Reliability And Validity Essay

Reliability and Validity Essay
Reliability and Validity are important aspects of research in the human services field. Without reliability and validity researchers results would be
useless. This paper will define the types of reliability and validity and give examples of each. Examples of a data collection method and data collection
instruments used in human services and managerial research will be given. This paper will look into why it is important to ensure that these data
collection methods and instruments are both reliable and valid.
Reliability is the consistency of your measurement, or the degree to which an instrument ensures the same way each time it is used under the same
condition with the same subjects. In short, it is the repeatability of a measurement. A...show more content...
Consider an aptitude test that is designed to predict whether applicants to law school will succeed if admitted. We would be interested in the test's
criterion validity, as it would tell us how well scores on the test are correlated with the particular criterion of success used to assess it. We would also
be interested in the test's construct validity, as it provides insurance that we are measuring the concept
(or construct) in question. There are other uses of validity that are of interest to us as well, such as the test's content validity, or how adequately it has
sampled the universe of content it purports to measure. The concept of validity also has several different uses in research design, and in the following
chapters we will examine specific experimental and no experimental designs and how well each fulfills its function.
There are eight types of validity and they are the following:
Construct validity: The degree to which the conceptualization of what is being measured or experimentally manipulated is what is claimed, such as the
constructs that are measured by psychological tests or that serves as a link between independent and dependent variables.
Content validity: The adequate sampling of the relevant material or content that a test purports to measure.
Convergent and discriminant validity: The grounds established for a construct based on the convergence of related tests or behavior (convergent
validity) and the
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Do you know the similarities and differences between a funding proposal and a research proposal? According to the website learnerassociates.net
/proposal, writing a funding proposal was created to help empower people to be successful in gaining funds for projects that provide worthwhile social
service. Aresearch proposal considers your overall topic ideas, your research question, your research process, and your sources and scaffolds what the
next steps will be for the project. There are similarities and differences between writing a funding proposal and a research proposal.
A research proposal is most often written by scholars seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write a
doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, the introduction is the initial pitch of an idea or a thorough examination of the
significance of a research problem. After reading the introduction, readers should not only understand what is being proposed. Most proposals do not
include an abstract before the introduction. Background and Significance, this section can be melded into your introduction or you can create a
separate section to help with the organization and narrative flow of your proposal. This is where you explain the context of your proposal and describe
in detail why it's important. Approach writing this section with the thought that you can't assume your readers will know as much about the research
problem as you do. Note

What I Have Learned About Research
What I have learned about research is that it is a process, a scientific process that psychologist and scientist develop that includes many different
approaches and that is carefully peer reviewed and evaluated. There is what is called the Scientific Approach where scientist have an idea or theory
and based on their observation will either support the theory or the theory can be falsified by their peers. Data also goes through a review period
before it is published in a scientific journal by scientist who have the knowledge and expertise to evaluate it.
I also learned the difference between basic and applied research where basic research focuses mostly on things such as emotion, cognition, social
behavior, personality development, learning, and neuropsychology. Basic research will be more helpful for answering fundamental questions about the
nature of behavior. Applied research however, addresses more of a specific problem with a possible solution. Program evaluation covers a large area of
applied research. Program evaluation assesses the social reforms and innovations that occur in government, education, the criminal justice system,
industry, health care, and mental health institutions. When discussing behavioral research it is imperative to note the precedents that it has in many
fields and the significance of the applications to public policy.
A variable is referred to as any event, situation, behavior, or individual characteristic that changes or varies. Any variable

Fundamentals of Research Essay
It has always been human nature to seek answers, find solutions to problems, observe, and bring awareness of discoveries. This process of inquiry has
become more sophisticated and daunting throughout time. Nevertheless, curiosity and the need to progress remains the same. Many regard research as
gathering information and using facts to support findings (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010, pg. 1–2). Nevertheless, Leedy and Ormrod (2010), define research
as "a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information (data) in order to increase our understanding of a phenomenon about
which we are interested or concerned" (Leedy & Ormond, 2010, pg. 2). Nunan's definition (as cited in Mustafa, 2011), describes research as having a
...show more content...
Beyer (1985) describes critical thinking as "evaluating information or arguments in terms of their accuracy and worth" (as cited in Leedy & Ormrod,
2010, p. 31). For example, music teachers face the challenge of managing large classes with a variety of learning and behavioral needs. Music
teachers do not have the proper training or resources to support students with disabilities and depend on other curriculum to plan according to the
various learning needs in the class. Another challenge is optimizing time to plan appropriate music activities for various grade levels, and musical
events in a tight schedule. The research will be based on critical thinking skills that will focus on the goal, thus finding alternative methods to improve
and adapt the music curriculum (Leedy &Orrod, 2010, pg. 32). Nevertheless, to attain the goal, the researcher needs to have and design a plan.
The origin of the "subproblems" lead to possible hypotheses. Using class size as an example, administrators have the freedom to create an instructional
schedule in order to support the instructional needs of the school. Based on the state assessment, schools receive a grade, thus placing unnecessary
stress on the students, teachers and administrators. As a result, schedules are designed around the core subjects giving language arts and math teachers'
instructional support and common

Research Paper On Standardized Testing
Standardized Testing Standardized testing is a collectively accepted aspect of education today, it is used to evaluate if students of all ages are being
shaped and educated up to the common standard set by the government. Standardized testing can be seen in almost all educational settings from
kindergarten classes to exit exams for nurse practioners. Standardized testing came into play when former President George Bush ran his campaign on
being the education president and enacted the No Child Left behind Act. Under this act all educational districts are subject to standards and core values
they must meet to receive accreditation and funding from the government. Just the other day many students at Moorcroft high school student had to
take a...show more content...
Many aspects of students' lives dwell on how they do on tests, such as the ACT, SAT, or even their basic grades to be accepted in to college. The
tests need to be designed to accurately gather information on the knowledge of the student, the ACT only asks you a hand full of questions on basic
subject yet take math for instance there are thousands of areas in math to understand and master. Not only are there more than very specific questions
asked the tests do not take in to account the different ways people solve problems such as having to write out question. Some students such as myself
cannot do mental math and it takes us longer to understand the question we are being asked to evaluate, yet the ACT is a timed test. This creates a
bias in the system that students don't know math were the real problem could either be test anxiety or a lack of time given to properly complete the
test. Testing is deeply rooted in students' lives, making it an ever more pressing matter to fix the issues that concern us

Essay on Writing Experience
My Writing Experiences My experiences in writing have been minimal. I have only learned the basics of writing, like putting together sentences,
forming paragraphs with sentences, and things like that. Since I have been taking college English, I can tell my writing has improved a lot. In the
future, I hope to be able to improve tremendously at writing essays, paragraphs, research papers, documents, and stories so that I have very little to no
errors with drafting and final products. I predict I will be a well rounded writer when I graduate from college. Writing in the past started in
kindergarten. My teacher taught me how to write my name over and over until I could write it with no errors. All through elementary my teachers
taught me...show more content...
I need to learn to quit thinking as much on what I want to write about and how to write about a topic and just starting jotting stuff down in outline form
as it comes to mind. Run–ons and fragments I need to be able to spot and fix right away or I really need to not have any in my papers at all. My
goals are to write papers and not have to reassure myself that maybe I need to do more research or have more data or even have to rethink my
whole topic over. I would love to have the knowledge to be a tutor someday and teach other people how to properly write papers, paragraphs,
essays, and maybe even books. To have excellent skills in writing will definitely be a great advantage in my nursing profession. In nursing, I will
have to do lots of charting on my patients. I will have to do health presentations on various subjects such as exercising, how our society eats, and
sex education if I want to be a course instructor. Researching information on all of those topics I will have to make sure I do an excellent job on and
collect accurate information and statistics so that I can compare to other sources. Dictating to the doctor means that I will need to write properly so
that he understands what I am saying. Other nurses will have to be able to understand what I am talking about by my writing skills when doing shift
changes. I will have to be very precise so that other nurses will not

Importance And Purpose Of Research Essay
Importance and purpose of research
Research is important to understand, increase knowledge, and get information for social life. Social research is conducted to extend knowledge about
some aspects of society like humanities, business or any social science [asi]. Research is used to form or develop new theories in order to understand
the process behind particular event or behavior, or review the correctness of existing theories. In addition, research is also conducted to inform decisions
or action to solve everyday issues such as evaluating the effectiveness of policy. [abr] and [brm] of the business research emphasis on the importance
of research as getting problem–solving information. Research is the process of studying and analyzing the aspects of the issue as to explore the
solution to the business.
The summaries of the core objectives of research are testing existing knowledge, developing new system or generating new knowledge, seeking
solution for issues, and analyzing new problems or investigating existing problems [br].
Quantitative and Qualitative Paradigm
[br] a research paradigm is a philosophical perspective that guides how scientific research should be conducted. Philosophy is 'a set or system of
beliefs [stemming from] the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence' (Waite and Hawker, 2009, p.685).
[w1] The most influential or the dominant ones of philosophical framework are positivism and interpretivism. During the twentieth

Writing is way that we can express ourselves, it is a way to interface ideas and thoughts and to prove a point. Throughout my writing experience or
process I have struggled with writing especially using details or really expressing myself my work. In this course Facts & Fiction: Portraits in World
Art I expect to gain more knowledge on how to write a perfect essay, story, letter, and assignment. I expect to learn new genres and rhetorical
situations. I also think my writing will improve academically and I will develop my skills in writing. Also taking my writing to a different point of
view, level, and writing something different rather than the usual. I look forward to getting feedback from my peers and learning their thoughts on my
writing and how they can help me improve.
Reading and writing were two things my parents use to always push me to improve and work on more often. They always told me they are the
essentials of everything thing. Even though I disliked both at a young age as I grew older I preferred writing because I can always change the
way I write and write from my point of view, really be creative with it and prove my point. Growing up I always loved writing short stories
especially scary stories. I always was creative with them and even made them realistic. To write an essay I usually have a couple of steps writing an
outline, and the thesis a draft and finally a final draft. The most difficult part about this is writing the thesis because the whole essay revolves the
thesis because it summarizes the whole essay. At the end of some essays, I had to use citations to do that there were many websites that helped me
cite sources such as easybib which was a really simple process. So, citing sources was one of the easiest things about writing the essay.
Writing to a teacher is way more complex then writing to a fried or a family member. Writing to a teacher is way more complex, I must make sure
that everything is on point or it reaches the state of protection. Which is having the right format, a great thesis and really conveying the point of the
essay. Writing to a friend or a family member is much easier I usually don't focus on grammatic errors or writing a perfect thesis. Today some of us don't

Reflection Paper On Marketing
At the beginning of this class, my main objective was to learn more about finance and learn about marketing. When I first review the class's syllabus,
I thought this class would be mainly about marketing and investments, but I was glad to find out that the class was about more than just marketing. I
would definitely say that I met my objectives and even more because I learned more than I was expecting. This class helped developed a security
about a business idea that was on my mind for years which is having my own private investigations company. Before this class, the idea of owning a
company about something that I am very passionate about was only just an idea and I never thought I could have been developed a possible marketing
plan. Thanks to this class, I was able to work on a marketing plan for my dream company. Even though some assignments were difficult, I felt that no
one could have taken the excitement I felt every single time I sat down to work on my own business marketing plan.
It is important to mention that my feelings about this great experience are truthful. I understand that some people might say that most students are not
truthful when given feedback about the class or the professor because they fear retaliation, but I am very happy to say this is not the case for me. I
am a very truthful person and I say it how it is, I am not the type of student that would write something nice to make the professor feel better or to
avoid a low grade, I just

Essay on Types Of Research
Research is done everyday. Research is used in the many different situations managers encounter everyday. Research is part of the problem–solving
manager do to make decisions. Research is defined as "the process of finding solutions to problem after thorough study and analysis of the situational
factor" (Sekaran, p3, 2003). Managers use research for daily operational problem as well as bigger problems that can require hired research consultants.
Managers who use research are able to communicate with the hired consultants because they understand the process of inquiry, investigation,
examination, and explanation. Managers are also, capable of understanding the difference in good and bad studies, and can apply the research done to
Applied research is "aimed at solving a currently experienced problem" (Sekaran, p10, 2003). This research can be as simple as finding solutions to
daily operational problems.
One problem managers consistently want research on is the relationship between customer satisfaction and loyalty. The research found on the
relationship of customer satisfaction and loyalty spans over the past decade. Many researchers argue that there is no relationship between customer
satisfaction and loyalty while others find direct correlations between the two and a business's profitability. In Roger Hadowell's study, he defines
loyalty as both behavioral and attitude while conducting his research on a banking organization. He states that behaviors including continuance,
increased relationship, and recommendations are all behaviors of loyalty to an organization (Hadowell, 1996). His research illustrates the "relationship
of profitability to customer related outcomes that managers can influence directly" (Hadowell, 1996). His findings support the hypothesis that customer
satisfaction influences customer loyalty increasing profitability. Hadowell addresses two difficulties that he encountered during his research. First,
work with the organization in order to develop the ideal measurement system used for the research. Secondly, focus on data collected over a period of
time with strong organizations (Hadowell, 1996).
In the White Page Series, researcher Burke

Sampling Methods Essay
Sampling is the framework on which any form of research is carried out. A suitable sample that meets the inclusion and exclusion criteria of a research
design must be chosen from a given population to carry out studies. In this essay comparison is made between stratified random sampling and
convenience sampling. The population on which the researcher is interested in carrying out his or her research may be too large, therefore a suitable
sample which can represent the population in correct proportion must be chosen. Restraints such as limitation of time, resources and many other factors
necessitate the selection of a sample for research purpose so that better quality data is obtained from it and that the researcher can make statement about
The methodological strength and weaknesses of this two sampling methods is discussed in terms of identifying the samples for research, the
representativeness it possesses to the general population, the methods and the outcome. Stratified random sampling is a probability sampling where the
selection of sampling unit is left to a random process, all units in the sample has an equal and non–zero chance of being selected on a probability
ground or chance and not on the choice or judgement of the researcher (Sim,J and Wright,C. 2000,). Convenience sampling is an example of non
probability sampling where the selection of the units is not by chance, rather it is dependent on the researcher's judgement, the researcher decides the
samples to be included in the study which may be subject to availability, time, individual preferences etc. The probability of selection of a particular
sampling unit may or may not be known. Stratified random sampling is commonly done in quantitative researches. When the samples reflect the
characteristics of the target population in the same proportion; assumptions can be made on generalizing the data acquired from these samples provided
it has been done correctly, since it is statistically representative (Sim,J and wright,C.,2000) but sampling error

English 102 Research Paper
English 102 is a college level of reading and writing course based on the theme monster. When I started the class, I thought monsters as scary
creature in the books and movies. As I progressed in English 102, I found out monsters is more than what I though t is. Monsters can represent the
fear of people and society, a problem in a society, something that is keep coming back and coming back(Such as financial crisis), natural hazard and
danger. It also can serve as a warning; so, people avoid the same mistakes. This class begin with analysis and interpret scholarly article, sessions of
movie or video, and students example of essays that relate to their research topic. During this session you will have better understand of monster, what
is it

Free Papers
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Why It Is Hard To Write A Research Paper
Why are essays so hard to write ? Essays take a lot of practice and certain requirements to write them. It takes a lot of practice and counts a lot in
parts of your grades. "Most students do not supplement their general study of the law for the essays. They rely on the encyclopedic outline and are
fooled into thinking all they need for the essays is general concepts."(writing edge p.5) Although teachers assign them and think that they help us learn
most students don't like them and research shows that's you can't have enough practice to write an essay.
Essays my be very difficult to write because people like to wait last minute. It is said that "There are a lot of reasons. Many students wait to start
writing them until the last minute – and

The research Process Essay
Processes of research by Jonathan Guy
In this essay I will outline the primary methods of conducting research, their advantages and disadvantages and will outline where they are best
utilised. In addition to this, I will select certain methods of research that I believe will be applicable to my own dissertation and state why I will use
those particular methods to conduct my own research.
The first question we should ask is what is research? John C. Merriam considers research as "a reaching out to bring together, organise and interpret
what ever may be added to our store of knowledge...most truly exemplified when it involves the wider relationship of specific facts to the whole
structure of knowledge". (C. Merriam, 1941, pg890) In other...show more content...
It is the fundamental requirement in the advance of civilisation" (Merriam, 1929, 56–57).
Whilst there seems little argument over whether we should conduct research or not, its importance being more than apparent, the question now
becomes in what manner should we conduct research and what advantages do certain methods have over others. There are numerous ways of
conducting research but the most prominent are the science and scientific methods, the logical methods, the case methods, the statistical methods, and
the experimental methods each of which shall now be considered.
First we shall consider the scientific method. There is much debate as to whether social studies can be considered a science on the basis of how it
conducts its research but any claims that it is a science are based more or less entirely on the scientific method and rational choice, characterised
predominantly by its use of facts and empirical evidence to support its claims with in political "science". Karl Pearson states the scientific method as
"The scientific method is marked by the following features: (a) careful and accurate classification of facts and observation of their correlation and
sequence; (b) the discovery of scientific laws by aid of the creative imagination (c) self–criticism and the final touch–stone of the equal validity for all
normally constituted minds" (Pearson, 1911, 6–78). In other words, the scientific method is one which tries to discover

Research Methods Essay
Quantitative and Qualitative are said to be systematic in different design. Both design have to follow a process system that involved defining a
principle of research.
General speaking, quantitative research is thought to be objective, however qualitative research often involves a subjective element. There are
differences designs in qualitative research in comparison to quantitative research. Qualitative research involves words, pictures, or objects; Quantitative
involves data in the form of numbers and statistics.
However, the researcher uses in–depth interviews in qualitative research to find out how the subjects view their world. In quantitative research the
researcher uses precise measurement to predict hypotheses. Whereas,...show more content...
Qualitative research is conducted in a natural setting and attempts to understand a human problem by developing a holistic narrative and reporting
detailed views of informants about the culture of a problem. It forms a report with pictures and words. One of the most important distinctions that sets
qualitative research apart from more traditional types of research is that qualitative research is holistic in that researchers study phenomena in their
entirety rather than narrowing the focus to specific defined variables" (p. 93). Similarly, Cresswell (1984) indicated that qualitative research "is
defined as an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed
views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting" (p. 2). Cresswell's definition clearly delineates the major characteristics of qualitative research.
Pg. 50 (Smith & Davis, 2010). Pg. 51 (Smith & Davis, 2010). "How do researchers evaluate trustworthiness?" Guba and Lincoln (1994) proposed that
trustworthiness could be judged by the following criteria: conformability, dependability, credibility, and transferability.
For Example, Qualitative researchers use conformability, dependability, credibility, and transferability to evaluate the trustworthiness of a qualitative
research report. In order to prevent researcher bias they can have other researchers point out

How I Learned And Developed My Writing Skills
This semester I was surprised by how much I actually learned and developed my writing skills. I was given the opportunity to learn the many steps
that it is required to become a good writer. Writing requires a lot of work. It consists of various steps; prewriting, drafting, rewriting, proofreading and
publishing. . All of these components are extremely important, and necessary, and will need to be follow to improve student'swriting.
I feel my writing has improved due to the help of the writing process and all the writing assignments I experienced. I was able utilized each of these
components this semester. I wrote various journals and two essays, which were very challenging to me. The first essay I was asked to write, was a
Narrative essay about an experience in which later I questioned my actions. At first, I was very nervous due to I have never written an essay before. I
did not even know where to begin.
I struggled during the whole process of writing an essay. My biggest problem of all was putting my thoughts in order so I could make sense of
what I wanted to say. I brainstorm for days trying to figure out a topic. With the help of the eLearning text information on module 2, how to choose a
topic and developing a working thesis I started to write down some ideas. With the help of Module 3, Introduction to Narrative Essay, and the
examples that were provided, I was able to start getting some ideas of what I wanted to write about. I finally came up with, Moving away

Reflective Essay: The Writing Process
"There is no greater agony than bearing an untold story inside you." – – – Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings Throughout the semester
I have had to write a number of essays using a variety of techniques. Before college, I would write assuming that the only reader, or audience, would
be my teacher. Composition helped me realize the many steps that are involved in the writing process from free writing to making a final copy. In
order to create a good paper you need organize your ideas. Also, I realize what needs to be in a essay and what doesn't. I have improved in my writing
but organization has been my problem, and even though I've made a progress. I still believe I have not fully...show more content...
I think it was a fun assignment to do because we got to advertise a product and give the details that we used. Using persuasive techniques has made
a changed in my writing because you can say something you said before and transfer it to your writing. One of the techniques I am going to use
through out college is talking to different types of audiences. Also, I am going to let others try to help me out with my writing so I can become a
better writer. Sure enough, I still need the help from others for me to be able to succeed in English 1302. All the assignments we did were helpful
for me to succeed in other courses because I have improved in my writing since we used different kinds of techniques. If we had more time I
would like more of the assignments of using different audiences because that's one of my weakness. If I had to retake this course with you again, I
would like more of the rhetoric because that exercise was my favorite. This skills are not only going make me succeed in college but also for life.
This course has shown me that I am capable of writing in a variety of manners and it has shown me that I am not as strong in some areas as I am in
others. This class introduced me to a variety of writing techniques, some worked and some did not. However, the experience and work with each skill
was very

Reliability And Validity Essay

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Reliability And Validity Essay