
I
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• Exclusive combination of Indian, Persian and Islamic
styles.
• Evolved as well as developed during the rule of Mughal
Emperors
in India, between 16th to 19th century.
• Themes like battles, court scenes, receptions, legendary
stories, hunting scenes, wildlife, portraits, etc. are used.
• Developed when Humayun returned to India from exile,
and
brought great Persian artists; Abd-us-samad and Mir-
Sayyid Ali.
• Most famous example of the Mughal style of art is the
Tutinama Painting; `Tales of a Parrot`, which is presently
in the Cleveland Museum of Art.
• Under Akbar it experienced growth on a large-scale. Since
Akbar was interested in tales, the paintings were based
on Ramayana, Mahabharata and Persian epics.
• Under Jahangir it saw more and more refinement in
brushwork, along with the use of much lighter and
subdued colors. The main themes of the Mughal paintings
revolved around the events from Jahangir's own life, along
with portraits, birds, flowers, animals, etc.
Painting styles in
India
MUGHA
L
biography of Emperor
Jahangir.
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• Flourished during the British Raj in the early 20th century.
• Was associated with Indian nationalism, but also promoted by
many British arts administrators.
• Started in reaction reacting against the academic art styles
previously promoted in India, by Indian artists such as Raja
Ravi Varma and in British art schools.
• Due to influence of Indian spiritual ideas in the West, the
British art teacher Ernest Binfield Havell encouraged
students to imitate Mughal miniatures.
• This led to a strike by students and complaints from the local
press, including from nationalists who considered it to be a
retrogressive move.
• Havell was supported by the artist Abanindranath Tagore.
• Tagore's best-known painting, Bharat Mata (Mother India),
depicted a young woman, portrayed with four arms in the
manner of Hindu deities, holding objects symbolic of India's
national aspirations.
Painting styles in
India
BENGAL
STYLE
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• Warli is the name of a tribe,
whichresides in Thane district of
Maharashtra on the northern
outskirtsof Mumbai and extends up to the
Gujarat border.
• This art was eventually
discovered in the early seventies,
and became popular for its
unique simplicity and fervor for
life.
• Helical shapes of men and
women and concentric circular
designs in Warli Paintings are
symbols of the circle of life.
• The harmony and balance
portrayed is thought to mean the
harmony and balance of the
universe of discourse.
Painting styles in
India
WARLI
ART
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• Done by using kalam (pen).
• Has two subtypes:
 Mausalipatnam style paintings focus on the
Islamic aesthetics and the ripe fruits is used to
color the paintings.
 Srikalahasti style draes paintings on the hindu
mythology and the color is drawn from raw
fruits.
Painting styles in
India
KALAMKARI
• Traditional painting of Orissa, India.
• Based on Hindu Mythology and inspired by
Jagannath and Vaishnava cult.
• Natural colours are used in fully old traditional way
by
Chitrakaras that is Oriya Painter
• Is painted on canvas (Patta). Carefully donecraftsmanship, rich colors, unique designs
& creative
motifs, & simple themes, which are chiefly
mythological
in origin on canvas.
• Paintings on the cave walls of Khandagiri and
Udayagiri, Konark temple, and many other temples
in Orissa.
PATTACHITRA
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Painting styles in
India
PAHARI
• Developed and flourished during 17th-19th centuries stretching from
Jammu to Almora and Garhwal, in the sub-Himalayan India, through
Himachal Pradesh, and each creating stark variations within the genre,
ranging from bold intense Basohli Painting, originating from Basohli in
Jammu and Kashmir, to the delicate and lyrical Kangra paintings,
which became synonymous to the style before other schools of
paintings developed, which reached its pinnacle with paintings of
Radha and Krishna, inspired by Jayadev's Gita Govinda.
• Gave birth to a new idiom in Indian painting, and grew out of the
Mughal painting.
• Though this was patronized mostly by the Rajput kings who ruled many
parts of
the region.
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Classical Dance - Folk Dance - Tribal Dance
Dance forms in
India
29

• Dance is a form of art, where
the body is used as a medium
of communication.
• The dance heritage of India is
at least 5000 years old.
• The wall paintings of Ajanta
and Ellora, the sculptures of
Khajuraho stand ample
evidence for popularity of
Indian dances from ancient
times.
• Nataraja, the dancing Lord
Shiva, is the supreme
manifestation of Indian dance.
Dance forms in India
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o Bharatnatyam - Tamil
Nadu
o Kathak - Uttar Pradesh
o Kathakali – Kerala
o Kuchipudi- Andhra
Pradesh
o Manipuri – Manipur
o Mohiniattam – Kerala
o Odissi – Orissa
o Sattriya - Assam
Classical Dance in India
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Bharatanatyam
• Bhava (expression), Raga
(music), Tala (rhythm) and Natya
(classical theater).
• It originates in South India.
• It consists of multiple items:
Nritta– pure dance movements
Abhinaya– dramatic art of
storytelling Nritya– combination of
nritta & abhinaya
• Performed on Carnatic music.
• Costume are made of silk saris with
gold
embroidery and has a lot of pleats.
• Necklace, Bangles and head
ornaments are
used as jewelry.
• Bells mounted on woven pads are
worn on
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provide
d
• Performed on Hindusthani
music by Tabla, Sitar,
Santoor.
• Costume includes Ghungroos or bells on the ankles
 Female- lehenga choli or
chudidaar
kameez
 Male- bare chest and dhoti
or kurta churidar
Kathak
• Nameis derived from Katha
(story) and
Katthaka (who tells stories).
• It originates from North India.
• There are three main gharanas or
schools:
Lucknow,
 Jaipur
Benares
• Dance progresses from slow to fast
pieces. Has Footwork & spins and
includes abhinaya-expression.
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Kathakali
• It originates from Kerala state.
• Attractive make-up of characters and elaborate
costumes are
used.
• Performance is a combination of five elements:
Natyam (expression),
Nritham (dance),
Nrithyam (enactment),
Geetham (vocal) and
Vadyam (instruments)
• Carnatic music is used with Manipravalam as
language of
songs.
• Elaborate makeup is used:
Green face color- noble characters (Pacha)
Green with red streaks- characters with evil streaks
Red face color- excessively evil characters
Women have yellow face color 34
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Kuchipudi
• It originates from Andhra Pradesh.
• It shares many common elements
with Bharatanatyam.
• In Tarangam (a unique kuchipudi
dance)- dancer dances on plate
with diyas in the hands and
vessel of water on the head.
• Carnatic music is used.
• Costumes are similar to
Bharatanatyam.
• Costume also include ‗Katcham‘
(long
fold) at the back of the costume.
• Female characters wear
ornaments
and
jewelry.
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• It originates from Manipur state.
• Few features in its performance are:
 Movements are subtle and aim at
devotion
and grace
 Rounded movements without jerks and
sharp
lines
 Dancers feet never strike the ground
hard
• Music is provided by a singer, ‗Pung‘
(drum),
cymbals and flute.
• Costume includes:
 Female- dress called patloi and lehenga
called kumin. Transparent odni is worn
on the head and covers the face.
depicting
Lord
 Male- usually saffron dress
Krishna.
• Dancers do not wear ankle bells in this
dance
Manipuri
form
.
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Mohiniattam
• Its name is derived from: Mohini-
temptress and Attam- dance
• It‘s a graceful dance performed only
by
women.
• It hasinfluences from
Bharatanatyam
and Kathakali.
• Music includes Vocal (called
chollu),
Veena, flute, Maddalam & Idakka.
• It is characterized by realistic
makeup and simple dressing.
• Costume includes white or cream
sari with gold border and is
profusely pleated.
• Mainly gold ornaments are used as
jewelry. 37
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Odissi
• It originates from Orissa.
• Consists of three schools:
Mahari,
Nartaki
Gotipua
• Main feautres of performance are:
Tribhangi- independent movement of head, chest
and pelvis
Chauka- basic square stance
• Odissi music is used.
• Costume feautres Sari- beautiful cloth wrapped
around body in traditional style in bright shades of
orange, purple, red or green.
• Jewelry includes:
Tikka (forehead ornament)
Allaka (headpiece where tikka hangs)
Ear covers in intricate shapes with jumkis (bell
shaped earrings) hanging from them
Chains
Two sets of bangles (thin bracelets) worn on upper
arm & wrist.
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• It is recognized as one of the
classical
dance forms of India in 2000.
• Devotional songs called
borgeets are
used.
• Instruments used arekhols
(drums),
taals (cymbals) and flute.• Costume are made of pat (type of
silk)
.• Ornamentsare basedon
traditional
Assamese designs.
Sattriya
• It originated in Assam state.
• Performances are based on
mythological stories and is
performed by both men and
women.
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• Indian culture includes a treasure of a variety of
folk dances.
• The diversity in culture and tradition is reflected
in the variety of Indian folk dances.
Folk Dance in India
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Padayani (Kerala)
• One of the most colourful and enchanting dances of Southern Kerala.
• Associated with the festival of certain temples.
• These temples are formed in the districts of Alleppey, Quilon, Pathanamthitta
and
Kottayam districts.
• The main kolams (huge masks) presented in Padayani are Kali, Kalan , Yakshi
(fairy), Pakshi (bird), etc.
• The literal meaning of Padayani is military formations or rows of army.
• The performers consist of dancers, singers and instrumentalists.
Folk Dance in India
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Kaikottikali, Kerala
• Also known as Thiruvathirakali.
• Dance performed by women, in order to attain everlasting marital bliss,
on
Thiruvathira day in the Malayalam month of Dhanu (December-
January).
• The sinuous movements executed by a group of dancers around a
nilavilakku,
embody 'lasya' or the amorous charm and grace of the feminine.
• The dance follows a circular, pirouetting pattern accompanied by
clapping of
the hands and singing.
Folk Dance in India
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Karakattam, Tamil Nadu
• One of the most essential
parts
of a ritual, dedicated to
ofMariamma, the
goddess
health and rain.• It is performed by
men,wherein they balance pots
filledwith
uncooke
d
rice
,surrounded by a tall
conicalbamboo frame covered
with flowers.
• Drums and long pipes form
themusical
instrument
s
accompanying the
dance.• Karakattam
i
s
popular in
villages during temple
festivals.
Folk Dance in India
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Kummi, Tamil Nadu
• Kumm
i
means to dancewhile
clappinghands to a rhythm, accompanied by
songsin popular tunes.
• Women form a circle and dance during
the Maariamman and Kaanum Pongal
festivals for ten consecutive days.
Folk Dance in India
Yakshgana, Karnataka
• Yakshgana is a folk theatre form of
Karnataka
and it is an ancient art.
• The original form of Yakshgana involves
the use of recitative modes of poetry,
melodies of music, rhythm and dance
techniques, colourful costumes and
graceful make up.
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Chhau, West Bengal
• Originated from the Purulia distrct
.
• Mostly performed in the open
space or ground field during the
night.
• It is a mask dance performed
only by the male dancers.
• The masks are made up
from the clay and paper.
• It is mythological,as it is
mainlybased on various episodesof
the
epics Ramayana and
Mahabharata.
• As the singer complete the
invocation song,a host of
drummers and
musicians start beating the Dhol
andthe
Dhamsa.
Folk Dance in India
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Dalkhai, Orissa
• The 'Dalkhai' is a dance performed by
women of the tribes from the Sambalpur
district of Orissa.
• It is quite a virile dance rendered during
the time of festivals.
• The men generally play the musical
instruments
Folk Dance in India
and the drummers often join the dance.
Namagen, Himachal Pradesh
• The autumnal hue is celebrated in
September
by a dance performance called Namagen.
• The most striking dance amongst these is
the
Gaddis.
• The costumes are largely woollen and
richly studded ornaments of silver are
worn by women. 46
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Bhangra, Punjab
• One of the most popular dances of India.
• Performed during Baisakhi usually by the
men
in Punjab.
• It includes tricks and acrobatic feats.• The songs include recitation of
meaningless'bolis', words, such as hoay, hoay.
• The drummer usually in the centre of the
circle, is surrounded by men dressed in
lungis and turbans.
• The dance performed by the women folk of
Punjab is called the 'Gidha'.
• In the Gidha, at a time a woman or a pair of
women dance while the others clap in
rhythm. The dance is performed in the
festival of Teeyan to welcome the rains.
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Ghoomer Dance
• Famous and a community dance of women in Rajasthan.
• It is performed on various auspicious occasions like fairs &
festivals.
• It is called as `Ghoomer`, from the `ghoomna`of Ghaghra
i.e. the
flowing of Ghaghra, a long skirt of the Rajasthani women.
• Women from any age group, may it be the young or old can
participate in
Ghoomer dance.
• While dancing, the dancers move in a circular direction with
clockwise and anti-clockwise steps.
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Folk Dance in India
Bihu, Assam
• The Bihu dance is performed in
the Bihu festival, celebrated for
the arrival of spring in the
Assamese New Year.
• The dance is performed in an
open space during daytime.
Cheraw (Bamboo) Dance, Mizoram
• The most popular and colourful dance of
the
Mizos.
• Long pair of horizontal bamboo staves
are tapped open and close in rhythmic
beats by people sitting face to face on
the ground.
• Because bamboos are used for the
dance, people sometimes call it the
BAMBOO DANCE. 49
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Burra Katha Dance, Andhra Pradesh
• Burra' is a special instrument used by twoperformerswho
danceencourage the main story teller by exclamation and
questions.• Demands oratory as well as dancing skills on the part of the
performers.
• Three people to enact the story telling.
• Main artiste is dressed in a colourful attire with a garland round his
neck
and a tambura slung across his shoulder, the other two artistes
dressed
similarly question the narration to alert a sleepy audience.
• The two accompanying artistes have a drum and hand taal.
• The theme of the story could be anything that has
happened or is
happening.
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Garba Dance, Gujrat
• This dance form has
connection with Shakti-Puja.
• It is played in a circular
formperformed by ladies on the nine
nights of Navaratri festival, Sharad
Purnima, Vasant Panchami, Holi
etc.
• The word Garba is derived from
the word `Garbha Deep` (a lamp
inside a perforated earthen pot).
• In this folk dance, the women place
the pot known as Garba with the
lamp on their heads and move in
circular direction, singing and clap
at the same time.
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Dandia-Ras, Gujrat
• Also known as the `stick` dance.
• This dance is also a feature of
most welcomed festival,
Navratri.
• The Ras is simple and is
generally performed by a group
of young people who move in
typical style in measured steps
around a circle, accompanied by
a singing chorus and a host of
musical instruments like the
dhol, cymbals, zanz and
shehnai.
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• Performed by tribal people/adivasi, who possess a culture, distinct
from the
pan Indian population.
• Completely different from Indian folk dances.
• Each tribe possesses its own distinguishable dance traditions
interwoven with
the life of the people who dance it.
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Kaadar Nritham
• Only women take part.
• Primitive dance of Kaadar tribes of the forest of Kochi area.
• The performers arrange themselves in a semicircle. They hold the tip of
their cloths in their hands to the level of the waist and wave it to various
rhythms of the dance.
• It is a very simple but elegant tribal dance in slow steps.
Elelakkaradi
• A highly heroic group – dance.
• Almost the whole community of men, women and children participate.
• Very common with the tribal called Irular of Attappadi in Palakkad
district.
• The dance brings out the fight of the people against the wild bears which
often attack their tribal hamlets.
• Dancers move out in rhythmic steps, with vociferous shouts and war
cries and
keep time to the beatings of the primitive drums.
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Kaanikkar Nritham
• Group dance of the kanikkar tribes from Tamil Nadu.
• Performed as a ritual offering.
• The steps of the dancers perfectly synchronize with the waving of the
hands and beating of drums.
Paravalli Kali
• Mixed dance of the aboriginals of dense forest of Travancore area.
• Both men and women participate.
• They dance holding arms together, or shoulder to shoulder, linked in a
backlock posture.
• The men and women change their positions which amazing speed.
• The entire group of dancer sings songs and move swift rhythm in a circle.
• The linked arms swing to the rhythm in a fascinating wavelike movement.
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Man Kali
• It is mainly of two kinds
 The Ramayana episode in which Sita is being enchanted by Maricha in the guise
of a
golden deer is enacted in graceful movements.
 One man takes the role of a deer while another that of a hunter. The deer hopes
about and jumps around. The hunter follows in close steps and his movements
and gestures suggest drawing the bow, aiming it, hurling the spear, brandishing
some wooden log, etc.
• The whole dance is performed to the rhythm of wild percussion instruments.
Paniyar Kali
• Performed by tribal in hilly forests of Wayand district.
• Highly masculine and only men participate.
• Around eight or ten dancers stand in a circle with hands linked together.
• They have around with rhythmic flexions of the body and while moving stamp the
ground in perfect rhythm to the loud beat of the primitive percussion instruments
called Karu, Para, Udukku, etc.
• As the dance gathers momentum the circle is swiftly expanded and contracted and
the dancers utter peculiar cries which gradually run up to a high pitch.
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THAVALA KALI
• Boys jump one above the other in succession, imitating the leaps of the
frog.
EDAYA NRITHAM
• Dance of the tribal shepherds.
• Both men and women participate.
• One of the shepherds sing. This is repeated in chorus by all the rest.
• As the singing is going in, one of them imitate the special sounds of
shepherds driving their sheep.
• Someone of the group crying successively to imitate the wild animals that
try to attack the sheep and also the thief who tries to robe them while the
other members of the group very adeptly bring out the terror on the faces of
the lamps and their mournful walings.
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• At least 5000 years old tradition in India.
• According to legend the very first play was performed on
heaven when the gods, having defeated the demons,
were enacting their victory.
• Hindu theorists conceived of plays in two types of
production:
Lokadharmi (realistic), which involved the
reproduction of human behavior on the stage and the
natural presentation of objects,
Natyadharmi (conventional), which is the
presentation of a play through the use of stylized
gestures and symbolism and was considered more
artistic than realistic.
• Indian theatre can be divided into three distinctive kinds:
the Classical or the Sanskrit theatre, the Traditional
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Bhand Pather, Kashmir
• Unique combination of dance, music and acting.
• Biting satire, wit and parody characterize the form.
• Music is provided with surnai, nagaara and dhol.
• The actors are mainly from the farming community and
the impact of their way of living, ideals and sensitivity
in the drama is discernible.
• Sometimes masks are also used in the performance
Nautanki, Uttar Pradesh
• Important centres are Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras.
• The meters used in the verses are:
Doha, Chaubola,
Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel.
• Initially only men acted in Nautanki but nowadays,
women have also started taking part in the
performances.
• Among those remembered with reverence is Gulab Bai
of Kanpur.
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Swang, Haryana and Western UP
• Musical folk-drama evolved in 18th century.
• Has stories in verse sung in various mode (classical, semi-classsical, folk).
However
gradually prose has been included in it too enacted as dialogues.
• The softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasaalongwith the
development of
character can be seen in this theatre form.
• Two important styles of Swang are from Rohtak and Haathras. In the style
belonging to Rohtak, the language used is Haryanvi (Bangru) and in Haathras,
it is Brajbhasha.
• Initially cast was all male but women have started participating.
• Swang means impersonation. The Nautanki of UP, Khyal of Rajasthan are in
this
tradition
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Naqal, Punjab
• Continues the Swang tradition.
• Naqal translates as mimicry or imitation and the naqalchi is the mimic.
Relies
heavily on improvisation by the naqalchi.
• Centuries-old village tradition, very popular at weddings.
• Solo performance of group of 2-3 dressed in rustic clothes.
• Perform a series of skits, in a small space, each lasting 10 mins or so.
Made up of
quick repartee, gentle satire.
• Subject-matter is purely social, like hilarious situations from the everyday.
This form is purely secular.
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Bhavai, Gujrat
• Traditionally performed during Navratri
before the
shrine of Amba Mata or before a lamp
symbolizing the
deity.
• Important centres are Kutch and Kathiawar.
• Instruments used in Bhavai are: bhungal, tabla,
flute, pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi, manjeera,
etc.
• In Bhavai, there is a rare synthesis of devotional
and
romantic sentiments.
Rasleela, Uttar Pradesh
• Based exclusively on legends of Lord Krishna
• Believed that Nand Das wrote the initial plays
based
on the life of Krishna.
• The dialogues in prose combined
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Jatra
• Born and nurtured in Bengal
• Performed at fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals and
ceremonies
• Krishna Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya's influence.
Later,
however, worldly love stories too, found a place in Jatra.
• The earlier form of Jatra has been musical. Dialogues were
added at
later stage.
• The actors themselves describe the change of scene, the
place of action, etc
Nachya, Chhattisgarh, Vidarbha
• Influenced by Ganda musicians and entertainment form
Gammat
• Select a situations from life of agricultural community and
improvise. No written text is followed.
• Treatment is humourous and satirical
• Play begins with invocation of Ganesh and Saraswati.
• In one form of nachya, the Jokkad Pari, the performers dance
with
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Maach, Madhya Pradesh
• The term Maach is used for the stage itself as
also for the play.
• Songsare given prominence in
between the
dialogues.
• Dialogues are called bol and rhyme in
narration is termedvanag.
• Tunes of this theatre form are known as
ranga.
Tamaasha, Maharashtra
• It has
evolved
from the folk forms such
asGondhal, Jagran and Kirtan.
• The female actress is the chief exponent of
dance movements in the play, (unlike other
theatre- forms). She is known as Murki.
• Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed,
and vivid gestures make it possible to portray
all the emotions through dance
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Bhaona, Assam
• Cultural glimpses of Assam,
Bengal
Orissa, Mathura and Brindavan
can
also be seen.
• Bhaona is a presentation of
Ankia
Naat.
• The Sutradhaar, or narrator
begins the story, first in Sanskrit
and then in either Brajboli or
Assamese.
• Ankiya naat are one-act plays
interspersed with Sanskrit
verses. They were composed
for common people in simple
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Dashaavtar, Konkan & Goa
• The performers personify the ten incarnations of
Lord Vishnu-the god of preservation and
creativity.
• The ten incarnations are Matsya (fish), Kurma
(tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narsimha (lion-man),
Vaman (dwarf), Parashuram, Rama, Krishna (or
Balram),
Buddha and Kalki.
• Apart from stylized make-up, the Dashavatar
performers wear masks of wood and papier
mach.
Krishnattam, Kerala
• Came into existence in the mid17th century A.D.
in
Calicut.
• Krishnattam is dance-drama presenting
the story of
Krishna in a cycle of eight plays performed for eight
consecutive
day
s.
Kaliamandana,
The plays are Avataram,
Rasa krida, kamasavadha,
Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham,
Vivida Vadham,
and
Swargarohana.
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Mudiyettu, Kerala
• Celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November-December).
• Usually performed only in the Kali temples of Kerala, as an oblation to
the
Goddess.
• It depicts the triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika.
• The seven characters in Mudiyettu-Shiva, Narada,Darika,
Danavendra, Bhadrakali, Kooli and Koimbidar (Nandikeshvara) are
all heavily made-up.
• In 2010, Mudiyettu was included in the UNESCO Intagible Cultural
Heritage
List.
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Theyyam, Kerala
• Word 'Theyyam' is derived from 'Daivam'
meaning God. Hence it is called God's
dance.
• Theyyam is performed by various castes
to appease and worship spirits of
ancestors, folk-
heores, deities of diseases etc.
• Distinguishing features is the colourful
costume and awe-inspiring headgears
(mudi) nearly 5 to 6 feet high made of
arecanut splices, bamboos, leaf sheaths
of arecanut and wooden planks and
dyed into different strong colours using
turmeric, wax and arac.
• Face is always painted in an orange
base-
colour.
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and
eye
and
theatr
e
Koodiyaattam / Kutiyattam, Kerala
• Based on Sanskrit theatre traditions.
• Characters of this theatre form are:
Chakyaar (actor), Naambiyaar
(instrumentalists) and Naangyaar (those
taking on women's roles). The
Sutradhar (narrator) and the Vidushak
(jesters) are the protagonists.
• Vidushak alone delivers the dialogues.
• Emphasison hand gestures
movements makes this
dance form unique.• Koodiyaattam was included in the
UNESCO Intagible Cultural Heritage
List as a Masterpieces of the Oral and
Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
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Yakshagaana, Karnataka
• Based on mythological stories and Puranas
• Most popular episodes are from the
Mahabharata
i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah,
Abhimanyu vadh, Karna-Arjun yuddh and
from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek, Lav-
kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva yuddha and
Panchavati.
Burrakatha
• A storytelling technique
Pradesh, Karnataka
and
used in villages of Andra
Tamil Nadu. The troupe
consists of one main performer and two
co-
performers.
• It is a narrative entertainment that consists of
prayers,
solo drama, dance, songs, poems and jokes.
• The topic will be either a Hindu mythological
story or a contemporary social problem.
• Harikatha, also known as Katha Kalakshepa, is a
variant which narrates tales of Lord Krishna,
other Gods and saints.
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Therukoothu, Tamil Nadu
• Literally means "street play". It is mostly
performed at the time of annual temple
festivals of Mariamman
(Rain goddess) to achieve rich harvest.
• There is a cycle of eight plays based on the life
of Draupadi.
RAMMAN, Uttarakhand
• Combining theatre, music, historical
reconstructions,
and traditional oral and written tales, the
Ramman is a multiform cultural event
• Celebrated every year in Baisakh month (april)
in the courtyard of the temple of Bhumiyal
Devta situated in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand.
• Mask dance performed exclusively by the
Bhandaris (Ksatriya caste).
• Included in the UNESCO Representative list of
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
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Pandavani
• Chattisgarh and in the neighboring tribal areas of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
• Musical narration of tales from the Mahabharata with one lead narrator-singer,
enacting and
singing with an ektara.
• No use of stage props or settings, it mainly relies on mimicry and rousing theatrical
movements. Sometimes the singer-narrator breaks into an impromptu dance, at the
completion of an episode or to celebrate a victory with the story being retold.
• During a performance, as the story builds, the tambura becomes a prop,
sometimes it becomes to personify a gada, mace of Arjun, or at times his bow or a
chariot, while others it becomes the hair of queen Draupadi or Dushshasan thus
helping the narrator-singer play all the characters of story.
• Teejan Bai is most renowned singer to this style.
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Khyal, Rajasthan
• Derived from khel (play), khyal probably took shape as a
musical
dance-drama in the early eighteenth century.
• Based on mythological, historical, or popular romantic tales,
emphasizing qualities of heroism, self-sacrifice, and nobility.
• Types of khyal are identified by the kind of stage used or the
musical
variations selected. In the Turra Kilangi khyal is performed on
an elaborately decorated stage, while the Kuchamani khyal is
simpler in presentation but has specific music and dance
steps.
• Highly improvisatory in nature, with loosely structured plots
and witty
dialogue, khayal requires an intimate audience–actor
relationship.
• Its primary attraction
is
its soulful singing, accompanied
bythe nakkara
dholak
and (both
percussion),
saran
gi
(bowe
dinstrument), and sometimes shehnai (wind instrument).
• Prompters with a copy of the dramatic text are always on the
stage. This is a convention that Khyal shares with Maach of
MP where they are known as pustakji.
• [Note: Not to be confused with 'Khayal' - a type of hindustani
classsical vocal rendition].
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Bhagat, Uttar Pradesh
• Mainly in Agra and Mathura.
• Considered as a parent form of Nautanki and is 400 yrs old.
• Initially consisted of dramatized devotionaal singing by devotees of the
Vaishnava
sect. Later tales of romance, valour and kings added.
• Religious rituals at the beginning and end provide a frame for the
performance. At the beginning an actor playing Ganesh dances on the
stage, who is then worshipped by the other actors.
• Language of the bhagat is a mix of Hindi, Urdu, Braj.
• Presented
during
Veedhi Natakam, Andhra Pradesh
the religious festivals in praise of
'Bhagavan'. Thus theperformances were called 'Bhagavathams'.
• Veedhi in Telugu means street; an open place. So Veedhi
Natakam is any
dramatic performance presented in a street.
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GENERIC FEATURES of TRADITIONAL THEATRE-FORMS
• Songs and the art of singing have an important role to play.
• There is a classical element in these theatre forms too, which takes on regional,
local and folk
coloring.
• There are certain conventions of presentations depending upon and changing
according to the form and size of the stage or the platform and other available
situations.
• There is no such thing as episodes. There is always continuity in its theme, structure
and
presentation.
• There is direct and intimate communication between the actors and the audience.
• Characters keep changing their place on the stage to be more impressive and to
give the situation a greater significance. This technique also reduces the chance of
boredom through repetition and stillness.
• Dialogue delivery is usually carried out in a high pitch. This helps the actors in
reaching out to a larger audience. The artists always add something or the other to
the original dialogue on their own. The changes brought through improvisations,
make the spectators ecstatic and help in building a rapport with the audience
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• Includes multiple varieties of folk, popular, pop, classical
music and R&B.
• India's classical music tradition, including Carnatic and
Hindustani music, has a history spanning millennia and
developed over several eras.
• It remains fundamental to the lives of Indians today as
sources of spiritual inspiration, cultural expression and
pure entertainment.
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Carnatic (South Indian) Music
 Of more recent origin
 Codified in medieval texts written by
musicologists, the influential ones among
whom studied in North India and thereafter
returned to South India to fashion Carnatic
music out of the prevalent regional musical
forms to be found in South India
 Composition based, mostly fixed
 A fairly quick tempo from the start, so lacks
the intensity, introspection, microtones and
several ornaments found in Hindustani
music
 Notes are not held for long and are mostly
quitted by a characteristic oscillation using
indeterminate pitch
 Constant and fairly fast tempo throughout
 No convention of time or season
 Percussion accompanist does not
enunciaterhythmic cycle clearly, so a second
percussionistand/or a timekeeper showing and/or clapping
out
beats (in which the audience joins) is
necessary
 Contrary to advocated argument, has
Muslim influences
Hindustani (North Indian) Music
 Continuity back to Vedic times (6,000 BC)
 Codified in a large number of
ancient and
medieval music treatises Developed independently of folk music, albeit
occasionally importing folk or regional
elements, metamorphosing them suitably
 Raga based, mostly improvised
 Capable of intense expression in very slow
speeds
 Vast range of ornaments, particularly during
slow
passages
 Subtle use of microtones in slow passages
 Steady, long-held notes, mostly approached
and/or
quitted by little ornamental phrases
 Gradual building up of tempo from very slow
to
very fast
 Convention of time and season
 Clear enunciation of rhythmic cycle by
percussion accompanist (in dominant
present day forms like Khayal, Sadra,
 True to Hindu traditions: so-called
―Persian
influences‖ fully integrated within its essential
and
Classical Music in India
Music of India
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Uttarakhandi folk music
• On subjects related to nature.
• Primarily related to the various festivals, religious traditions, folk stories and
simple life
of the people of Uttarakhand.
• Musical instruments include the dhol, damoun, turri, ransingha, dholki, daur,
thali, bhankora and masakbhaja. Tabla and harmonium are also used, but to
a lesser extent.
• The main languages are Kumaoni and Garhwali.
Lavani
• Lavani comes from the word Lavanya which means beauty.
• Originated in the arid region of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. It has in
fact
become a necessary part of the Maharashtrian folk dance performances.
• Traditionally, the songs are sung by female artistes, but male artistes may
occasionally sing Lavanis.
• The dance format associated with Lavani is known as Tamasha.
• Lavani is a combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly
performed to the enchanting beats of 'Dholak', a drum-like instrument.
• Women wears nine-yard saris. They sings in a quick tempo.
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Rajasthani
• Rajasthan has a very diverse cultural collection of musician castes, including Langas,
Sapera, Bhopa,
Jogi and Manganiyar (lit. the ones who ask/beg).
• Rajasthan Diary quotes it as a soulful, full-throated music with Harmonious diversity.
• The haunting melody of Rajasthanevokes from a variety of delightfully
primitive looking instruments.
• The stringed variety include the Sarangi, Rawanhattha, Kamayacha, Morsing and Ektara.
• Percussion instruments come in all shapes and sizes from the huge Nagaras and Dhols to
the tiny
Damrus.
• The Daf and Chang are a big favourite of Holi (the festival of colours) revellers. Flutes and
bagpipers come in local flavours such as Shehnai, Poongi, Algoza, Tarpi, Been and
Bankia.
Ganasangeet
• Eg: Apni Azadi Ko Hum Hargis Mita Sakte Nahin, ajadee hoyni tor, Kadam kadam
badhaye jaa,
Vande Mataram etc.
• Generally sung in chorus carrying some social message.
• The songs are usually about Freedom, community strength, patriotism.
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• Third millennium BC.
• On indus river bank.
• Walled cities for security.
• Rectangular grid pattern of layout with roads
cutting at right angles.
• Burnt mud-bricks as building material.
• Evidence of big building which perhaps
were public buildings, administrative or
business centres, pillared halls and
courtyards.
• No evidence of temples.
• Public buildings include granaries to store
grains.
• ‗Great Bath‘ - public bathing place shows
the importance of ritualistic bathing and
cleanliness in this culture. It is still
functional and there is no leakage or cracks
in the construction.
• Most of the houses had private wells and
bathrooms.
• Dominant citadal - treated as evidence of
some
kind of political authority ruling over the
cities.
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The Mauryan Period
• Ashoka, first Mauryan to "think in stone".
• Mostly indigenous in origin, some exotic forms show the
influence of Greek, Persian and Egyptian cultures.
• Beginning of the Buddhist School of architecture in India.
• Ashokan pillars were lofty free standing monolithic
columns erected on sacred sites. Originally there were
about thirty pillars but now only ten are in existence, of
which only two with lion capitals stand in situ in good
condition at Kolhua and Laurya Nandangarh
respectively.
• Sarnath pillar - finest pieces of sculpture of the Ashokan
period.
• The Chinese traveller Fa-hien was so impressed by
Ashoka‘s palace near Patna that he stated that "it was
made by spirits" and that its carvings are so elegantly
executed "which no human hands of this world could
accomplish".
• Its existence was pointed out during the excavations at
Kumrahar, near Patna, where its ashes have been found
preserved for several thousand years.
• Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador of Selucas Nikator
who visited the Mauryan court described Chandragupta
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THE STUPAS
• SANCHI STUPAS:
 hemispherical in shape with a low base.
 symbolized the cosmic mountain.
 inscription by the ivory carvers of Vidisha on the
southern gateway throws light on the transference of
building material from perishable wood and ivory to
the more durable stone.
• AMARAVATI STUPA:
 built in 2nd or 1st century BC was probably like the
one at
Sanchi
 but in later centuries it was transformed from a
Hinayana shrine to a Mahayana shrine.
• GANDHARA STUPA:
 further development of stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut.
 the base, dome and the hemisphere dome are
sculpted.
 stupas of Nagarjunakonda in Krishna valley were
very large.
 Maha Chaitya of Nagarjunakonda has a base in the
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The Gandhara School Of Art (50 B.C. TO 500 A.D.):
• From Punjab to the borders of Afghanistan was an
important
centre of Mahayana Buddhism up to the 5th century
A.D.
• Imbibed all kinds of foreign influences like Persian,
Greek, Roman, Saka and Kushan.
• Origin can be traced to the Greek rulers of Bactria and
Northwest India.
• During the reign of Kanishka that the art received
great
patronage.
• Also known as the Graeco- Buddhist School of Art since
Greek techniques of Art were applied to Buddhist
subjects.
• Most important contribution- evolution of beautiful
images of the Buddha and Bodhisattavas, which were
executed in black stone and modelled on identical
characters of Graeco-Roman pantheon.
• ―Gandhara artist had the hand of a Greek but the heart
of an
Indian."
• Most characteristic trait - depiction of Lord Buddha in the
standing or seated positions.
• Seated Buddha is always shown cross-legged in the
traditional Indian way.
• Typical feature - rich carving, elaborate ornamentation
and complex symbolism.
(Afghanistan) - 3-4 century
AD.
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The Mathura School Of Art( 50 B.C. - 500 A.D.):
• At the holy city of Mathura between 1-3 A.D.
• Established tradition of transforming
Buddhistsymbols into human
form.
Mathura School of
Art.
• Buddha‘s first image can be traced to Kanishka‘s
reign
(about 78 A.D.).
• Earliest sculptures of Buddha were made
keeping the
yaksha prototype in mind.
• Strongly built - right hand raised in protection
and left hand on the waist.
• The figures do not have moustaches and beards
as in
the Gandhara Art.
• Seated figures are in the padmasana posture.
• Not only produced beautiful images of the
Buddha but also of the Jain Tirthankaras and
gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon.
• Although of indigenous origin, but greatly
influenced
by the Gandhara School of Art.
• Guptas adopted, further improvised & perfected
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The Amravati school of art
(200 b.C. - 200 a.D.):
• On the banks of the Krishna River
in modern Andhra Pradesh.
• Largest Buddhist stupa of South
India.
• Construction began in 200
B.C. and
was completed in 200 A.D.
• Stupendous stupa could not
withstand
the ravages of time
• Its ruins are preserved in the
London Museum.
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Indian Architecture
Mughal Architecture
• Mughal architecture is the architectural style developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and
18th centuries throughout the extent of their empire in the Indian subcontinent.
• It was an amalgam of Islamic, Persian, and Indian architecture The Mughal Emperors gave a new direction
and impetus to architecture. Examples of the style can be found in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and
Bangladesh.
• The Mughal dynasty was established after the victory of Babur at Panipat in 1526. During his five- year
reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few of which have survived.
• His grandson Akbar built widely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. Among his
accomplishments were a tomb for his father Humayun, the Agra Fort, and the fort-city of Fatehpur Sikri.
Akbar's son Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir.
• Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, who constructed the Jama Masjid,
the Red Fort, the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, and the most famous Mughal monument, the Taj Mahal, as
well as many other fine examples of the style.
• While Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb commissioned some buildings such as the Badshahi Mosque in
Lahore, his reign corresponded with the decline of Mughal architecture and the Empire itself.
• Under Jahangir the Hindu features vanished from the style; his great mosque at Lahore is in the Persian
style, covered with enameled tiles. At Agra, the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula, which was completed in 1628,
was built entirely of white marble and covered in pietra dura mosaic.
• Jahangir also built the Shalimar Gardens and Nishat Bagh, and their accompanying pavilions on the shore
of Dal Lake in Kashmir. He also built a monument to his pet deer, Hiran Minar in Sheikhupura, Pakistan
and due to his great love for his wife, after his death she went on to build his mausoleum in Lahore.
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Indian Architecture
Mughal Architecture
Shah Jahan
• Rather than building huge monuments like his
predecessors, Shah Jahan built elegant monuments.
• The force and originality of their building style gave
way under Shah Jahan to a delicate elegance and
refinement of detail, illustrated in the palaces erected
in his reign at Agra and Delhi.
• The Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in the Agra Fort and
The Jama Masjid at Delhi are imposing buildings, and
their position and architecture have been carefully
considered so as to produce a pleasing effect and
feeling of spacious elegance and well-balanced
proportion of parts.
• Shah Jahan also built the Tomb of Jahangir and
sections of the Lahore Fort that include the Moti
Masjid, Sheesh Mahal, and Naulakha pavilion which
are all enclosed in the fort.
• He also built a mosque named after himself in
Thatta called Shahjahan Mosque.
• Another mosque was built during his tenure in Lahore
called Wazir Khan Mosque, by Shaikh Ilm- ud-din
Ansari who was the court physician to the emperor.
Taj Mahal
• The Taj Mahal, the "teardrop on the cheek of eternity"
(Rabindranath Tagore), was completed in 1648 by the
emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz
Mahal.
• Its longest plane of symmetry runs through the entire
complex except for the sarcophagus of Shah Jahan,
which is placed off centre in the crypt room below the
main floor.
• This symmetry extended to the building of an entire
mirror mosque in red sandstone, to complement the
Mecca-facing mosque place to the west of the main
structure.
• The Taj Mahal (1630–1648) in Agra, India and the
Shalimar Garden (1641–1642) in Lahore, Pakistan, are
two sites which are on the world heritage list of
UNESCO.
• The Taj is considered to be one of the most beautiful
monuments of the world and was included in the New
Seven Wonders of the World list

Indian Architecture
Mughal Architecture
Aurangzeb and later Mughal architecture
• In Aurangzeb's reign (1658–1707) squared stone and marble was replaced by brick or rubble with stucco
ornament.
• Srirangapatna and Lucknow have examples of later Indo-Muslim architecture.
• He made additions to the Lahore Fort and also built one of the thirteen gates which was later named after him
(Alamgir).
• Aurangzeb also built the Badshahi Mosque which was constructed in 1674 under the supervision of Fida'i Koka.
This mosque is adjacent to the Lahore Fort and is the last in the series of congregational mosques in red
sandstone and is closely modeled on the one Shah Jahan built at Shahjahanabad.
• The red sandstone of the walls contrasts with the white marble of the domes and the subtle intarsia
decoration.
• Additional monuments from this period are associated with women from Aurangzeb's imperial family.
• The construction of the elegant Zinat al-Masjid in Daryaganij was overseen by Aurangzeb's second daughter
Zinat-al-Nisa.
• The tomb of Aurangzeb's sister Roshan-Ara, who died in 1671, and the garden surrounding it were neglected for
a long time and are now in an advanced state of decay.
• Bibi Ka Maqbara was a mausoleum built by Prince Azam Shah, son of Emperor Aurangzeb, in the late
17th century as a loving tribute to his mother, Dilras Bano Begam in Aurangabad, Maharashtra.
• The Alamgiri Gate, built in 1673 A.D., is the main entrance to the Lahore Fort in present day Lahore. It was
constructed to face west towards the Badshahi Mosque in the days of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
• Another construction of Mughal era is the Lalbagh Fort (also known as "Fort Aurangabad"), a Mughal palace
fortress at the Buriganga River in the southwestern part of Dhaka, Bangladesh, whose construction started in
1678 during the reign of Aurangzeb.
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Indian Architecture
Mughal Architecture
Mughal gardens
Mughal gardens are a group of gardens built by the Mughals in the Islamic style of
architecture. This style was influenced by Persian gardens and Timurid gardens.
Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the
walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and canals
inside the gardens. The famous gardens are the Char Bagh gardens
at Taj Mahal, Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, Delhi and Kashmir as well as Pinjore
Garden in Haryana.
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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
• India's Hindu temple architecture is developed from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis,
both of
whom belong to the larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma
(caste).
• A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, the garbha graha or womb-chamber, in
which the idol or deity is housed, often called circumambulation, a congregation hall, and
sometimes an antechamber and porch. The garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like
shikara.
• All the Hindu temples in India follows the architecture defined in Shilpa Shastras.
• However, there are artistic variations in terms of construction of shikara depending on
regional culture
VIMANA garbha-
griha
SHIKHARA
MANDAPA
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History of Temple Architecture
(the inner space).
• Representation of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the microcosm
• The Ashtadhyayi of Panini, the great grammarian of the 5th century BCE
speaks of images that were used in Hindu temple worship. The ordinary
images were called pratikriti and the images for worship were called archa.
the Ashtadhyayi, tells us more about the images.
an image in the shape of Purusha which was placed within the altar.
• Patanjali, the 2nd-century BCE author of the Mahabhashya commentary on
• Deity images for sale were called Shivaka etc., but an archa of Shiva was
just called Shiva. Patanjali mentions Shiva and Skanda deities.
• There is also mention of the worship of Vasudeva (Krishna).
• Some images could be moved and some were immoveable.
• Panini also says that an archa was not to be sold and that there were
people (priests) who obtained their livelihood by taking care of it.
• Panini and Patanjali mention temples which were called prasadas.
• The earlier Shatapatha Brahmana of the period of the Vedas, informs us of
• The Vedic books describe the plan of the temple to be square. This plan is
divided into 64 or 81 smaller squares, where each of these represent a
specific divinity.
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Nagara architecture
• Nagara temples have two distinct features :
 In plan, the temple is a square with a number of graduated
projections in the middle of each side giving a cruciform shape with
a number of re- entrant angles on each side.
 In elevation, a Sikhara, i.e., tower gradually inclines inwards in a
convex
curve.
• The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the
Sikhara
and, thus, there is strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation.
• Style is widely distributed over a greater part of India, exhibiting
distinct varieties and ramifications in lines of evolution and
elaboration according to each locality.
• An example of Nagara architecture is the Kandariya Mahadeva
Temple.
(detailed image on next page).
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Dravidian architecture
• Four following parts, differing only according to the age in which they were executed:
 The principal part, the temple itself, is called the Vimana (or Vimanam). It is always
square in plan and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories; it contains
the cell where the image of the god or his emblem is placed.
 The porches or Mandapas (or Mantapams), which always cover and precede the door
leading to
the cell.
 Gate-pyramids, Gopurams, which are the principal features in the quadrangular
enclosures that surround the more notable temples.
 Pillared halls or Chaultris—properly Chawadis -- used for various purposes, and which
are the
invariable accompaniments of these temples.
• Contains temple tanks or wells for water (used for sacred purposes or the convenience of
the priests), dwellings for all grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other
buildings for state or convenience.
Structure of a typical
Drvaidan viman
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Badami Chalukya architecture
• Originated during 450 CE in Aihole and perfected in Pattadakal and Badami.
• Between 500 and 757 CE, Badami Chalukyas established the foundations
of cave temple architecture, on the banks of the Malaprabha River. Those
styles mainly include Aihole, Pattadakal and Badami.
• Built out of sandstone cut into enormous blocks from the outcrops in the
chains of the Kaladgi hills.
• At Badami, Chalukyas carved some of the finest cave temples. Mahakuta,
the large
trees under which the shrine nestles.
• In Aihole, known as the "Cradle of Indian architecture," there are over 150
temples
scattered around the village.
• Pattadakal is a (World Heritage Site), where one finds the Virupaksha
temple; it is the biggest temple, having carved scenes from the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata. Other temples at Pattadakal are Mallikarjuna,
Kashivishwanatha, Galaganatha and Papanath.
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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF
INDIA
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Gadag Architecture style
• Also called Western Chalukya architecture.
• Flourished for 150 years (1050 to 1200 CE); in this period, about 50 temples were built.
• Some examples are the Saraswati temple in the Trikuteshwara temple complex at
Gadag, the Doddabasappa Temple at Dambal, the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi,
and the Amriteshwara temple at Annigeri. which is marked by ornate pillars with intricate
sculpture.
• This style originated during the period of the Kalyani Chalukyas (also known as Western
Chalukya) Someswara I.
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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF
INDIA
Kalinga architecture style
• The design which flourished in eastern Indian state of Odisha
and Northern Andhra Pradesh are called Kalinga style of
architecture.
• The style consists of three distinct type of temples namely
Rekha
Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula.
• Deula means "temple" in the local language. The former two
are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temple while the
third is mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples.
• The Rekha deula and Khakhara deula houses the sanctum
sanctorum while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer dancing and
offering halls.
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Māru-Gurjara temple architecture
• Originated somewhere in 6th century in and around areas of Rajasthan.
• Shows the deep understanding of structures and refined skills of Rajasthani craftmen
of bygone era.
• Has two prominent styles: Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara.
• Scholars believe that Māru-Gurjara temple architecture is entirely Western Indian
architecture and is quite different from the North Indian temple architecture.
• This further shows the cultural and ethnic separation of Rajasthanis from north Indian
culture.
• There is a connecting link between Māru-Gurjara architecture and Hoysala temple
architecture.
In both of these styles architecture is treated sculpturally.
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• Located
near
village of Ajintha in
Aurangaba
d.• Discovered
by
the British officers
whilehunting a tiger in 1819
AD.• 30 cave temples at Ajanta are set into
the rocky sides of a crescent shaped
gorge in the Inhyadri hills of the
Sahyadri ranges.• 5 caves are Chaitya-grihas, &
rest areViharas(monasteri
es).• Caves were constructed in two phases,
first group around 200 BC and second
group around 600 AD.
• Depicts a large number of incidents
from
the life of the Buddha (Jataka Tales).
CAVE ARCHITECTURE OF
INDIA
AJANTA CAVES
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INDIA
ELLORA CAVES(5th -13th Cen AD)
• Located in Aurangabad city.
• 3 major religion of india- Hinduism, Buddhism & Jainism.
• Buddhist Caves:
Built around 5th-7th century AD
Cave 10 is famous and known as Carpenter‘s Cave or
Vishvakarma Cave with a 3.3m high seated Buddha at the far
end.
Cave 11 has the images of Durga and Ganesh also a Buddha
shrine, it is belived that it was converted in to hindu temple
after being deserted by buddhist.
• Hindu Caves:
6th and 8th century AD.
Cave 16 also known as Kailasa Temple which is a multi
storeyed temple carved out of a single rock, built by
Rashtrakuta emperor Krishna I.
• Jain Caves:
Belongs to Digambara faction.
Total 5 caves.
Most notable are cave 30 (Chotta Kailash), cave 32 (Indra
Indian Architecture
Sabha), and cave 33 (Jagannath Sabha).
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• Network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta
Island,or Gharapuri (literally "the city of caves") in Mumbai Harbour.
• The island, located on an arm of the Arabian Sea, consists of two
groups of caves—the first is a large group of five Hindu caves, the
second, a smaller group of two Buddhist caves.
• The Hindu caves contain rock cut stone sculptures, representing
the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.
• Dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries, although the identity
of the original builders is still a subject of debate.
• Hewn from solid basalt rock. All the caves were also originally
painted in
the past, but now only traces remain.
• The island was called Gharapuri and was a Hindu place of worship
until Portuguese rule began in 1534.
• The Portuguese called the island Elephanta on seeing its huge
gigantic statue of an Elephant at the entrance. The Statue is now
placed in the garden outside the Bhau Daji Lad Museum at
Byculla in Mumbai.
• This cave was renovated in the 1970s after years of neglect, and
was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 to
preserve the artwork. It is currently maintained by the
Archaeological Survey of India.
INDIA
ELEPHANTA CAVES
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INDIA
BHIMBETAKA CAVES
• Located near Bhopal in the Raisen District -
Madhya Pradesh.
• First referred in the archeological records in 1888 AD
as Buddhist site. Later discovered by Dr Vishnu
Wakankar in 1957-58.
• More than 700 shelters. Bhimbetka group
(243) & Lakha Juar group (178).
• Rock paintings can be traced back to the Stone Age
era, closely 30000 years old.
• Excavations revealed history of continuous habitation
from early stone age (about 10000 years) to the end
of stone age (c. 10,000 to 2,000 years).
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Vedic Literature
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Vedas
• The earliest known literature in India.
• The Vedas were written in Sanskrit.
• In the Vedic Period, the text transmission happed by oral tradition.
• In post Vedic period the text were captured in the written format.
• The word „Veda‟ literally means knowledge.
• In Hindu culture, Vedas are considered as eternal and divine revelations.
• They treat the whole world as one human family Vasudev Kutumbakam.
• There are four Vedas, namely, the- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda.
• Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas.
• The Rig Veda, Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda are collectively known an Traji.
• In later years the Atharava Veda was incorporated in this group.
RIG VEDA
SAMA
VEDA
YAJUR VEDA
ATHARVA VEDA
TRA
JI
Four
Vedas
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Praise of GODS
Origin of Music-Sabda
Brahma Nad Brahma
Vedas of Worship
branches ofVarious
Science, Ayurved,
includingeconomics
Vedic Math
RIG
VEDA
YAJUR
VEDA
SAM VEDA
ATHARVA VEDA
Vedas
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Rigveda
• Oldest of all Vedas.
• It is believed that these recitations are
the natural outpouring of Vedic rishis
experiencing a mentally transcendental
stage.
• Some of the well-known rishis are
Vasistha, Gautama, Gritasamada,
Vamadeva, Vishvamitra and Atri.
• Contains 1028 hymns or mantras.
• The hymns of each mandala are called
as suktas, intended for various sacrificial
rituals.
• Structured in 10 books, known as
Mandalas, compiled at different time
periods between 1700-1100 BC.
• Contains the Sanskrit hymns about the
origin of the world, praise of the gods,
prayers for life, prosperity in the form of
poetry.
• The Gayatri Mantra, the highly valued
universal prayer is a hymn of Mandala 3
of the Rigveda.
Yajurveda
• One of the most important Vedas, is
considered to be composed between 1000
and 600 BC
• Yajur means sacrifice or worship.
• Concerned mostly with rites and mantras of
different sacrifices. It gives directions for
the performance of the yajnas.
• It has both poetic and prose renderings.
• Being a treatise on rituals, it is the most
popular of the four Vedas.
• Shukla (white) and Krishna (black) are the
two main versions of the Yajurveda.
• The Krishna Yajurveda has four branches
(Shakas)
1.Taittiriya Shaka
2.Maitrayani Shaka
3.Caraka-Katha Shaka
4.Kapisthala-Katha Shaka
• Shukla Yajurveda has two branches
1.Vajasaneyi Madhyandina
Vedas
Vedic Literature
2.Vajasaneyi Kanva
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Samaveda
• Sama means melody or songs.
• It has 1549 stanzas and is taken almost entirely from Rigveda except few stanzas
• Sama Veda prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig Veda.
• Also called as the book of Chants (Saman).
• This book is an evidence of the development of Indian music during this period.
Artharvaveda
• Also known as the Brahma Veda
• The Artharvaveda is text belong to the poets Atharvan and Angirasa.
• It has total 760 hymns and some hymns are in common with the Rigveda.
• It contains treatment for ninety-nine diseases.
• It has two branches, the Paippalada and the Saunaka.
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• Prasthatrayi refers to three holy books.
• They form the Scriptural Trinity of the Sanatan Dharma or the Hinduism.
• If ever a controversy arises on any philosophical issue in Hinduism, the interpretation of the
Prasthantrayi is final and binding.
• If there is a difference in the statements of the Prasthantryi and any other book of
Hinduism, the former is considered supreme.
• Generally the fundamental philosophy pronounced in the Prasthantrayi is referred to as
the Vedanta
The Upanishads
The Brahma-Sutra
The Bhagvad Gita
Vedanta
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Upanishads
• The Upanishads are a continuation of the Vedic philosophy,
and were written between 800 and 400
B.C. They elaborate on how the soul (Atman) can be united
with the ultimate truth (Brahman) through contemplation and
mediation, as well as the doctrine of Karma-- the cumulative
effects of a persons' actions
• The word Upanishad consists of three parts:
 Upa (near),
 Ni (down), and
 Shad (sit).
• 'sitting near a teacher and receiving the secret
teachings.'
• The Upanishads more clearly set forth the prime Vedic
doctrines like Self-realization, yoga and meditation, karma
and reincarnation, which were hidden or kept veiled under
the symbols of the older mystery religion.
• The Upanishads became prevalent some centuries
before the time of Krishna and Buddha
• Upanishad means Brahma-knowledge by which
ignorance is loosened or destroyed.
Vedanta
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and logical order.
Sutra, Shariraka Sutra and the Bhikshu Sutra.
each chapter being divided into 4 sections each.
• Teachings of Vedanta are set forth in a systematic
• Also known as Vedanta Sutra, Uttara-
mimamsa
• Consists of 555 aphorisms or sutras, in 4 chapters,
• The first chapter (Samanvaya: harmony) explainsthat all the Vedantic texts talk of Brahman, the
ultimate reality, which is the goal of life.
• The second chapter (Avirodha: non-conflict)
discusses and refutes the possible objections against
Vedanta philosophy.
• The third chapter (Sadhana: the means) describes
the process by which ultimate emancipation can
be achieved.
that is achieved in final emancipation.
• The fourth chapter (Phala: the fruit) talks of the state
• Indian tradition identifies Badrayana, the author of
the Brahma Sutra, with Vyasa, the compiler of the
Vedas.
Vedanta
The Brahma-Sutra
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Bhagavad Gita
• Part of the Sanskrit epic
Mahabhaarata (200 BC to 200 AD).
• 700 verses in 18 chapters.
• A conversation between Lord
Krishna and his close friend Arjuna in
the middle of the battle field just
before the start of the Kurushetra
battle.
• Arjuna loses his heart and refuses to
fight his eachers and relatives, and
Krishna revives him by his wise words
of wisdom.
• Presents a synthesis of the
Brahmanical concept of Dharma,
theistic bhakti, the yogic ideals of
liberation hrough jnana, and
Samkhya philosophy.
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Puranas
• The Puranas are post-Vedic texts which typically contain a complete narrative of the history
of the Universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of the kings, heroes and
demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology and geography.
• There are 18 canonical Puranas, divided into three categories, each named after a deity:
Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. There are also many other works termed Purana, known as
'Upapuranas.'
• Some of the well known Puranas are Brahma, Bhagvat, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu, Agni, Matsya
and Garuda.
• The Puranas follow the lines of the epics, and the earliest Puranas were compiled in
the Gupta period.
• They are full of myths, stories, legends and sermons that were meant for the
education of the common people.
• These Puranas contain important geographical information/ histories and deal with the
mysteries of creation, re-creation and dynastic genealogies.
• This period also saw the compilation of various smritis or law books written in verse.
• The phase of writing commentaries on the smritis begins after the Gupta period.
• Amarasimha the Sanskrit Lexicographer, states that a Purana should describe five topics;
(1) Sarga (Creation) (2) Pratisarga (Secondary creation) (3) Vemsa (Geneology) (4)
Manvantara (Manu periods) and (5) Vamsanucarita (dynastic history)
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Ramayana
• The Ramayana is one of the great Hindu epics.
• It is ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and forms
an important part of the Hindu literature (smṛti).
• It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying
ideal characters like the ideal father, ideal
servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife and the
ideal king.
• The name Ramayana
i
s
a tatpurusha compound
of Rāma and ayana ("going, advancing"),
translating to "Rama's Journey".
• Consists of 24,000 verses in seven books
(kāṇḍas) and 500 cantos (sargas).
• Tells the story of Rama (an avatar of the Hindu
Supreme-GodVishnu), whose wife Sita is
abducted by the king of Ravan. Thematically, the
Ramayana explores human values and
Itihasa
Vedic Literature
the concept of dharma. 122
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Itihasa
Mahabharata
• The Mahabharata is a more complex work which
covers almost every aspect of life and living.
• It is the longest existing epic consisting of 1,20,000 shlokas.
• Said to be the story of an ancient battle between
two branches of a family, the Bharatas.
• Said to be composed around 400 B.C.
• Also known as Jaya or victory, the Mahabharata is said to
have been composed by the great sage Vyasa, the compiler
of the Vedas.
• Vyasa taught the Mahabharata to his son Suka.
• It is said Narada taught it to the gods or devas while Suka
taught it to the gandharvas, the rakshasas and the yakshas.
• Vaisampayana, one of Vyasa‟s chief disciples, narrated the
story at a great sacrifice conducted by Janamejaya, the
descendent of the Pandavas and it spread further.
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Vedic Literature
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Mahabharata
• It is in the form of a dialogue between King
Dhritarashtra and Sanjaya his advisor and
chariot driver.
• Sanjaya narrates each incident of the
Kurukshetra War, fought in 18 days, as and
when it happened.
• Dhritarashtra sometimes asks questions and
laments the destruction caused by the war,
to his sons, friends and kinsmen. He also
feels guilty, because he was partly
responsible.
• Sanjaya begins with a description of the
earth, the other planets, and gives an
elaborate list of the kingdoms, tribes,
provinces, cities, towns, villages, rivers,
mountains, forests, etc. of Bharatavarsha.
• He also explains the military formations
adopted on each day, the death of each hero
and the details of each battle.
Itihasa
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Vedic Literature
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• After the four Vedas, a number of works called the Brahmanas were developed.
• It gives detailed explanation of Vedic rituals and instructions and deal with the science of
sacrifice.
• Aranyakas are the latter portions of the Brahmanas.
• The final parts of the Aranyakas are philosophic books named Upanishads.
• Each of the four Vedas have their own Brahmana books.
• Provides detailed information of the social, political and religious life of the people.
• The Arayankas deal with soul, birth and death and life beyond it.
• These were studied and taught by men in Vanprastha i.e. Munis and the inhabitants living inside the
forests.
• All these works were in Sanskrit. Initially they were handed down orally and were put to writing
much later.
VEDA ARANYAKA BRAHMANA
RIG Aitereya, Kousitaki Aiterya, Kousitaki
YAJUR Taittiriya, Brhad Aranyaka,
Maitr Ayania
Taittiriya, Kanva Satapatha, Madhyandin Satpatha
SAMA TalvakAra, PancavimSa, VamSa, Arseya,
SadvimSa, ChAndoghya, Mantra, Daivata,
Jaiminiya, Samavidhana, Samhitopanishad
ATHARVA Gopatha
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Brahmanas and Aranyakas
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• Written by Panini ,a famous Sanskrit grammarian from
Pushkalavati, Gandhara of ancient Indian.
• He is mostly famous for his Sanskrit grammar Ashtadhyayi.
• He formulated 3,959 rules of
Sanskrit morphology, syntax and semantics in the grammar.
• The Ashtadhyayi is the initial text of the grammatical branch of the
Vedanga.
• It is one of the most important auxiliary academic texts of Vedic
Ashtadhyayi
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• Writeen by Megasthenes, a Greek traveler,
historian, diplomat, geographer and author.
• He visited India at the time of Mauryan Empire in 304
BC.
• Considered as the first foreigner Ambassador to
India. He stayed in India for a long time.
• The hellenistic king Seleucus I sent him to India as
an ambassador to the court of King Chandragupta
Maurya of Mauryan Empire.
• His famous work Indica is the first Western well
known account of India.
• Provides detail account of the social, political and
economic life of India to the Greek world which was
the source to work by the later historian like
Diodorus, Strabo.
• He mentioned about the culture, history and religion
of India. In his work he also described a caste
system.
• He referred about Himalayas and the island of Sri
Lanka
Indica
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• Written by Saint Manu.
• It is believed that Manu was the ancient
teacher of sacred rites and laws.
• He was a religious practitioner and a
scholar in astrology.
• Also known as the Manu-Smriti or Manava-
Dharmasastra
• It is a famous Sanskrit text about code of
law and Dharmasastra textual of Hinduism.
• Talks about the principles, morals, duties
and schedules that a person should follow
in its life.
• Has total 12 Chapters and 2685 Shlokas
(verses).
• It formed the root of Hindu law.
• Considered as one of the oldest important texts
during the time of 200 BC and 200 AD.
• According to Hindu ritual, the Manu Smriti
records the words of Brahma.
Manu Samhita
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• Written by Kautilya/ Chanakya who was the Prime
Minister of Chandragupta Maurya.
• It describes the art of running a kingdom: how to
appoint ministers, officials, and judges; how to collect
and keep revenues; how to wage war; how to
manipulate and/or make treaties with neighboring kings.
• Its pragmatic “the-ends-justify-the-means”
suggestions have often been compared to the 16th-
century writings of the Italian political philosopher
Niccolò Machiavelli.
• The book explained in detail how a king in financial
need might “replenish” his treasury: by taking more
grain from farmers and more gold from traders or (this
with several variations) by proclaiming a tree, a shrub, a
house the site of a spectacular miracle and then living
on the donations given by believers.
• In addition to all this, the book also included lists of
magical potions and spells to be used against enemies
or in case of a revolt.
Arthashastr
a
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• Written between 400 BCE and 200 CE on human
sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature by
Vātsyāyana.
• A portion of the work consists of practical
advice on sexual intercourse.
• It is largely in prose, with many inserted anustubh
poetry verses.
• "Kāma" which is one of the four goals of Hindu life,
means sensual or sexual pleasure, and "sūtra"
literally means a thread or line that holds things
together, and more metaphorically refers to an
aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or a collection of
such aphorisms in the form of a manual.
• Contrary to popular perception, especially in the
western world, Kama sutra is not just an exclusive
sex manual; it presents itself as a guide to a
virtuous and gracious living that discusses the
nature of love, family life and other aspects
pertaining to pleasure oriented faculties of human
life.
• The Kama Sutra is the oldest and most notable of a
group of texts known generically as Kama
Shastra.
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Famous kamasutra scenes
on the wall of hindu temple
in Khajuraho,India
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Kamasutra

Religions in
India
Hinduism
• The Hindu religion, exactly like the country of its birth, is unique.
• Where Christians have the Bible and the Muslims their Koran, Hindus can pick
from a whole range: the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagwad Gita, the
Mahabharata or the Ramayana.
Major Hindus Deities
• Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati, Durga, Rama,
Hanuman, Krishna or Ganesha are some of the most popular deities.
• You may worship any of them or just concentrate on the Supreme Spirit
which is believed to be enshrined in every person.
• Some Hindus begin the day with a visit to the neighborhood temple; others
adhere to fasts and rituals. While some go on pilgrimages and bathe in holy
rivers; still others declare all rituals redundant.
• Hinduism thrives and revels in all its contradictions. Within its elastic structure,
it allows great flexibility and is much more tolerant than any other religion of
the world.
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Religions in
India
Hinduism
Atman
Though casually described as the self, atman is actually the eternal within us. You could call it the spirit or
soul that is enshrined in every human being. When an individual attains moksha, his atman is believed to
merge with the divine or the universal consciousness.
Dharma
Derived from the Sanskrit root dhara (to bear, to support, to maintain), dharma literally means `that which is
established by law, duty or custom'. When used in the context of Hinduism, it implies an order of values
which links the individual to the social and the cosmic. Hindus believe that each act bears certain
consequences in individual, social, ethical and cosmic terms. A dharmic act, therefore, is one that brings
positive results.
Four Ashrams
The four ashrams or stages of life prescribed for a Hindu presume that a person will live to a good 100
years. The first 25 years are set aside for learning, the next for life as a householder, then comes the quarter
dedicated to self-control and abstinence and the last quarter involves renunciation or withdrawal from the
world.
Karma
Actions or deeds performed by an individual in a lifetime. In fact, karma is believed to accrue from past
births. Moksha simply cannot be attained till one has neither good nor bad deeds to one's credit.
Concepts and Beliefs
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Religions in
India
Hinduism
Mantra
A sacred syllable or ritual incantation which is believed to have the power to convert word into reality, like
the root mantra Om which is supposed to be the sound of the vibration of the world when it was being
created.
Maya
Generally the illusion that this tangible world is the real world and success herein the ultimate goal of life.
According to Hinduism the real world is the world of the soul, not of the body and the senses.
Moksha
Final release or liberation of a soul from the endless cycle of death and rebirth.
Samadhi
The internal ecstasy attained through meditation by a yogi (someone who has renounced the world to lead a
life of meditation). This is usually the final stage of ecstasy when the soul transcends the human body to
merge with the cosmos.
Samsara
The endless cycle of death and rebirth which believes that a soul is reincarnated till it has evolved enough
to attain moksha.
Samskaras
A Hindu is expected to perform certain rituals throughout this life from the moment of conception of life to
death. Numbering to about 40, these samskaras include a child's naming ceremony,
marriage and the funeral rites performed by the off-spring of the dead.
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Religions in
India
Hinduism
Tantra
Religious texts that describe an esoteric path to enlightenment. However, tantra is usually
understood as a term with negative connotations. In this context it refers to sorcerous
practices that centre around the cult of the goddess and may involve sexual orgies.
Yantra
A symbolic diagram used as an aid to meditation usually associated to tantra. A
condensed symbol of the cosmos; abstract lines, shapes and colors go into the
making of a yantra.
Yoga
Yoga can broadly be described as the method of attaining the ultimate
goal (liberation of soul from the body) by mastering the body, the senses and the mind
through physical exercises and meditation. (see Yoga under Healing Systems of India)
Sadhus, the Wandering Hermits
A sight peculiar to India and Hinduism is that of saffron-clad hermits with matted locks
who often travel from one holy place to another with scarcely a possession in the world.
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Religions in
India
Hinduism
Brahma
Brahma is the first of the powerful Hindu Trinity of Creator-Preserver-Destroyer. The creator of
life, he said to be Prajapati, the creator of the Vedas . He is often depicted as a wise old
bearded man standing on a lotus, which has led to his being referred to as one 'born of a
lotus'.
Saraswati
The goddess of learning and wisdom, Saraswati is the consort of Brahma. She is
believed to have invented the Sanskrit language and is the patroness of the arts and
sciences. Floating on a lotus, she is often shown playing the veena (a stringed musical
instrument).
Vishnu or Narayana
One of the three most powerful Hindu gods, Vishnu is the second of the Trinity of
Creator-Preserver-Destroyer. When Vishnu is asleep on the coils of Ananta (the many-
headed snake), the universe is in a state of dissolution. When he wakes up, the universe
evolves. The cycle goes on thus., and it goes on forever. Periodically, Vishnu descends to
earth to protect truth and virtue and to destroy evil. His earlier avatars (incarnations) were in
animal forms. In his seventh, eighth and ninth incarnations, Vishnu appeared as Rama,
Krishna and Buddha respectively.
Gods & Goddesses
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Religions in
India
Hinduism
Lakshm
iVishnu's consort, Lakshmi, is the Goddess of wealth, plenty and prosperity. Bedecked with
jewellery, she is shown sitting on a lotus. When Vishnu appeared on earth in the form of
Rama, she faithfully followed as his wife Sita. In Vishnu's avatar as Krishna, she became both
Radha and Rukmini.
Shiva
Shiva, the most-feared of the Hindu gods, has the aspect of an ascetic and is the
destroyer in the great Trinity. He has many roles to play. He is the Great Yogi meditating on
Mount Kailasa (in the Himalyas). He is Nataraja (Lord of Dance), creating and destroying. He
is Bhooteshwar, the lord of wandering spirits and lost souls. He is Pashupatinath, the lord and
protector of all animal life. In another aspect he is the seed of life and his phallic symbol is
worshipped in many temples. The cobra, the bull Nandi, the trishul (trident) and the linga
(phallus) are all symbols of Shiva.
Shakti
Shiva's spouse is Shakti (Energy) in the forms of Uma, Parvati and Durga. While Shiva
stays aloof meditating on Mount Kailash, his power to act is embodied the form of the
goddess or Devi. In her beneficent form she is Parvati, while in her terrifying form she appears
as Kali. The cult of Shakti worship is especially strong in North India and in the
Gods & Goddesses
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Religions in
India
Hinduism
Ganesha
The elephant-headed god, son of Shiva and Parvati, is known for his wisdom and brings
prosperity. His birthday is considered the most auspicious day of the year and Hindus always
invoke his name before beginning any new enterprise.
Rama
Vishnu in his avatar as Rama is referred to as Purshottam, the perfect man whose each act is
governed by dharma. The purpose of the incarnation was to rid mankind of the menace of the
powerful, ten-headed demonking Ravana.
Krishna
The most human of the Hindu gods, as a child he delighted in stealing butter. As a youth
wearing a crown of peacock feathers and dressed in yellow silk, he held cows
spellbound as the flute-playing cowherd. As the beloved of all the gopis (milkmaids), he held
them entranced with the magic of his flute and performed the rasleela
(dance) with them. In his mature years, Krishna appears as an astute statesman and
later the wise philosopher whose teachings are embodied in the Bhagwad Gita.
Gods & Goddesses
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Religions in
India
Buddhism
• Around 530 BC a young prince named Siddhartha Gautama challenged
the ideas of the Brahmin priests and created a new world religion.
• Born in 563 BC into the warrior caste, he lived in luxury in his family‟s
palaces and never experienced pain, suffering, or death
• He married a beautiful woman and they had a son.
• One day while riding in his chariot outside the palace walls, Gautama
saw a sick man, an old man, and a dead man.
• He realized that life was an endless cycle of pain and that the only way to
escape that cycle was to seek wisdom.
• He left his family when he was about 29 and became a
homeless wanderer with five other men who were also seeking wisdom.
• Gautama triedto find wisdom through physical suffering and harsh
discipline but instead he gained only pain.
• At last, after days of meditating deeply in the shade of a tree, Gautama
felt that the truth had come to him.
• At this point, he became known as “The Enlightened One,” or Buddha.
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Religions in
India
Buddhism
Four Noble
Truths
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Religions in
India
Buddhism
• By following the Eightfold Path, anyone could attain nirvana--
which was the release from all pain and suffering
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Religions in
India
Buddhism
• Buddha taught his followers to treat all living things (humans, animals, and
even insects) with kindness and love
• Buddha eliminated the caste system, the rituals associated with Hinduism, and
the ancient language (Sanskrit) of the Vedas and Upanishads
• Concerned with all human beings---women as well as men, and lowborn
as well as highborn
• Primarily a monastic religion---young men leave their families to become monks
dedicated to the Eightfold Path and achieving enlightenment (and, eventually,
nirvana)
• The most important symbol in Buddhism is the Wheel of Life which
depicts the cycle of birth and life
• The eight spokes symbolize the Eightfold
Path
• Buddhist teachings & beliefs were recorded
in a collection called the Tripitaka
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Indian Art and Culture: A Concise Guide

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